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Total Manufacturing
Assurance
Second Edition
Total Manufacturing
Assurance
Controlling Product Quality, Reliability,
and Safety
Second Edition
Dr. Douglas Brauer and Dr. John Cesarone

Second edition published 2022
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press

4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
© 2022 Douglas Brauer and John Cesarone
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Brauer, Douglas, author. | Cesarone, John, author.
Title: Total manufacturing assurance : controlling product quality, reliability, and safety /
Douglas Brauer and John Cesarone.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, 2022. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021048082 (print) | LCCN 2021048083 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032076362 (hbk) | ISBN 9781032076379 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003208051 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Quality assurance. | Total quality control.
Classification: LCC TS156.6 .B75 2022 (print) |
LCC TS156.6 (ebook) | DDC 658.5/62—SSdc23/eng/20211109
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021048082
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021048083
ISBN: 978-1-032-07636-2 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-07637-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-20805-1 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003208051
Typeset in Times
by codeMantra
Contents
Foreword ................................................................................................................ xiii
Preface...................................................................................................................... xv
Authors ....................................................................................................................xix
Section i introduction to tMA
Chapter 1 The World of Manufacturing ...............................................................3

1.1 Industrial Revolution .................................................................3
1.2 Innovation in Management and Manufacturing ........................ 6
1.3 Industry 4.0 ................................................................................6
References ............................................................................................9
Chapter 2 Total Manufacturing Assurance ......................................................... 11

2.1 Strategic Manufacturing Management .................................... 13
2.2 Manufacturing System Control ............................................... 13
2.3 System Improvement Monitoring ............................................ 14
2.4 Summary ................................................................................. 14
Section ii Strategic Manufacturing Management
Chapter 3 Strategic Operations ........................................................................... 17

3.1 Strategic Planning ................................................................... 17
3.2 Strategic Planning Path ........................................................... 21
3.3 Product Assurance Strategy ....................................................26
3.3.1 Reliability, Safety, and Quality Requirements ...........26
3.4 Summary ................................................................................. 32
Questions ............................................................................................ 33
References .......................................................................................... 33
Chapter 4 Innovation and Technology Transfer .................................................. 35

4.1 Technology Development ........................................................ 35
4.1.1 Technology S-Curve & Technology Life Cycle ......... 37
4.2 Strategic Implications on Technology Commercialization .....40
4.3 Global Technology Transfer .................................................... 41
4.4 Summary ................................................................................. 56
v
vi Contents
Questions ............................................................................................ 57
References .......................................................................................... 57
Chapter 5 Engineering Economic Analysis ........................................................ 59

5.1 Economic Analysis .................................................................. 59
5.1.1 Time Value of Money ................................................. 59
5.1.2 Selection of Alternatives ............................................60
5.1.2.1 Initial Cost .................................................. 61
5.1.2.2 Interest Rate ................................................ 61
5.1.2.3 Annual Cost or Benefit ............................... 61
5.1.2.4 Economic Life ............................................ 61
5.1.2.5 Salvage Value.............................................. 62
5.1.2.6 After-Tax Cash Flow................................... 62
5.2 Proforma Development ............................................................ 63
5.3 Investment Decision Matrix .................................................... 65
5.3.1 Time to Market ........................................................... 65
5.3.2 Initial Investment........................................................ 65
5.3.3 Excess Present Value Index ........................................ 65
5.3.4 Benefit-Cost Ratio ......................................................66
5.3.5 Investment Payback .................................................... 67
5.3.6 Internal Rate of Return .............................................. 67
5.3.7 Ownership .................................................................. 67
5.3.8 Asset Value ................................................................. 67
5.3.9 Purchase Investment Analysis .................................... 68
5.4 Summary ................................................................................. 74
Questions ............................................................................................ 76
References .......................................................................................... 76
Chapter 6 Management Control .......................................................................... 77

6.1 Integrated Management Control .............................................. 77
6.1.1 Manufacturing Enterprise Focus................................ 78
6.2 Decision-Making Using Qualitative and Quantitative Tools .....81
6.2.1 Project Management Networking............................... 83
6.2.2 Optimization Modeling .............................................. 86
6.2.3 Linear Programming .................................................. 86
6.3 Tactical Operations .................................................................. 91
6.3.1 Design for Manufacturing .......................................... 91
6.3.1.1 DFM Guidelines .........................................92
6.3.2 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing ......................... 93
6.3.2.1 Computer-Aided Design ............................. 93
6.3.2.2 Computer-Aided Manufacturing ................94
6.3.2.3 Computer-Aided Process Planning............. 95
6.3.2.4 Flexible Manufacturing Cells and Systems ... 96
Contents vii
6.3.3 Material Requirements Planning ............................. 100

6.3.3.1 Master Production Schedule ..................... 100
6.3.3.2 Bill of Materials ........................................ 101
6.3.3.3 Inventory Record File ............................... 101
6.3.4 Just-In-Time Manufacturing ..................................... 103
6.3.4.1 Inventory Exposure................................... 104
6.3.4.2 Pull-Based Production .............................. 104
6.3.4.3 JIT Implementation................................... 105
6.3.4.4 Pull-Based Startup .................................... 107
6.3.5 Technology Leveraging ............................................ 109
6.3.5.1 Mechatronics ............................................ 109
6.3.5.2 Artificial Intelligence................................ 109
6.3.5.3 Machine Learning .................................... 110
6.3.5.4 Automated Machining/Processes ............. 110
6.3.5.5 Additive Manufacturing ........................... 110
6.3.5.6 Advanced Robotics ................................... 111
6.3.5.7 Autonomous Technologies ........................ 111
6.3.5.8 Man/Machine Interface ............................ 111
6.3.5.9 Internet of Things ..................................... 112
6.3.5.10 Big Data and Analytics ............................. 112
6.3.5.11 Virtual/Augmented Reality ...................... 112
6.3.5.12 Supply Chain Visibility ............................ 113
6.3.5.13 Block-Chaining ......................................... 113
6.3.5.14 Cyber-Security .......................................... 114
6.4 Expert Systems ...................................................................... 115
6.4.1 Expert System Definition ......................................... 115
6.4.2 Expert Systems versus Artificial Intelligence .......... 116
6.4.3 Expert System Structure........................................... 117
6.4.4 Expert System Development .................................... 120
6.4.4.1 Expert System Domain ............................. 120
6.4.4.2 Domain Expert ......................................... 121
6.4.4.3 Knowledge Engineer................................. 121
6.4.4.4 Expert System Shell .................................. 122
6.4.4.5 The Development Process ........................ 122
6.4.5 Expert System Topical Application Areas ............... 124
6.5 Summary ............................................................................... 131
Questions .......................................................................................... 131
References ........................................................................................ 132
Chapter 7 Organizational Leadership ............................................................... 133

7.1 Motivation.............................................................................. 133
7.1.1 Leadership Style ....................................................... 134
7.1.1.1 Organizational Psychology ....................... 135
7.1.1.2 Strategic Motivation Model ...................... 136
viii Contents
7.2 Teaming ................................................................................. 137

7.2.1 Basic Assumption Theory ........................................ 138
7.2.2 Team Effectiveness................................................... 139
7.2.2.1 Personality ................................................ 140
7.2.2.2 Team Composition .................................... 142
7.2.2.3 Reactions to Group Situations Test ........... 143
7.3 Strategic Human Resource Planning..................................... 144
7.3.1 Performance Appraisal............................................. 145
7.3.2 Organizational Development/Training .................... 147
7.3.2.1 Stages of Development ............................. 148
7.3.2.2 Technical Development Program ............. 149
7.3.3 Succession Planning ................................................. 150
7.4 Summary ............................................................................... 155
Questions .......................................................................................... 155
References ........................................................................................ 156
Section iii Manufacturing System control
Chapter 8 System Definition ............................................................................. 161

8.1 System Definition Activities .................................................. 161
8.2 Process Planning ................................................................... 162
8.2.1 Process Planning for Specific Industries .................. 163
8.3 Plant Layout and Flow ........................................................... 164
8.3.1 Plant Layout Analysis............................................... 164
8.3.1.1 The From-To Chart ................................... 165
8.3.1.2 The REL Chart ......................................... 166
8.3.1.3 Space-Relationship Diagram and
Block Plan ................................................. 167
8.3.2 Plant Layout Synthesis ............................................. 168
8.4 Material Handling ................................................................. 169
8.4.1 Material Handling Equations ................................... 171
8.4.2 Automated Guided Vehicles ..................................... 172
8.5 Automation ............................................................................ 173
8.5.1 Automation Elements ............................................... 174
8.6 Flexible Manufacturing Systems ........................................... 176
8.7 Simulation.............................................................................. 176
8.7.1 Simulation Example ................................................. 178
8.8 Summary ............................................................................... 182
Questions .......................................................................................... 183
References ........................................................................................ 183
Contents ix
Chapter 9 Product Manufacturing Degradation Control .................................. 185

9.1 Reliability Engineering and Control ..................................... 186
9.1.1 Reliability Fundamentals ......................................... 189
9.1.1.1 General Approach to Reliability
Improvement ............................................. 191
9.1.2 Design for Reliability ............................................... 192
9.1.2.1 Part Selection and Control ........................ 192
9.1.2.2 Part Derating............................................. 193
9.1.2.3 Design Simplification ............................... 195
9.1.2.4 Redundancy .............................................. 195
9.1.3 Reliability Prediction ............................................... 198
9.1.4 Growing Product Reliability Prior to Manufacture .... 203
9.1.4.1 Test Data Collection and Analysis ............207
9.1.5 Manufacturing System Modeling.............................209
9.1.5.1 Defect Removal Planning ......................... 211
9.1.5.2 PRMDA Technique................................... 211
9.2 Safety Engineering and Control ............................................ 217
9.2.1 Safety Assessment .................................................... 218
9.2.1.1 Fault Tree Analysis ................................... 219
9.2.1.2 Failure Mode, Effects, and
Criticality Analysis ................................... 222
9.2.2 Safety and the Worker ..............................................224
9.2.2.1 Human Factors .......................................... 225
9.2.2.2 Safety Program Planning .......................... 227
9.3 Quality Engineering and Control .......................................... 229
9.3.1 Design of Experiment............................................... 229
9.3.1.1 Variable Identification............................... 231
9.3.1.2 Analysis of Variance ................................. 232
9.3.2 Statistical Process Control ....................................... 235
9.3.2.1 The Normal Distribution .......................... 237
9.3.3 Process Capability Analysis ..................................... 238
9.3.3.1 Process Monitoring ...................................240
9.3.3.2 Control Charts for Variables .....................244
9.3.3.3 Control Charts for Attributes .................... 245
9.3.4 Acceptance Sampling ...............................................246
9.3.5 Six-Sigma Fundamentals.......................................... 247
9.3.6 Cost of Quality .........................................................248
9.3.6.1 Good Costs of Quality ..............................248
9.3.6.2 Bad Costs of Quality................................. 249
9.3.7 Total Quality Management....................................... 249
9.4 Lean Manufacturing Fundamentals ...................................... 250
9.4.1 Minimize Waste ....................................................... 250
9.4.2 Perfect First-Time Quality........................................ 251
x Contents
9.4.3 Flexible Production Lines ........................................ 252

9.4.4 Continuous Improvement ......................................... 252
9.5 Manufacturing System Effectiveness .................................... 253
9.5.1 Components of Se ....................................................254
9.5.1.1 Quality Capability .................................... 254
9.5.1.2 Operational Efficiency .............................. 254
9.5.1.3 Achieved Availability ............................... 255
9.5.2 Performance Benchmark .......................................... 255
9.5.2.1 Quality Capability Data ............................ 255
9.5.2.2 Operational Efficiency Data ..................... 256
9.5.2.3 Operational Availability Data ................... 256
9.5.3 Business Decision-Making....................................... 257
9.6 Summary ...............................................................................260
Questions ..........................................................................................260
References ........................................................................................ 261
Chapter 10 System Maintenance ........................................................................ 263

10.1 Reliability, Maintainability, and Availability ........................ 263
10.2 Maintenance Program Planning ............................................ 268
10.2.1 Corrective and Preventive Maintenance .................. 268
10.2.2 Maintenance Planning Process ................................ 270
10.2.2.1 Maintenance-Induced Problems ............... 272
10.2.2.2 Maintenance Documentation .................... 272
10.3 Maintenance Strategy ............................................................ 273
10.3.1 Reliability-Centered Maintenance ........................... 273
10.3.1.1 The RCM Process ..................................... 274
10.4 Maintainability Analysis .......................................................280
10.4.1 Maintainability Improvement .................................. 281
10.4.1.1 Automated Fault Isolation......................... 282
10.4.2 Maintainability Levels and Prediction ..................... 282
10.5 Summary ............................................................................... 288
Questions .......................................................................................... 289
References ........................................................................................ 289
Section iV System improvement Monitoring
Chapter 11 Big Data System Planning................................................................ 293

11.1 Data System Organization ..................................................... 293
11.2 Data System Structure ........................................................... 295
11.3 Data System Operation .......................................................... 298
11.3.1 Data Collection .........................................................300
11.3.2 Data Processing ........................................................ 301
11.3.3 Data Reporting .........................................................302
Contents xi
11.4 Data System Implementation.................................................302

11.5 Summary ...............................................................................307
Questions ..........................................................................................308
References ........................................................................................308
Chapter 12 Data Recording and Feedback .........................................................309

12.1 Organizational Data Communications .................................. 310
12.1.1 Types of Databases ................................................... 311
12.1.1.1 Automatic Identification Technology........ 312
12.1.1.2 Bar Coding................................................ 312
12.1.1.3 Optical Character Recognition ................. 313
12.1.1.4 Voice Entry ............................................... 313
12.1.1.5 Radio Frequency ....................................... 313
12.1.1.6 Vision ........................................................ 314
12.1.1.7 Magnetic Stripe......................................... 314
12.1.2 Programmable Logic Controller .............................. 314
12.2 Failure Recording, Analysis and Corrective Action.............. 315
12.2.1 Elements of the FRACA System .............................. 316
12.2.1.1 Responsibility ........................................... 318
12.2.1.2 Activity Architecture ................................ 318
12.2.1.3 Reporting .................................................. 319
12.3 Summary ............................................................................... 321
Questions .......................................................................................... 322
References ........................................................................................ 322
Chapter 13 Performance Analytics ..................................................................... 323

13.1 Key Performance Indicators .................................................. 323
13.1.1 Production Analytics ................................................ 325
13.1.2 Financial Analytics .................................................. 331
13.1.3 Customer Service Analytics ..................................... 335
13.2 Summary ............................................................................... 339
Questions .......................................................................................... 341
References ........................................................................................ 341
Appendix: Reactions to Group Situations Test (RGST) .................................. 343

Index ...................................................................................................................... 349
Foreword
Technology increased the standard of living to unprecedented levels for most of the
world. The drive to further lift up the ability of people to afford and access products
is underway. For consumers around the globe, key factors such as affordability, qual-
ity, reliability, and safety of products are of paramount importance. People expect the
products to be low cost and very reliable, high quality, and safe. With the increased
use of quality control technologies in design and manufacture of goods, including
robotics and Internet of Things (IoT), the product quality across the board has made
significant improvement over the past few decades. In the next industrial revolution,
powered by IoT and Industry 4.0, all goods and services will be monitored from
conception though manufacturing, operation, and disposition. This will lead to an
exponential increase in product quality, reliability, and safety. Organizations that
master the product quality will be the winners in the marketplace. That is possible
with a holistic and strategic approach.
Total Manufacturing Assurance (TMA) is a holistic concept to address these
issues that includes all aspects of quality control. The book provides guidance for
professionals to develop long-term strategies for quality for a corporation with global
footprint, as well as case studies that will be tutorial for young engineering students.
The book is valuable for professionals and executives at corporate world, as well as
students in management, mechanical, industrial, and manufacturing engineering. It
outlines the strategic planning of global manufacturing processes with quality in
mind; factories that can be controlled and monitored in real time from anywhere in
the world 24/7.
This second edition of the textbook, by global experts Professors D. Brauer and
J. Cesarone, is a much-needed addition to the foundational technical material in
Total Manufacturing Assurance. It is a timely public service to diligently compile
this material to educate the technologists around the world.
Sabri Cetin, PhD

Professor, University of Illinois at Chicago
President, Servo Tech, Inc.
xiii
Preface
The second edition of Total Manufacturing Assurance: Controlling Product Reliability,
Safety, and Quality continues its objective to present an enhanced perspective for the
innovative concept of Total Manufacturing Assurance (TMA) and the holistic means
by which such assurance can be attained. In fulfilling this objective, the textbook
discusses the management and engineering techniques and tools, and their practical
implementation, necessary to achieve TMA.
The uniqueness of the textbook is derived from its presenting the concept of TMA.
As with the original edition, TMA remains a highly relevant concept, as there remains
no known other referenceable work which focuses on establishing a manufacturing
environment and process that assures the attainment of manufactured products that
exhibit, and retain, their designed-in levels of reliability, safety, and quality. This sec-
ond edition is expanding on and integrating fundamental manufacturing, engineer-
ing, and management topics, which are holistically key in achieving TMA. Originally
included as part of a quality and reliability textbook series, this new edition expands
its reach as a seminal textbook as part of an engineering coursework and professional
development focused on, for example, General Engineering, Industrial & Systems
Engineering, Manufacturing Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Business
Operations.
TMA comprises three primary elements: (1) Strategic Manufacturing Management,
(2) Manufacturing System Control, and (3) System Improvement Monitoring. Each
of these elements plays a key role in ensuring that products are manufactured in a
manner which supports the profitability, sustainability, and growth strategic goals of
a business. A major theme throughout the text is the strategic importance of TMA
for companies competing for local, regional, and/or global market share. TMA is a
strategic-driven, holistic pathway engaging management, engineering, and produc-
tion personnel to maximize efficiency, effectiveness, and profitability.
The textbook is divided into four major sections: (1) Introduction, (2) Strategic
Manufacturing Management, (3) Manufacturing System Control, and (4) System
Improvement Monitoring. This enables the reader to focus on a particular aspect of
TMA.
The Introduction section consist of two chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview
of the history of manufacturing detailing the global industrial revolutions; recog-
nizing key innovations in management and manufacturing; highlighting seminal
business, technology, and world events; and providing insight to the manufactur-
ing advances seen with the ongoing advent of Industry 4.0. Chapter 2 introduces
and defines the three major elements of TMA: strategic manufacturing management,
manufacturing system control, and system improvement monitoring. Additionally,
the TMA thread of create, control, and critique is presented.
The Strategic Manufacturing Management section consists of five chapters.
Chapter 3 discusses strategic planning and the roll out of tactics. The use of key
performance indicators is highlighted. Chapter 4 provides an overview of innova-
tion and technology transfer. Technology development and the strategic implications
xv
xvi Preface
of its commercialization are presented in conjunction with a detailed technology

transfer checklist. Chapter 5 dives into engineering economic analysis, with a focus
on financial proforma development and looking at a variety of financial analysis
tools to make business decisions. This includes exploring make/buy decisions and
the fundamental role of breakeven analysis. Chapter 6 discusses the role of manage-
ment control to achieve TMA. This includes the integration of key business areas
impacting TMA, project management methods, decision-making methods, leverag-
ing of I4.0 technologies, implementation of computer-integrated manufacturing, and
use of expert systems. Chapter 7 addresses organizational leadership. Several topics
addressing the workforce are addressed, such as motivation, teaming, performance
appraisal, workforce development and training, technical personnel hiring, and orga-
nizational succession planning.
The Manufacturing System Control section consists of four chapters. Chapter 8
provides insights into systems engineering in the manufacturing environment. This
includes a comprehensive study of moving material through the factory, with special
attention to simulation methods and advanced automation building blocks. Additionally,
this chapter introduces manufacturing process engineering and methods (i.e., metal
working, molding, fiber composites, assembly methods, and micromanufacturing
tools), as well as information for industrial materials and their selection performance
features and characteristics. Chapter 9 addresses product manufacturing degradation
control during manufacturing. Engineering and control information and analysis meth-
ods are provided for areas of reliability, safety, and quality. Additionally, lean manu-
facturing, design for manufacturability, and manufacturing effectiveness design and
assessment techniques are delineated. Chapter 10 provides a comprehensive insight
to system maintenance covering maintenance program planning, reliability-centered
maintenance, and maintenance strategy (specifically, preventative, corrective, and
on-condition maintenance approaches).
The System Improvement Monitoring section consists of three chapters. Chapter 11
addresses big data system planning addressing data organization, system structure,
and system operation. Chapter 12 addresses data recording and feedback to facilitate
real-time collection, analysis, and feedback to optimize manufacturing operations.
Data communications and FRACA are highlighted. Finally, Chapter 13 provides
insight into manufacturing system performance analytics, with special emphasis on
key performance indicators.
This textbook exhibits many special and innovative features. A key special feature
is the inclusion of a case study at the end of chapters to facilitate keen understanding
of the topical subjects addressed. While serving as a valuable teaching tool, the case
studies illustrate the practical application of the material presented in each chapter
and the benefits that can be realized. The case studies are standardized to provide
an overview of the issue at hand, the strategic objective for resolution, the approach
taken, results realized, and a summarizing conclusion. It will also help personalize
the material for the readers so that they can more readily understand, embrace, and
implement TMA as a strategic initiative. A second special feature is the highlighting
and emphasis of Industry 4.0 technologies prominent in advanced manufacturing,
but also broadly engaging the financial, logistics, and information technology busi-
ness sectors.
Preface xvii
The intended audience for the textbook is both working professionals and students
in higher education. Working professionals include management, engineering, and
others intimately involved in the manufacturing system. Students studying engineer-
ing management and mechanical, industrial, and manufacturing engineering, and
business students (both university advanced undergraduate and graduate levels) will
find the textbook an invaluable instructional resource, as will professors. The text-
book’s material will address the management and technical topics presented in the
level of detail necessary for their full understanding and implementation to achieve
TMA. PowerPoint slides and a solutions manual are also available to instructors for
qualified course adoptions (http://www.routledge.com/9781032076362). In general,
it is envisioned that the text will serve as a comprehensive and affordable fundamen-
tal reference and educational tool.
The authors thank everyone engaged for direct and indirect significant contri-
butions to the writing of this second edition of TMA. A special acknowledgment
goes to Ms. Laurie Brauer (MudTurtle Industries, LLC) for her work in preparing
the graphic artwork. Additionally, the following people provided guiding insights
for various sections of the textbook: Cheston Brauer (Manager Strategic Planning,
Advocate Hospitals), Dr. Sabri Cetin (Professor, University of Illinois at Chicago &
President, Servo Tech Inc.), Dr. Sheri Litt (Associate Provost, Florida State College
at Jacksonville), Dr. Roh Pin Lee (Head of Technology Assessment, Technische
Universität Bergakademie Freiberg, Germany), and Dr. Clifford Harbour (Professor,
University of North Texas).
Douglas Brauer
John Cesarone
Authors
Dr. Douglas Brauer has over 30 years of global expertise in facilitating solutions
to maximize organizational leadership, sustainability, profitability, and return on
investment encompassing both and higher education. His scope of global strategic
leadership activities involving education, engineering, and manufacturing operations
has engaged organizations globally in the Americas, Europe, Africa, India, and the
Pacific Rim. He has taught higher education undergraduate and graduate courses
in finance, organizational leadership, mathematics, and manufacturing technology.
His private business activities include founding Design Assurance Sciences in 1990
and MudTurtle Industries, LLC, in 2016. Degrees include PhD, Education & Human
Resource Studies, Colorado State University; MS, Industrial Engineering, University
of Illinois at Chicago; and BS, Industrial Technology, Illinois State University.
Additionally, he is currently the Dean of Engineering & Industry at the Florida State
College at Jacksonville.
Dr. John Cesarone has engaged in an engineering consulting practice since 1998.
His research interests and areas of expertise include Intelligent Manufacturing,
focusing on the following: (1) Computer-Integrated Manufacturing Technologies,
(2) Simulation and Functional Modeling Methodologies, (3) Optimization Using
Operations Research Techniques, (4) Automation and Robotics, and (5) Distance
Learning. Degrees include PhD, Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University;
MS, Mechanical Engineering, University of Illinois-Urbana-Champaign; and BS,
Mechanical Engineering, University of Illinois-Urbana-Champaign. He has taught
industrial engineering courses for the University of Illinois and Northwestern
University, and is currently a Senior Lecturer of Mechanical Engineering for the
Illinois Institute of Technology.
xix
Section I
Introduction to TMA
NEVER SHRINK FROM DOING ANYTHING WHICH YOUR BUSINESS

CALLS YOU TO DO. THE MAN WHO IS ABOVE HIS BUSINESS, MAY ONE
DAY FIND HIS BUSINESS ABOVE HIM.
—DREW
DOI: 10.1201/9781003208051-1
1 The World of
Manufacturing
By the simplest definition, manufacturing is the process of making a finished product
from raw material in accordance with an organized plan. A piece of cake. Anybody
can do it. Manufacturing can be accomplished by anyone blindfolded and with one
hand tied behind their back. Nothing could be farther than the truth.
All too often this seems to be the carefree attitude taken. With some raw materi-
als, a couple of machines, and a vague product idea, it is only a matter of time before
the products start rolling out and the money starts rolling in. Obviously, there is
much more involved in manufacturing than merely shot-gunning hardware out the
plant door.
There are three fundamental concerns of a manufacturing organization which
must be integrated together in order to ensure success: (1) organizational manage-
ment (which includes marketing, sales, finance, etc.), (2) engineering, and (3) produc-
tion. Each of these concerns centers on people and each provides key contributions
in the overall manufacturing effort. Yet without the other two, each is helpless. So, it
must be reconciled that a “team” effort is necessary for organizational success.
The corporate structure and its ability to be successful is analogous to a needle
and thread. There must be a common thread that binds everything, and, most impor-
tantly, that binds everyone, together to maximize the probability for business suc-
cess. The thread itself is the organizational management approach and the corporate
culture, or attitude, instilled in its team members.
So, what does all this mean? It means that the organization is, at the very least,
a team. The manufacture of products is a result of many people working together
to achieve a common goal. The organization comprises team members intimately
linked together by the organizational thread…weak thread: weak team…strong
thread: strong team.
Obviously, there must be a hierarchy of management in order to ensure that prod-
ucts do get manufactured correctly, efficiently, and in a timely manner. However,
the full potential of any organization cannot be realized if there is a lack of mutual
respect and caring between persons positioned on different levels of the corporate
ladder. A strong binding thread must be in place.
1.1 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
The current state of manufacturing is a result of much patient learning and heuristic
applications of innovative concepts. This learning has by no means stopped and it
must not. Global and national markets are becoming increasingly more competitive.
Aside from the issue of cost, there is an ever-increasing consumer awareness of the
right for high-quality products and services.
DOI: 10.1201/9781003208051-2 3
4 Total Manufacturing Assurance
By taking a quick look at history, it becomes clear that much progress has been
made. Corporations for the most part have evolved from a neanderthal-type man-
agement mindset to a more progressive, understanding, and compassionate style.
(Unfortunately, this is not universally the case.)
A good place to pick up in history is the industrial revolution. But, which one? It
is generally accepted that there have been four defined to capture significant turn-
ing points in time. It is important to note that each industrial revolution resulted an
accelerated use of, and need for, advanced manufacturing systems. From the very
first one, it may very well have witnessed the birth of the manufacturing engineer.
The industrial revolutions are generally classified into four periods:
The World of Manufacturing 5
manufacturing system technology. However, during the latter part of the 1800s, sev-
eral countries emerged as major industrial leaders. England, Germany, Italy, Japan
and the United States became the most important industrial nations.
A key beneficiary of the great strides being made in mechanization was agricul-
ture. As with agricultural processes, advances in engineering made it possible to
improve and employ innovation in manufacturing processes. Machines and equip-
ment began replacing inefficient systems driven by manually created motive power.
A classic example is the steam engine. Steam power characterized the nineteenth
century at its climax. Other sources of power, including electricity, petroleum, and
nuclear power, proved to characterize the continuing industrial revolutions of the
twentieth century.
The first industrial revolution also had far-reaching socioeconomic consequences.
These varied in detail from country to country and are still present in countries
undergoing technological changes. The most obvious and most direct consequences
were a tremendous increase in the production of material goods. For example, mech-
anization enabled textile plants in England to produce billions of yards of cotton
cloth a year. This increase in production was many times as much as that capable by
people (i.e., men women, and children) working with old-fashioned spinning wheels
and handlooms.
By 1900, the United States had become the greatest manufacturing nation in
the world. Technological skill, government policies, business leadership, natural
resources, labor supply, and large markets all contributed to the rapid progresses
made. The combination of these advantages enabled the United States to become the
world leader in industrial productivity.
While the total output of industry in the United States was increasing, the number
of individual plants was decreasing. As plants grew fewer, and on the average larger,
so did the business firms that operated them. Before the Civil War, the typical com-
pany was owned and run by an individual or partners, though a number of corpora-
tions existed. After the war, corporations became larger and more numerous.
For the owners of a company, its large size provided certain advantages. It enabled
the company to lower its costs through mass purchasing and mass production. Often,
it also served as a tool in weakening or eliminating competitors, and thus it enabled
the company to maintain or even to raise prices. For consumers, large businesses
were not necessarily advantageous. To the extent that low costs led to low prices,
the consumer benefitted. However, in many instances, the benefits never came to
fruition.
Significant events ongoing in the United States during this period created fun-
damental changes in demographics. People moved to large cities, medical advances
caused people to live longer, and new means of transportation allowed people to
move widely around the country. Also, at this time, a great insurgence of immigrants
occurred.
A key side effect of the technological and economic changes ongoing was the for-
mation of unions or organized labor groups. This in turn led to the formation of the
classic industrial conflict between corporations and unions. As corporations became
the owners of industries, organized labor became necessary to offset the power and
consequent employee abuses present. The unions implemented strikes and boycotts.
Basic demands included improved working conditions, recognition of unions as bar-

gaining agents, and the passing of federal laws to regulate various industries.
These early years were shaped by many well-known business persons. Names
such as Cyrus McCormick (reaper works), Charles Goodyear (vulcanized rubber),
Isaac Singer (sewing machine), Samuel Colt (gun mass production), John Rockefeller
(oil), Andrew Carnegie (steel), Thomas Edison (electricity/inventions), George
Westinghouse (electricity), J. Pierpont Morgan (finance/banking), Ransom Olds
(automobile), and Henry Ford (automobile) all provided key contributions to our
manufacturing management and engineering knowledge and growth [1]. However,
as manufacturing capability, efficiency, and productivity increased, so did the igno-
rance of corporate management to the fundamental needs of the workforce regarding
respect, honesty, caring, equity, and education/workforce development.
1.2 INNOVATION IN MANAGEMENT AND MANUFACTURING

Without a doubt, the list of contributors to manufacturing management, organization,
and engineering innovation fills several pages. Their contributions enabled major
strides to be made in technological and management advancements. Corporations
such as Ford, Motorola, General Motors, International Business Machines, Xerox,
Kodak, and many others continue to push the state of the art in both automated
manufacturing and management concepts.
The automated manufacturing capabilities of today (e.g., computer-integrated
manufacturing and flexible manufacturing systems) are far superior to the capabili-
ties available to Henry Ford. But, many of the manufacturing philosophies in use
worldwide today were seeded by people of that era. For example, in the early 1900s,
the Just-In-Time approach to manufacturing was used in a crude form by Ford;
Statistical Process Control was defined by Shewhart; and Design of Experiments was
developed by Fisher. These manufacturing management/control tools are the subject
of much discussion and use during the 1980s and will be well into the 1990s. With
the re-discovery and use of many innovative manufacturing ideas (which were ahead
of their time) to increase efficiency, productivity, and profitability, organizations are
taking to heart the demand by consumers to get reliable, safe, and quality products.
This perhaps was a hard rediscovery and admittance on the part of business in the
United States. It took a raising of the quality bar by Japanese corporations to wake
up the quality unconscious organizations around the world, and particularly those
in the United States. Names such as Deming, Juran, Crosby, Feigenbaum, Taguchi,
and Shainin identify some of the more well-known quality gurus. Their concepts
continue to be used in high demand and their ideas are common place in quality
discussions and activities around the world. These concepts continue to be foun-
dational for programs such as Six Sigma, Lean, Just-In-time, and Manufacturing
System Effectiveness.
1.3 INDUSTRY 4.0
The world is in a rapid state of technology research, development, and implementa-
tion. The time between each industrial revolution decreases and will continue to
do so as world technological events and consumer thirst for advanced technologies

continue.
Industry 4.0 (I4.0), as an advanced manufacturing driver, necessarily must address
the widening skills gap resulting from businesses redesigning and streamlining pro-
duction lines through intelligent sensor technology, motors, robotics, and increas-
ingly automating processes with the adoption of Internet of Things (IoT) technology
and computers. As the Manufacturing Institute stated, “With smart manufacturing
or Industry 4.0, manufacturers are moving towards a new level of interconnected and
intelligent manufacturing systems which incorporate the latest advances in sensors,
robotics, big data, controllers, and machine learning. The greater digital intercon-
nectedness between parts of the supply and production chains, as well as higher
reliance on automation in these smart factories, is going to make manufacturing
ultra-efficient, ultra-sophisticated, and ultra-productive” [2].
As a result, companies have a heightened need for a comprehensive strategic
model (i.e., TMA) to embrace advanced manufacturing and an advanced workforce
to understand and apply complex science and engineering concepts along with ana-
lytical skills to address the I4.0 revolution of manufacturing. Because advanced
manufacturing also includes workers’ ability to analyze and manipulate big data,
attaining TMA reinforces the strategic need to “create, control, and critique” to
ensure business sustainability and profitable application of I4.0 technologies.
By 2020, it was predicted that IoT technology would be in 95% of electronics
for new product designs. Already, smart factories have become a reality as the IoT
connects any factory device to the internet, from industrial robots to 3D printers,
enabling goods to be produced around the clock and managed remotely. Key com-
ponents that allow Industry 4.0 to come to life are: Cyber-Physical Systems: electro-
mechanical devices with connectivity and digital communication capabilities; IoT:
the network of physical objects that use sensors to capture data through embedded
connectivity to exchange it over the internet; Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT):
the application of IoT to the manufacturing world; Internet of Services: refers to the
usage and combination of IoT devices and applications to provide services to end
users [3]. Augmented Reality (AR) technology allows technicians to watch real-time
information from the work they are performing. Because manufacturing processes
are becoming more autonomous, integrated, and intelligent, this leads to changes in
requirements for the manufacturing workforce towards an increasing need in soft-
ware, programming, and interdisciplinary skills [4].
As a global manufacturing industry growth example, according to Deloitte’s
2020 Global Aerospace and Defense Industry Outlook [5], the global commercial
space sector is likely to see steady investments in new and existing space technolo-
gies and services, with funding coming primarily from governments and venture
capital. Additionally, demand for military equipment is expected to increase over
the next 5 years as governments across the globe focus on military modernization,
given increasing global security concerns. Global defense spending and investment is
expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of about 3% over the 2019–2023
period reaching US$2.1 trillion by 2023 [6].
It is important to recognize that I4.0 technologies are not limited to advanced man-
ufacturing but also readily cross over financial services, logistics and transportation,
Real-Time
Data Collection Data Analysis Decision-Making
System Optimization
FIGURE 1.1 I4.0 manufacturing system intelligence.
and information technology. It is clear that advanced technologies, fundamentally

identical, are used across all facets of the global economy. It really does not matter
what industry or business sector one looks at, the result is the same in that advanced
technologies are integrated into and present in everyday operations.
This indicates that not only must businesses be very strategic in implementing tech-
nology to achieve TMA but also workforce development must be driven by on-com-
ing and next-generation I4.0 work issues and technologies that require enhanced skills
and knowledge of topics such as mechatronics, composites, automated machining, AI,
big data and analytics, IoT, virtual/augmented reality, advanced robotics, cybersecu-
rity, supply chain visibility, block-chaining, additive manufacturing, and autonomous
technologies. Broadly, the need is now for a talented and flexible workforce aligned
with advanced manufacturing, information technology, logistics/transportation, and
financial security to implement, use, and advance I4.0 technologies.
Where does society and manufacturing organizations, and businesses in general,
go from here? There is little chance to escape the continuing advancements in tech-
nology, which drive advanced manufacturing. Computers play a major role in manu-
facturing today, and their role will broaden with advances in the development of AI.
The use of AI is a field of computer science focusing on using computer technology
to emulate the behavior of humans in solving problems. The use of AI magnifies
the need for both a comprehensive data system and supporting data recording and
feedback system. Figure 1.1 illustrates the conceptual framework for manufacturing
system intelligence to attain ongoing optimization [3,7–13]. Three fundamental com-
ponents for any AI-based application include data collection, data analysis, and real-
time decision-making. Technology makes collecting data easy, probably too easy at
times, but the trick is to be able to analyze and make decisions in a rapid manner.
It still warrants a reminder that Henry Ford, for example, collected vast amounts of
data using the technologies available in his day to continually improve the automo-
bile assembly line. And, he likely would have collected more types of data if data
collection technologies allowed. However, it is the strategic use of the “right” data,
its analysis, and its use for decision-making that facilitates manufacturing success.
These AI-based systems draw upon their own store of knowledge and by request-
ing information specific to the problem at hand. Obviously, AI and the host of
associated technologies will continue to increasingly become an integral part of
manufacturing system design and implementation. Computer-integrated program-
mable logic controllers will even more effectively monitor and gather direct process
information. Upon the identification of a problem, an expert system using AI will
define the corrective action necessary to maintain process control. Ultimately, the
expert system will make intelligent corrective action decisions on its own using the
information it receives from the programmable logic controller. The expert decisions
are then relayed back to the controller which in turn implements the decisions made.
The use of AI-based technologies will not only be limited to the manufacturing
floor but also be applied to aid the making of corporate management decisions. Its
use will continually enhance the soundness and correctness of management deci-
sions made by looking at the same rules to make-a-decision as would a corporation’s
chief executive officer or president.
REFERENCES
1. Smith, G. & Dalzell, F. (2002). Wisdom from the Robber Barons. Edison, NJ: Castle
Books.
2. Giffi.C, McNelly, J., Dollar, B., Carrick, G., Drew, M., Gangula, B. (2015). The Skills
Gap in US Manufacturing from 2015 and Beyond. Deloitte Manufacturing Institute,
Deloitte Development, LLC. www.themadeinamericamovement.com
3. Fourtane, S., (2020). Top 10 Strategic Technology Trends. Interesting Engineering.
www.interestingengineering.com/Top-10-strategic-technology-trends-for-2020.
4. Haeffner, M. & Panuwatwanich, K. (2018). Perceived Impacts of Industry 4.0 on
Manufacturing Industry and Its Workforce: Case of Germany. doi:10.1007/978-3-
319-74123-9_21.
5. Lineberger, R. (2020). Deloitte. https://www2.deloitte.com/global/en/pages/manufacturing/
articles/global-a-and-d-outlook
6. Lineberger, R., (2020). Deloitte Estimates and Deloitte Analysis of Data from Stockholm
International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) Military Expenditure Database. https://
www. sipri.org/databases/milex, accessed October 1, 2019.
7. Boggess, M. (2019). 10 Trends That Will Dominate Manufacturing in 2019. Hitachi
Solutions.www.insights.csivendorinfo.com/view/content/QXwtV.
8. Wright, J. (2019). Top 7 Manufacturing Trends for 2020. www.advancedtech.com/blog/
top-7-manufacturing-trends-for-2020.
9. Dowd, K. (2019). 5 Financial Services Tech Trends to Watch in 2020. Business
Intelligence, BizTech. www.biztechmagazine.com/article/2019/12/5-financial-services-
tech-trends-watch-2020.
10. Marr, B. (2019). The 7 Biggest Technology Trends to Disrupt Banking & Financial
Services In 2020. Enterprise Tech. www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2019/11/08
11. Insights Team. (2018). The 4 Forces Transforming Logistics, Supply Chain and
Transportation Today. Forbes Insights.www.forbes.com/sites/insights-penske/2018/09/04
12. Transmetrics Blog. (2020). Top 10 Logistics and Supply Chain Technology Trends in
2020. Transmetrics.www.medium.com/@transmetrics.
13. Raiker, R. (2020). Top Technology Trends for 2020. www.towardsdatascience.com/
top-10-technology-trends-for-2020-4a179fdd53b1.
2 Total Manufacturing
Assurance
Total Manufacturing Assurance (TMA) is the ability to ensure that products are
manufactured in a manner that enhances reliability, safety, and quality. TMA is the
necessary objective of corporations seeking the benefits of market share leadership
and high, long-term profitability. Attaining TMA is a function of three integral ele-
ments: (1) strategically planning manufacturing management activities, (2) control-
ling the manufacturing system, and (3) monitoring the manufacturing system for
continual improvement.
These three elements in themselves sound pretty simple. However, TMA requires
knowledgeable foresight on the part of corporate management in order to effect per-
sistent and comprehensive efforts in planning, implementing, and monitoring manu-
facturing directives.
There are many well-founded management concepts documented such as Total
Quality Control, Total Quality Management, Total Preventive Maintenance, Juran’s
Quality Trilogy, Deming’s 14 Points For Management To Improve Productivity,
Crosby’s 14-Step Quality Improvement Program, Thriving On Chaos, Just-In-Time,
Taguchi Experimental Design, Six Sigma Quality Belts, Lean Manufacturing, and 5S,
to name a few. Each has their merits and each has undoubtedly numerous application
success stories. It is terrific to see specialized innovative ideas created and applied.
TMA requires looking at the whole organizational picture, not just one segment
of activity such as quality control. All corporate functions and activities support the
ultimate objective of profitable manufacturing and product commercialization. This
is what distinguishes TMA from other management concepts. Figure 2.1 illustrates
the elements, and major activities therein, of TMA.
Notice that each of these elements is sequential and progressive. The first element
(Strategic Manufacturing Management) feeds into the second element (Manufacturing
System Control) which feeds into the third element (System Improvement Monitoring).
For TMA, these activities must be close-looped. That is, the third element feeds back
into elements one and two. This enables continual improvement in the TMA process.
Together, these major elements form a network to fuel the TMA process. TMA
process; think about these two words for a moment. TMA is a process, not a program.
Programs are generally activities that are planned to end upon completing a defined
objective. Processes are dynamic entities that are forever ongoing and updated to
reflect current innovative methods and concepts.
Again, it is emphasized that TMA is a process. If the organizational goal is to
attain TMA and then the effort that made it possible is reduced or abandoned, you
can bet your last dollar that TMA is not going to be maintained for very long. Every
gain is lost and every market competitor is smiling from ear to ear.
DOI: 10.1201/9781003208051-3 11
Total Manufacturing Assurance

Create - Control - Critique
Strategic Manufacturing System Improvement

Manufacturing System Control Monitoring
Management
Strategic Operations
Systems Data System
Innovation & Engineering Planning
Technology Transfer
Economic Analysis Product Manu- Data Recording

facturing Degra- and Feedback
dation Control
Management Control
Organizational System Performance

Leadership Maintenance Analytics
Continuous Improvement Feedback Loop
FIGURE 2.1 TMA network.
Obviously, it is not good news if market competitors are smiling. The way to
make them frown is through defining and implementing, and subsequently revising
as necessary, the corporate management and manufacturing objectives for launching
a product into successful commercialization. This requires integrating and coordi-
nating all of the groups (and their functions) in the company. This includes all lev-
els of management, engineering, marketing, and production personnel. Each group
works with the others and builds on the incremental corporate strides towards TMA.
The bottom line is that the TMA process leads to a shifting of many manufactur-
ing assurance issues upfront into lower cost, lower-risk directives. This sets the stage
for more effective and well-focused product manufacturing, subsequently leading to
a reduction in organizational waste and productivity losses.
This enables us to define the three Cs of TMA:
Total Manufacturing Assurance 13
plan is useless if results are not measured…all goals, objectives, and tactical
strategies must have performance metrics defined. The results, both good
and bad, are what keep the organization flexible and adaptable to global
obstacles, challenges, and opportunities.
In moving the organization forward strategically and realizing desired results, the
ability of the organization to adhere to the discipline of create, control, and critique
is not without its challenges. But, it is much easier and productive to create, control,
and critique with all organizational team members understanding their role as stake-
holders in the organization’s success.
The remainder of this chapter broadly defines each element of the TMA process
and the specific activities required therein. Keep in mind that the overall manage-
ment of these elements must emphasize the consolidation of the TMA activities.
Consolidation meaning establishing a “team-oriented” relationship between all cor-
porate groups. Isolation of activities and groups is not a part of the TMA process.
Remember, consolidation, not isolation.
2.1 STRATEGIC MANUFACTURING MANAGEMENT

Strategic manufacturing management consists of five key activities. These include
strategic operations, innovation and technology transfer, engineering economic
analysis, management control, and organizational leadership, which fall under the
umbrella of planning and control.
Broadly, manufacturing planning involves establishing the strategic direction of
the organization in the near and long term. By examining internal and external envi-
ronmental conditions current and projected, a corporate-wide strategy is defined and
implemented. Obviously, attaining and maintaining TMA are an integral consid-
eration in the manufacturing, as well as business, strategic segments of the overall
corporate strategy. However, in addition to defining the manufacturing strategy, the
tactical implementation of this strategy must be given careful consideration both
in terms of its impact from capital investment and in terms of corporate culture
standpoints.
Additionally, management control addresses the means by which the organiza-
tional strides towards TMA are achieved. Numerous management techniques, tools,
and concepts are available as aids and should be open-mindedly used. If for some
reason a management control technique fails to work, it should be replaced or revised.
The hardest task is to change bad management habits and honestly make an effort to
improve worker productivity and efficiency.
2.2 MANUFACTURING SYSTEM CONTROL

Manufacturing system control consists of three key activities. These are systems
engineering, product degradation control, and system maintenance.
System engineering addresses implementation of a rational means for operating
the manufacturing system(s). Efficient and effective manufacturing systems are not
an accident. Through proper planning and evaluation of alternatives, it is possible to
put in place the optimal system. The optimal system being the design which maxi-
mizes manufacturing assurance.
Product degradation control addresses the product as it is manufactured. A product
is designed to provide various performance capabilities and levels. However, the man-
ufactured product often exhibits performance levels lower than that designed-in, par-
ticularly in regard to reliability, safety, and quality. Care must be taken to ensure that
the manufacturing system is designed to minimize the degradation which will occur.
System maintenance is a critical part of the manufacturing system. Not only must
system availability be maximized, but if not properly maintained, product degrada-
tion is accelerated. The maintenance program defined for a manufacturing system
must be considered as important as the product and system design themselves.
2.3 SYSTEM IMPROVEMENT MONITORING

System improvement monitoring consists of three key activities. These are data sys-
tem planning, data recording and feedback, and performance analytics.
Data system planning addresses the breadth of data and information required to
assess the current state of TMA. Common issues arise such as what data should be
collected and how to mechanically collect it. Ideally, all information sources auto-
matically feed into a central data system. Numerous technologies exist to make this
happen. An important ground rule to keep in mind is that one should only collect that
data and information which is practically useful, evaluated, and reacted to.
Data recording and feedback provides the means for collecting and evaluating
pertinent data and information. This is achieved by having a closed-loop system
in place which records data, looks for trends, and follows through with a proper
response to highlighted issues. This is particularly important in regard to internal
and external identified problems which endanger market performance. Such prob-
lems require timely evaluation and corrective action, as appropriate.
Performance analytics are the measures that the organization looks at to gage its
performance against that defined and expected in the overall strategic plan. The vast
amounts of data generated and capturable, particularly in light of Industry 4.0 initia-
tives, warrant a focused approach to looking at strategically “relevant” data.
2.4 SUMMARY
It is easy to develop an understanding of what TMA is all about. It focuses on the
product and the corresponding manufacturing system(s). This focus begins with
strategic manufacturing management, manufacturing system control, and system
improvement monitoring.
All organizations in the corporation must participate in this focus and be commit-
ted to achieving TMA. TMA cannot be attained by going through the motions and
pretending things are better. Nobody is fooled.
Remember the three Cs of the TMA process. Create a vision for the future.
Control product design and the manufacturing system(s) to deliver what the custom-
ers expects. Finally, critique organizational performance in meeting and exceeding
strategic requirements.
Section II
Strategic Manufacturing
Management
THERE ARE IN BUSINESS THREE THINGS NECESSARY: KNOWLEDGE,
TEMPER, AND TIME.
—FELTHAM
DOI: 10.1201/9781003208051-4
3 Strategic Operations
A fundamental task in any business is planning. Without a disciplined planning

effort, it is impossible for an organization to effectively and efficiently respond to
business opportunities and challenges. The result is knee-jerk reactions to the day-
to-day dynamics of our global economies. Clearly, what is necessary is a strategic
business plan which enables a corporation to direct itself towards maximizing return
on investment and profitability.
A strategic business plan is a compilation of direction for organizational compo-
nents. These generally include manufacturing, finance, management, marketing, and
research and development. Each requires its own strategic plan, which is aligned and
visibly linked to the strategic objectives of the organization as a whole.
This chapter addresses the manufacturing strategic component of the overall
organizational strategy. Accordingly, the focus is on defining and implementing a
TMA-based strategy to advance and control product reliability, safety, and quality.
The intent is to eliminate product performance losses during manufacture, gain cus-
tomer confidence and preference, capture market share, and enhance organizational
profitability over the long term.
3.1 STRATEGIC PLANNING
Strategic planning involves several fundamental tasks: strategy formulation, strategy
implementation, and evaluation and control [1]. Strategy formulation is the develop-
ment of long-range plans to deal effectively with environmental opportunities and
threats in light of organizational strengths and weaknesses. This consists of defining
the organizational mission, specifying achievable objectives, developing strategies,
and setting policy guidelines.
Strategy implementation is the process of putting strategies and policies into action
through the development of various programs, budgets, and procedures. This is often
referred to as operational planning, since it is concerned with day-to-day resource
allocation problems. Finally, evaluation and control are the process of monitoring
organizational strategic activities and results. From this, an assessment is made of
actual performance relative to desired performance.
Strategic manufacturing planning is understandably a necessary and complex
activity. A strategy has to be formulated, implemented, and then monitored to see
if it works to a satisfactory level. But before a company can perform the latter two
activities, it is necessary to have in place a comprehensive and complete strategic
manufacturing plan.
This reference to a strategic manufacturing plan implies several key ideas. First,
an organizational-wide strategy is defined based on input from some of the best
innovative, visionary, and pragmatic minds in the company. Second, the focus is
on manufacturing, and very likely some specific product line(s). Third, a detailed
DOI: 10.1201/9781003208051-5 17
Strategic
Business Strategy Manufacturing Tractical Strategy
• Environment
• Competition
Plan • Automation
• Just-In-Time
• Investment • Material Handling
• Potential
• Distribution
• Customer Base Product Strategy
• Reliability
• Safety
• Quality
FIGURE 3.1 Inputs to manufacturing strategy.
plan is developed reflecting realistic goals, objectives, timing milestones, and cost
estimates.
The functional elements of a strategic manufacturing plan are depicted in
Figure 3.1. Two major inputs are illustrated which impact the planning process.
These are the business and tactical strategic considerations.
A third input is also depicted. This input, which is often overlooked, is the
product(s) itself. Aside from traditional performance parameters addressed in design,
the attributes of reliability, safety, and quality are critical attributes that can make or
break the ability to successfully gain customer preference and market share.
It is acceptable that rational manufacturing decisions are made based on the
defined strategic issues surrounding the corporation as a whole and, particularly, the
product(s) to be manufactured. Several key issues include market share potential,
probability of success, and return on investment (ROI).
The market share potential for a given product varies with the “growth” charac-
teristics of the specific market to be entered (assuming successful product technology
transfer occurs). Market share potential directly affects the probability of commercial
success and the ROI that may be seen. Figure 3.2 depicts the relationship between
ROI and probability of commercial success as a function of market share potential.
These strategic issues are a direct reflection of the consumers’ impression of prod-
uct reliability, safety, and quality. It therefore logically makes sense to develop and
implement a strategic manufacturing plan which enhances product commercializa-
tion success potential and ROI.
From identification of the strategic issues, baseline product reliability, safety, and
quality requirements are determined. The significance of these product attributes
is evidenced in the extensive Profit Impact of Market Strategy (PIMS) database [2].
The PIMS data implies that the definition of product reliability, safety, and quality
requirements is strongly dictated by market issues. This is extended to emphasize
their driving positive influence in achieving high market share, ROI, and successful
commercialization.
A key influence in structuring the manufacturing plan is the characteristic nature
of the market intended to be entered. As shown in Figure 3.2, whether market pull or
market push exists strongly affects the required product reliability, safety, and qual-
ity attributes. Market pull indicates the situation where the product is highly desired
by the consumer and it will be readily received in filling a market void. Market push
Strategic Operations 19
Market Pull
Product
Reliability/Safety
Potential High Market

ROI Share Potential
Moderate Maket
Share Potential
Low Market Share

Potential Product Quality
Market Push
0 .5 1.0
Probability of Commercial Success
FIGURE 3.2 Product ROI/success relationship.
indicates the situation where the product is not highly desired by the consumer and,
consequently, it must be made desirable to the consumer.
It was stated earlier that for a product to be successful it must be designed with the
proper levels of reliability, safety, and quality. Accordingly, the manufacturing strat-
egy must reflect, as one of its primary objectives, the need to control and maintain
these inherent product performance attributes. The customer should get the product
as designed and not some degraded version of the original design.
A sound framework for adequately addressing manufacturing strategy issues
is the strategic market management approach [3]. Strategic market management
is designed to help precipitate and make strategic decisions. A strategic decision
involves the creation, change, or retention of a strategy. An important role is to pre-
cipitate, as well as make strategic decisions. Figure 3.3 shows the pyramid nature of
the analyses that provide the input to strategy development and the strategic deci-
sions that are the ultimate output.
As illustrated in the figure, there are two fundamental analysis areas aiding stra-
tegic formulation. These are external analysis and internal analysis.
External analysis consists of examining variables existing outside of the organiza-
tion which typically are not within the short-term control of management. Specific
analyses performed include (1) customer analysis to identify customer segments,
motivations, and needs; (2) competitive analysis to identify other company strate-
gies, objectives, cultures, costs, strengths, and weaknesses; (3) industry analysis to
identify current size, potential growth, available distribution systems, entry barriers,
and success factors; and (4) environmental analysis to identify factors of existing
technologies, government controls, cultures, demographics, and economics.
Internal analysis consists of examining variables within the organization which,
also, are not typically within the short-term control of management. Specific analyses
TMA-Based
Strategy
Manufacturing Strategy
Identification and Selections
• Goals
• Objectives
• Tactics
Opportunities & Threats Strengths & Weaknesses
External Analysis Internal Analysis

• Consumer Analysis • Performance Analysis
• Competitive Analysis • Historical Experience Analysis
• Industry Analysis • Talent Analysis
• Environmental Analysis
FIGURE 3.3 Strategic planning pyramid.
include (1) performance analysis to identify current and projected return on assets
(ROA), market share, product value and performance, cost, new product activity,
corporate culture, productivity, and product portfolios; and (2) historical experience
analysis to identify past and current strategies, problem areas, organizational capa-
bilities and constraints, financial resources available, and corporate flexibility.
Upon defining a strategic manufacturing plan, it should be evaluated relative to
several issues. These include (1) internal consistency, (2) consistency with the environ-
ment, (3) capabilities of available resources, (4) acceptable level of risk, (5) appropriate
time horizon, and (6) overall feasibility. Internal consistency refers to the cumulative
impact of a strategy on organizational objectives. Consistency with the environment
refers to strategy compatibility with what is going on outside the organization.
Capabilities of available resources refer to what an organization has to help it
achieve its objectives. Balance must be achieved between strategies and resources.
The acceptable level of risk refers to the uncertainty of strategies. Different strategies
involve different risks (both internal and external) and management must establish its
risk preferences. As time horizons increase, risk increases, particularly in unstable
markets. Appropriate time horizons refer to the time period over which the strategies
are to be followed. The overall feasibility refers to the workability of strategies on a
practical level.
For a manufacturing strategic plan to be successful, it must be compatible with all
the strategic components involved in the overall organization and with the particu-
lar product strategy. Typically, there are four widely recognized product strategies:
(1) market leader, (2) follow the leader, (3) applications oriented, and (4) production
efficient [4].
A preference for manufacturing strategies with greater flexibility is desirable.

Strategies that permit corrective action and adjustment are better than those that can-
not be changed once they are implemented.
3.2 STRATEGIC PLANNING PATH

A fundamentally desired outcome of any strategic plan is to reduce “uncertainty”
among technology development, financial and economic viability, and public accep-
tance. The development of a strategic business plan serves as a roadmap to quickly
and cost-effectively get a desired outcome that provides a targeted ROI. That out-
come is the result of collaboration of all stakeholders (industry, government, general
public) and it starts with a “vision.”
However, vision alone is not enough. All organizations (e.g., for profit, nonprofit,
and governmental) quickly find that effective strategic planning is necessary to be
a TMA-based provider of innovative, science-based systems engineering solutions
that are developed in a way that inspires public/customer confidence (i.e., from tech-
nological, safety, and financial perspectives) and market demand. The path forward
becomes one of well-developed strategy to effectively reduce technology develop-
ment process uncertainty and inspire funding “customer” confidence through suc-
cessful technology demonstration in the marketplace [5].
Strategic Planning
Exploit & Neutralize
Company Strengths Company Weaknesses
Competitor Weaknesses Competitor Strengths
Goals,
Objectives & Tactics
Focused Investments
Sustainable Competitive Advantages
FIGURE 3.4 Strategic planning fundamentals.
As depicted in Figure 3.4, strategic planning is fundamentally about exploiting

strengths and competitors’ weaknesses and neutralizing weaknesses and competi-
tor’s strengths. The GSOT approach (i.e., goals, strategies, objectives, and tactics) [6]
becomes an integral part of creating a strategic plan that is meaningful and usable.
This approach defines:
• A goal is a broad primary outcome
• A strategy is the approach taken to achieve a goal
• An objective is a measurable step taken to achieve a strategy
• A tactic is a tool or method used in pursuing an objective associated with
a strategy
But, arguably the most beneficial part of strategic planning comes from performing a
SWOT analysis (i.e., strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) that addresses
the organization and its competitors. A competitor may be another company, but it
may be another technology. Ultimately, this leads to implementing tactical actions,
with accompanying performance metrics, that drive the decisions leading to sustain-
able advantages (e.g., financial, technological, and organizational). It is through the
SWOT that one is able to exploit the organization’s strengths and the competitor’s
weaknesses… and neutralize the organization’s weaknesses and the competitor’s
strengths. Formal strategic planning is an integral element for engaging all stake-
holder groups (i.e., team member, company, investor, and governmental) having a
role in advancing the organization regionally, nationally, and globally.
Vision, mission, and strategy are all concepts that elicit a diverse set of emo-
tions from people. For some it generates excitement, optimism, potential, for others
it creates anxiety, confusion, apathy, and disillusionment. Developing a strategy is a
journey that requires time, resources, awareness, and the ability to look philosophi-
cally at yourself as an organization and understand your purpose.
Beginning the strategic planning pathway is a strong, clear, concise, and accepted
vision statement. While “mission” reflects what the organization does, the “vision”
reflects where the organization wants to go. It is the vision statement that sets the tone
and the direction of the strategic plan. The vision statement should be aspirational
and provide identity and purpose. Without it, any GSOT are weakened and will do
little to advance an organization. It is out of that vision that goals, strategies, objec-
tives, tactics, and performance metrics are derived [7].
Of course, any strategic plan is useless if it is not implemented. That is, a project
plan with tasks, timeline, milestones, and assigned responsibility needs to accom-
pany the strategic plan. With disciplined implementation, the probability of realizing
the envisioned opportunity and attaining the desired financial ROI is low.
The pathway steps include [8]:
Step 1: Define the Business Vision…The “business vision” identifies where

you are going and reflects sustainable competitive advantages. It is what
you always go back to reorient yourself…if you begin to go astray it will
always point you in the right direction. As the fundamental business vision
changes, let people know what has changed.
Step 2: Define your business characteristics…This is the company’s/busi-
ness’ fundamental characteristic(s) or fingerprint. It reflects what are, or
may not be, sustainable competitive advantages…that is, the way you com-
pete, basis of competition (assets, skills, capabilities), where you compete,
who you compete against.
Step 3: Look outside your organization
Consumer analysis
Customer segments…commercial, consumer, military, etc.
Motivations…what makes them buy or not buy
Needs…delivery, purchase options, product options, etc.
Global market analysis
What markets
Current size
Potential growth
Available distribution systems
Market share barriers
Critical success factors
Opportunities
Threats
Requirements to “play”
Requirements to “win”
Current posture…are you withdrawing, milking, maintaining, or
growing
Competitor analysis
Who
Current and past strategies
Business objectives
Business/organizational culture
Size, growth, and profitability…costs/revenues
Major overall strengths and weaknesses
Industry environment analysis
Market drivers/trends
Technologies…maturing and new
Manufacturing
Product
Government…regulations, tax policies, stability
Cultures…lifestyles, fashions, opinions
Demographics…age, income, family formations, location
Economics…who can afford to buy what, health of countries, health of
industries, interest rates, currency valuation
Product outlets/distribution mechanisms
Projected future environment
Market challenges
Market opportunities
Potential new competitors
Step 4: Look inside your organization
Performance analysis
Current/projected ROA
Market share(s)
Product value/performance
Costs
New product activity
Corporate culture
Productivity
Product portfolios
Historical analysis
Past/current strategies
Problem areas
Organizational capabilities/constraints
Financial resources available
Company flexibility
Step 5: Define your strengths and weaknesses…Look at the following areas
and others as appropriate.
Innovation
Customer services
Product characteristics and capabilities
R&D output
Technology use
Idea patentability/patent activity
Manufacturing
Cost structure
Production operations flexibility
Another random document with
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figures. At a cost of £5,000 Le Blon had produced 4,000 copies of
his prints—these were from twenty-five plates—which, if all had been
sold at the prices fixed, would have produced a net loss of £2,000.
Even Colonel Guise could hardly consider these as satisfactory
business methods, and the company had already been reorganised,
with a new manager named Guine, who had introduced a cheaper
and more profitable way of producing the prints. It was all to no
purpose. Prints to the value of only £600 were sold at an expenditure
of £9,000, while the tapestry-weaving branch of the business—also
Le Blon’s scheme—showed an even more disproportionate result.
Bankruptcy followed as a matter of course, and Le Blon narrowly
escaped imprisonment.
The colour-printing of engravings, though artistically promising, while
still experimental, had certainly proved a financial failure, but Le
Blon, nothing daunted, sought to explain and justify his principles
and his practice in a little book, called “Coloritto, or the Harmony of
Colouring in Painting, reduced to mechanical practice, under easy
precepts, and infallible rules.” This he dedicated to Sir Robert
Walpole, hoping, perhaps, that the First Lord of the Treasury, who
had just restored the nation’s credit, might do something for an
inventive artist’s. Next he was privileged to submit his inventions to
the august notice of the Royal Society. Le Blon had always his
opportunities, an well a his rebuff from fortune, but his faith in himself
and his ideas was unswerving; moreover, he had the gift of
transmitting this faith to others. At last a scheme for imitating
Raphael’s cartoons in tapestry, carried on at works in Chelsea, led to
further financial disaster and discredit, and Le Blon was obliged to fly
from England.
In Paris he resumed his colour-printing, inspiring and influencing
many disciples and imitators, among them Jacques Fabian Gautier
D’Agoty, who afterwards claimed to have invented Le Blon’s process,
and transmitted it to his sons. In Paris, in 1741, Le Blon died, very,
very poor, but still working upon his copper-plates. It was doubtless
during Le Blon’s last years in Paris that Horace Walpole met him.
“He was a Fleming (sic), and very far from young when I knew him,
but of surprising vivacity and volubility, and with a head admirably
mechanic; but an universal projector, and with, at least, one of the
qualities that attend that vocation, either a dupe or a cheat: I think
the former, though, as most of his projects ended in the air, the
sufferers believed the latter. As he was much an enthusiast, perhaps
like most enthusiasts he was both one and t’other.” As a matter of
fact, Le Blon was neither a dupe nor a cheat; he was simply a
pioneer with all the courage of his imagination and invention; and no
less an authority than Herr Hans W. Singer, of Vienna, has
considered him, with all his failures and shortcomings, of sufficient
artistic importance to be worthy of a monograph.
If, by a more judicious selection of pictures for copying, Le Blon had
been able to create a popular demand, and to ensure general
encouragement for his venture, how different might have been the
story of colour-printing, how much fuller its annals. For Le Blon’s
ultimate failure was not owing to the comparative impossibility or
getting infallibly the required harmonics of his tones with only the
three cardinal colours, and the necessity to add a fourth plate with a
qualifying black, or to the difficulty in achieving the exactness of
register essential to the perfect fusing of the tones of several plates.
Those were serious obstacles, certainly, hindering complete artistic
success; but, judging from the surprising excellence of the best of Le
Blon’s actual achievements, they would doubtless have been
surmounted for all practical purposes. The real cause of the failure
was, I suggest, that the pictures actually reproduced made no appeal
to the people of England, consequently there was no public demand
for the prints. It was a close time for the fine arts in this country. The
day of the public picture-exhibition was nearing, but it had not yet
arrived. The aristocratic collector and the fashionable connoisseur
represented the taste of the country, for popular taste there was
none. Romance and sentiment were quite out of fashion, and the
literature of the day was entirely opposed to them. Nor were there
any living painters with even one touch of nature. The reign of
George I. was indeed a depressing time for the graphic arts. Society,
heavily bewigged and monstrously behooped, was too much
concerned with its pastimes and intrigues, its affectations, caprices
and extravagances, to cultivate any taste or care for beauty. Kent,
the absurdly fashionable architect, was ruling in place of the
immortal Wren, and Kneller was so long and so assuredly the
pictorial idol of the country that Pope, its poet-in-chief, could actually
write of him that “great Nature fear’d he might outvie her works.”
Then, all else of pictorial art meant either Thornhill’s wearisome
ceilings and stair-cases, or the stiff and tasteless portraiture, with
stereotyped posture, of the lesser Knellers, such as Jonathan
Richardson, Highmore, and Jervas, whom Pope made even more
ridiculous by his praises.
With only such painters as these to interpret, what chance had even
such admirable engravers as John Smith, George White, John
Simon, Faber, Peter Pelham, whose mezzotints even were
beginning to wane in favour for lack of pictorial interest? It is no great
wonder then that, seeing Le Blon’s failure, in spite of all his influence
and achievement, the engravers in mezzotint were not eager to try
the principles of his “Coloritto” in their own practice, and so colour-
printing suffered a set-back in this country. But Le Blon’s prints are of
great value to-day. What, then, has become of those 9,000 copies
printed by the Picture Office? The £600 worth sold before the
bankruptcy must have represented about a thousand, yet these
impressions from Le Blon’s fifty-plates are of extreme rarity even in
the museums of the world, and it has been suggested by Herr
Singer, and also by Mr. A. M. Hind, in his valuable “History of
Engraving and Etching,” that many copies of the large prints,
varnished over, may be hanging in old houses under the guise of oil
paintings, thus fulfilling their original purpose. It is an interesting
conjecture, and how plausible one may judge from the varnished
copies in the British Museum.
Le Blon’s really important venture inspired no imitators in England,
but it was followed by a few experimental attempts to embellish
engravings with colour. These were chiefly adaptations of the old
chiaroscuro method, surface-colour being obtained by using several
wood-blocks in combination with engraved copper-plates. Arthur
Pond and Charles Knapton, painters both, imitated a number of
drawings in this manner, the designs being etched; while, some
years earlier, Elisha Kirkall (“bounteous Kirkall” of the “Dunciad”) had
successfully used the coloured wood-blocks with mezzotint plates,
strengthened with etched and graven lines. His pupil, J. B. Jackson,
however, engraved only wood for his remarkable prints. But these
experiments were merely sporadic; they led to nothing important and
continuous in the way of colour-printing.
Meanwhile, the prints of Hogarth, with their marvellous pictorial
invention, mordant satire, and moral illumination, took the fancy of
the town without the lure of colour, and cultivated in the popular mind
a new sense of picture, concerned with the live human interest of the
passing hour. Other line-engravers, too,—Vivares, Woollett,
Ravenet, Major, Strange,—with more masterly handling of the
graver, were, through the new appeal of landscape, or the beauties
of Rembrandt and the Italian masters, or the homely humours of
Dutch genre, winning back the popular favour for their art.
Though the call for the colour-print had not yet arrived, the way was
preparing for it. With this widening public interest in pictorial art, a
dainty sense of tone was awakened by the porcelain now
efflorescing all aver the country. Then, when Reynolds was bringing
all the graces to his easel, the urbane influence for beauty spread
from the master’s painting-room at 47, Leicester Fields—as the
Square was then called—to all the print-shops in town. And the year
—1764—that saw the death of Hogarth was the year in which
Francesco Bartolozzi came to England, bringing with him into the
engraving-world fresh influences of grace and delicacy which
gradually ripened for colour.
II.
The sentimental mood for the storied picture was now being fostered
by the universal reading of the novel, which in its mid-eighteenth-
century form gave its readers new experiences in the presentation of
actual contemporary life, with analysis of their feelings and
cultivation of there sensibilities. Pamela and Clarissa Harlowe,
Sophia Western and Amelia, Olivia, Maria, were as living in interest
as any of the beautiful high-born ladies whose portraits in mezzotint,
translated from the canvasses of the great painters, appealed from
the printsellers’ windows in all the monochrome beauty of their
medium. The public, steeped now in sentiment, wanted to see their
imaginary heroines in picture: nor had they long to wait. The Royal
Academy had become a vital factor in forming public taste, and the
printsellers’ shops were its mirrors. But not all its members and
exhibitors were Gainsboroughs and Reynoldses. There were, for
instance, Angelica Kauffman and Cipriani, with their seductive Italian
graces of design; there was Bartolozzi, with his beautiful
draughtsmanship, and his brilliant facile craft on the copper-plate,
but the medium that should bring these into familiar touch with
popular taste was still to seek. However, it was at hand, and the man
who found this medium, and brought it to the service of popular art,
was William Wynne Ryland, “engraver to the King.”
Whether the so-called crayon method of engraving, in imitation of
soft chalk drawings, was invented by Jean Charles François, or
Gilles Demarteau, or Louis Bonnet—all three claimed the credit of it
—it was, at all events, from François, whose claim had obtained
official recognition, that Ryland, the pupil of Ravenet and Le Bas,
and, in a measure, of Boucher, learned the method while he was still
a student in Paris. Only later in his career, however, long after he
had left behind him his student days in Paris and Rome, and
achieved prosperity in London as a line-engraver and printseller, with
royal patronage, and with social success as a man of fashion and
pleasure, did he remember the process that François had imparted
to him. Then, in his necessity, when his extravagances had brought
him to bankruptcy, he called the dotted crayon manner to memory,
and saw in stipple-engraving, if suitably employed, a possible asset
of importance. Compared with line and even with mezzotint it was a
very easy and rapid way of engraving, and though, of course, it could
not compare with either in nobility, richness and brilliance of effect,
Ryland realised that its soft rendering of tones by artistically
balanced masses of dots might be adapted to dainty and delicate
drawings. The most fortunate opportunity for proving this was at
hand. He had some personal acquaintance with Angelica Kauffman,
whom Lady Wentworth had brought to London some ten years
before, and whose beauty, talents and personal charm had
meanwhile made her a fashionable artistic idol, with Society and its
beauties flocking to her studio to be painted or to buy her pictures.
Having first tested his stippling with his own designs, gracefully
French in manner, which he published soon afterwards as “Domestic
Employments,” Ryland suggested the idea of stipple-engraving to
the sympathetic young painter. When he had experimented with one
or two of her drawings, she gladly recognised that stipple was the
very medium for the interpretation of her work to the public. The first
prints sold “like wildfire,” and so satisfied was Ryland of the profitable
prospect, that, on the strength of it, he promptly re-established
himself in a printselling business at 159, Strand. His confidence was
amply justified, the public being quick to show their appreciation of
the new method, introduced as it was with all the persuasion of the
fair Angelica’s graceful, fanciful designs of classic story and allegory.
This was in 1775, and within a very short time Ryland found that,
rapidly as she designed and he engraved, he could scarcely keep
pace with the demand for these prints, which, the more readily to
crave the popular fancy, he printed in red ink, to imitate red chalk,
later to be known as the “Bartolozzi red.”
Ryland had called Bartolozzi into consultation, and the gifted Italian
engraver, with his greater mastery of technique, his delicate sense of
beauty, and his finer artistic perceptions, had seen all that might be
done with the new way of stipple; he saw also its limitations. With
enthusiasm Bartolozzi and Ryland had worked together till they had
evolved from the crayon manner of François a process of engraving
which proved so happily suited to the classes of fanciful and
sentimental prints now fast becoming the vogue, that it simply
jumped into a popularity which no other medium of the engraver’s art
had ever attained.
The stipple method may be thus described. The copper-plate was
covered with an etching-ground, on to which the outlined picture was
transferred from paper. Then the contours of the design were lightly
etched in a series of dots, all the dark and middle shadows being
rendered by larger or more closely etched dots, the later engravers
using even minute groups of dots. This accomplished, the acid was
next applied with very great care, and all the etched dots bitten in.
The waxen ground was then removed from the plate, and the work
with the dry-point and the curved stipple-graver was commenced.
With these tools the lighter shadows were accomplished, and the
bitten portions of the picture were deepened and strengthened
wherever required, to attain greater fulness or brilliance of effect.
Engraving in dots was, of course, no new thing; as an accessory to
line-engraving it had often been called into service by the earlier
artists. Giulio Campagnola, Albert Dürer, Agostino Veneziano,
Ottavio Leoni, for example, had used it; we frequently find it
employed by our own seventeenth-century line-men the better to
suggest flesh-tones, and Ludwig von Siegen, in describing his
invention of mezzotint in 1642, includes the “dotted manner” among
the known forms of engraving. Then there was the opus mallei, or
method of punching dots in the plate with a mallet and awl, which
was successfully practised by Jan Lutma, of Amsterdam, late in the
seventeenth century. This may be considered the true precursor of
stipple, just as the harpsichord, with the same keyboard, but a
different manner of producing the notes, was the precursor of the
pianoforte; but it must have been a very laborious process, and
Lutma found few imitators.
Under the ægis of Ryland and Bartolozzi, however, and with the
inspiration of Angelica Kauffman’s “harmonious but shackled fancy,”
as a contemporary critic put it, for its initial impetus, stipple was
developed as a separate and distinctive branch of the engraver’s art.
Its popularity was now to be further enhanced by the gentle and
persuasive aid of colour. Ryland had seen many specimens of
colour-printing in Paris, when he was with François and with
Boucher; he now bethought him that, just as the public fancy had
been captured by red-chalk imitations, so might it be enchanted by
engraved representations of water-colour drawings actually printed
in colours. Angelica Kauffman and Bartolozzi eagerly encouraged
the idea, and the two engravers, after many experiments,
determined the best process of colouring and printing from the
plates. Apparently they rejected the multi-plate method tried six
years previously by that interesting artist Captain William Baillie; and
Ryland’s earliest colour-prints were partially tinted only with red and
blue. Mrs. Frankau tells us, on the authority of a tradition handed
down in his old age from James Minasi, one of Bartolozzi’s most
trusted pupils, that an Alsatian named Seigneuer was responsible for
all the earlier colour-printed impressions of Ryland’s and Bartolozzi’s
stipples after Angelica Kauffman and Cipriani, that then he set up on
his own account as a colour-printer, much recommended by
Bartolozzi, and largely employed by the publishers, and that his
printing may be traced, though unsigned, by a transparency of tone
due to the use of a certain vitreous white which he imported in a dry
state from Paris. Minasi must, of course, have been a perfect mine of
Bartolozzi traditions, but when my father in his boyhood knew him
and his musical son, the distinguished engraver would talk of nothing
but music, for in 1829, with steel plates superseding the copper, and
lithography triumphant, there seemed no prospect that the coloured
stipples, already some time out of fashion, would eighty years later
be inspiring curiosity as to how they were done. One sees, of course,
many feeble colour-prints of the period, which of old the
undiscriminating public accepted as readily as to-day they buy, for
“old prints,” modern cheap foreign reproductions which would
disgrace a sixpenny “summer number.” On the other hand, the really
fine examples of the old-time colour-printing, combined with brilliant
engraving—and, of course, only fine things are the true collector’s
desiderata, irrespective of margins and “state” letterings, and other
foolish fads—are certainly works of art, though a very delicate art of
limited compass.
These colour-prints were done with a single printing, and the plate
had to be freshly inked for each impression. The printer would have
a water-colour drawing to work from, and having decided upon the
dominant tint, with this he would ink over the whole engraved surface
of the plate. Then he would wipe it almost entirely out of the incisions
and punctures on the copper which had retained it, leaving just a
sufficient harmonising ground-tint for the various coloured inks,
carefully selected as to tints, which were next applied in the exact
order and degree to ensure the right harmonies. All this required the
nicest care directed by a very subtle sense of colour. Most difficult of
all, and reserved for the last stage of the inking, was adding the
flesh-tints, an operation of extreme delicacy. Then, before putting the
plate in the printing-press, it had to be warmed to the exact degree of
sensitiveness which should help the colours to fuse with tenderness
and softness, without losing any brilliant quality of tone. This was not
the least anxious part of the work, needing highly-trained artistic
sensibility on the part of the printer. How artistically important this
matter of warming the plates must have been in printing a
combination of coloured inks may be judged when I say that I have
been privileged to watch Whistler warming his etched plates ready
for the printing-press, and seen him actually quivering with excited
sensibility as the plate seemed to respond sensitively to the
exigence of his own exquisite sense of tone. But, of course, no
eighteenth-century colour-prints, however charming in tone, suggest
that there were any Whistlers engaged in the printing of them.
Perhaps that is why our modern master of the copper-plate never
cared for these dainty things, as he did greatly care for Japanese
colour-prints. The old printers, however, had their own definite
manner of work, and their own tricks of experience for producing
pleasing and brilliant effects. By the dusting of a little dry colour on to
the moist, here and there, during the printing process, they could
heighten tones, or by very, very lightly dragging a piece of muslin
over the surface of the plate they could persuade the tints to a more
tender and harmonious intimacy. Of course, when the plate was
printed, the colour was taken only by the dots and lines of the
engraving, the white paper peeping between. If would-be buyers of
colour-prints would only remember this simple fact, and examine the
stippling closely to see whether it really shows the colour, they would
not so constantly be deceived into buying entirely hand-coloured
prints. Whether the old printers and engravers authorised and
sponsored the touching-up of the prints with water-colour which one
almost invariably finds, at least to some slight extent, even in the
best examples, with rare exceptions, it is impossible to determine. At
all events, it is presumable that the eyes and lips were touched up
before the prints left the publishers’ shops.
It must not be supposed, however, that colour had ousted from
public favour the print in monochrome. As a matter of fact, it was
usually only after the proofs and earlier brilliant impressions in
monochrome had been worked off, and the plate was beginning to
look a little worn, that the aid of colour was called in to give the print
a fresh lease of popularity. Indeed, with mezzotint a slightly worn
plate generally took the colours most effectively. This is why one
sees so very seldom an engraver’s proof in colours, the extreme
rarity of its appearance making always a red-letter moment at
Christie’s. Therefore, in spite of the ever-widening vogue of the
colour-print, it was always the artist and engraver that counted, while
the printer in colours was scarcely ever named. And the new industry
of stipple-engraving may be said to have been, in its first days of
popularity, monopolised almost by Ryland and Bartolozzi, in
association with Angelica Kauffman and John Baptist Cipriani.
Cipriani had, by his elegant and tasteful designs, won immediate
favour on his arrival in England, and even the Lord Mayor’s coach
was decorated with panels of his painting. His style prepared the
way for Angelica Kauffman, and together they soon brought a new
pictorial element to the service of home-decoration. Their graceful
rhythmic treatment of classic fables was just what the brothers Adam
wanted for their decorative schemes, and the two Italian artists were
extensively employed to paint panels for walls and ceilings. In time
the fair Angelica outdistanced Cipriani in popularity, and, painting
panels for cabinets, commodes, pier-table tops, and other pieces of
decorative furniture, her taste was soon dominating that of the
fashionable world. No wonder then that, when Ryland and
Bartolozzi, through the medium of their facile and adaptable
engravings, made her charming, if not flawlessly drawn,
compositions readily accessible, the public eagerly bought them,
and, framing them, generally without any margin, according to their
own oval and circular forms, found them the very mural adornments
that the prevailing Adam taste seemed to suggest. In monochrome
or in colours, the prints, with their refined and fluent fancies, pictured
from Horace, Ovid, Virgil, Homer, and Angelica’s beautiful face and
figure vivid in several, had an extraordinarily wide appeal. They
flattered the fashionable culture of the day, when to quote Horace
familiarly in ordinary conversation was almost a patent of gentility.
On the continent they were even copied for the decoration of
porcelain.
For Ryland this meant another spell of prosperity: it also meant
disaster. His constant thirst for pleasure, and his ambition to shine as
a fine gentleman, stimulated by such easy and seemingly
inexhaustible means of money-making, led him into fatal
extravagances. Accused of forging a bill, instead of facing the
charge, of which he protested his innocence, he stupidly hid himself
and tried ineffectually to cut his own throat. After that, some flimsy
evidence procured his condemnation, and, as William Blake, looking
in Ryland’s face, had predicted years before, he was hanged at
Tyburn in 1783.
They could have done no worse to a highwayman; and, after all, by
the introduction of stipple-engraving Ryland had certainly increased
the people’s stock of harmless pleasure. In his own stippling there
was a delicacy of touch, a smoothness of effect, equal to
Bartolozzi’s, but with less tenderness and suppleness of tone.
Evidently he formed his style to suit the designs of Angelica
Kauffman, which it rendered with appreciation of their refinement.
This will be seen in the charming Cupid bound to a Tree by Nymphs,
among our illustrations, and many other pleasing plates, such as
Venus presenting Helen to Paris, Beauty crowned by Love, The
Judgment of Paris, Ludit Amabiliter, O Venus Regina, Olim Truncus,
Dormio Innocuus, Juno Cestum, Maria, from Sterne’s “Sentimental
Journey,” for which Miss Benwell, the painter, is said to have sat;
Patience and Perseverance; Morning Amusement, a fanciful portrait
of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, embroidering at a tambour-frame,
and wearing the Turkish costume which she so graphically describes
in one of her letters, and in which Kneller had painted her at the
instigation of Pope; fancy portraits, too, of the adventurous Lady
Hester Stanhope, and Mary, Duchess of Richmond.
Although Angelica Kauffman had Bartolozzi and his numerous
disciple—which meant, of course, most of the best stipple-engravers
of the day—at the service of her prolific pencil, her favourite of all
was Thomas Burke. In this she proved her sound judgment, for
certainly no other stipple-engraver, not Bartolozzi himself, could
equal Burke’s poetic feeling upon the copper, or surpass him in his
artistic mastery of the medium. After studying, it is believed, at the
art school of the Royal Dublin Society, he came to London to learn
mezzotint-engraving under his talented countryman, John Dixon,
who was winning reputation as one of Reynolds’s ablest
“immortalisers,” to borrow the master’s own word. Burke soon
showed that he could scrape a mezzotint with the best of them, but
the pupil’s manner developed on his own lines, differing from the
master’s in a more tender and luminous touch, a greater suavity of
tone. These qualities are patent in his beautiful rendering of Angelica
Kauffman’s Telemachus at the Court of Sparta, and it was only
natural that they should suggest his adopting the stipple method.
The technique he learnt from Ryland, and unquestionably he
“bettered the instruction.” The painter’s sense of effect, which Dixon
had taught him to translate into mezzotint, was of incalculable value
to him in his use of the new medium, for, by an individual manner of
infinitely close stippling suggestive of the rich broad tone-surfaces of
mezzotint, he achieved, perhaps, the most brilliant and beautiful
effects that stipple-engraving has ever produced. Burke, in fact, was
an artist, who, seeing a picture, realised how to interpret it on the
copper-plate with the just expression of all its tone-beauties. There is
a glow about his engraving which shows the art of stipple at the very
summit of its possibilities, and, happily, brilliant impressions of
several of his plates were printed in colours. Thus, in such beautiful
prints as Lady Rushout and Daughter, Rinaldo and Armida, A Flower
painted by Varelst, Angelica Kauffman as Design listening to the
Inspiration of Poetry, Cupid and Ganymede, Jupiter and Calisto,
Cupid binding Aglaia, Una and Abra, to name, perhaps, the gems
among Burke’s Kauffman prints, is shown what artistic results could
be compassed when stipple-engraving and colour-printing met at
their best. If, however, Angelica’s engaging fantasies inspired Burke
to his masterpieces, not less exquisite was his rendering of Plimer’s
miniatures of the Rushout daughters, while his art could interpret
with equal charm the homely idyllic picture, as may be seen in the
pretty Favourite Chickens—Saturday Morning—Going to Market,
after the popular W. R. Bigg, and The Vicar of the Parish receiving
his Tithes, after Singleton. But there are pictures by the masters one
would like Burke to have engraved. The strange thing is that he did
not do them.
Most of the engravers were now wooing the facile and profitable
popularity of the stipple method and the colour-print and all the
favourite painters of the day, from the President of the Royal
Academy to the lady amateur, were taking advantage of the fashion.
The constancy and infinitude of the demand were so alluring, and
the popular taste, never artistically very exacting, had been flattered
and coaxed into a mood which seemed very easy to please. It asked
only for the pretty thing.
Sir Joshua Reynolds, seeing, doubtless, what delicious and popular
things Bartolozzi had made of Cipriani’s Cupids and Graces, was
readily induced to lend himself, in the lighter phases of his art, to the
copper-plates of the stipple-engravers, pleasantly assisted by the
colour-printer. Still leaving the more dignified and pictorially elaborate
examples of his brush, the beautiful, elegant, full-length portraits of
lovely and distinguished women and notable men, to the gracious
interpretation of mezzotint, which had served him so nobly and
faithfully, he found that, in the hands of such artists on copper as
Bartolozzi, John Jones, Caroline Watson, Wilkin, Cheesman,
Dickinson, Nutter, Schiavonetti, Marcuard, Thomas Watson, John
Peter Simon, Grozer, Collyer, J. R. Smith, the delicate art of stipple
could express all the sweetness, tenderness, and grace he intended
in the pictures he enjoyed to paint of children and of girlish beauty.
So we have such delightful prints, both in monochrome and in colour,
as the Hon. Anne Bingham and Lavinia, Countess Spencer, Lady
Betty Foster, The Countess of Harrington and Children, Lady Smyth
and her Children, Lord Burghersh, Hon. Leicester Stanhope,
Simplicity (Miss Gwatkin), The Peniston Lamb Children, all of
Bartolozzi’s best; Lady Cockburn and her Children, and Master
Henry Hoare, the Hon. Mrs. Stanhope as “Contemplation,” Lady
Beauchamp (afterwards Countess of Hertford), A Bacchante (Mrs.
Hartley, the actress, and her child), the Spencer children in The
Mask, and The Fortune Tellers, Miss Elizabeth Beauclerc (Lady
Diana’s daughter and Topham Beauclerc’s) as “Una,” Muscipula,
Robinetta, Felina, Collina, The Sleeping Girl, Infancy, Lady
Catherine Manners, The Reverie, Lord Grantham and his Brothers,
Mrs. Sheridan as “St. Cecilia,” Maternal Affection (Lady Melbourne
and child), Perdita (Mrs. Robinson), Mrs. Abington as “Roxalana,”
The Age of Innocence, The Infant Academy, The Snake in the Grass
—but the list is endless. All collectors of colour-prints know how
desirable these Reynolds’ stipples are to charm their walls withal, but
almost unique must be the collector who can also hang among them
Keating’s joyous mezzotint of Reynolds’s famous portrait of the
Duchess of Devonshire and her baby daughter, printed in colours.
This is one of those rare examples which, with J. R. Smith’s
Bacchante and Nature (Lady Hamilton), Henry Meyer’s Nature too,
some of the Morland prints by the Wards, Smith, and Keating; S. W.
Reynolds’s Countess of Oxford, J. R. Smith’s Mrs. Bouverie, and a
few other important Hoppner prints, C. Turner’s Penn Family, after
Reynolds, Smith’s Synnot Children, after Wright of Derby, and Mrs.
Robinson, after Romney, prove that, in the hands of an engraver with
a painter’s eye, mezzotint could respond to the coloured inks as
harmoniously and charmingly as stipple.
Gainsborough—at least, the Gainsborough of unapproachable
mastery and inimitable beauty, the greatest glory of our eighteenth
century art—seems to have been beyond the colour-printer’s
ambition. With the exception of the Hobbinol and Ganderetta
(Tomkins), reproduced here, and the Lavinia (Bartolozzi), both of
which were painted for Macklin’s “British Poets,” I doubt if anything
important of Gainsborough’s was reproduced in coloured stipple,
and, of course, these things cannot be said adequately to represent
the master; while, as to mezzotint, W. Whiston Barney’s version of
Gainsborough’s Duchess of Devonshire was, I understand, printed in
colours, though impressions are extremely rare. Romney’s exquisite
art, on the other hand, with its gracious simplicity of beauty, lent itself
more readily to the colour-printed copper-plate. Among the
numberless tinted engravings with which the small-paned windows
of the eighteenth-century print-shops were crowded, none ingratiated
themselves more with the connoisseurs than the Romneys. So, in
any representative collections of colour-prints to-day, among the
finest and most greatly prized examples must be the lovely Emma
and Serena (Miss Sneyd) of John Jones, Mrs. Jordan as “The
Romp” of Ogborne, Miss Lucy Vernon as “The Seamstress,” and
Lady Hamilton as “The Spinster” of Cheesman, the beautiful Emma
also as a “Bacchante” by Knight, as “Sensibility” by Earlom, and as
“Nature” in the two mezzotint versions, just mentioned, by J. R.
Smith and Henry Meyer.
Of course the pictorial miniatures of the fashionable Richard
Cosway, with their light, bright scheme of draughtsmanship, their
dainty tints, their soft and sinuous graces, their delicate decision of
character, were exceedingly happy in the stipple-engraver’s hands.
In colour the prints had a charm of reticence which was peculiarly
persuasive. Several of the most engaging were done by the artistic
Condé, such at Mrs. Bouverie, Mrs. Tickell, Mrs. Jackson, Mrs.
Fitzherbert, Mrs. Robinson as “Melania”, and the beautiful youth
Horace Beckford; J. S. Agar did delicately Harriet, Lady Cockerell, as
a Gipsy Woman, Lady Heathcote, and Mrs. Duff; Cardon, with his
distinguished touch, engraved the charming Madame Récamier,
Schiavonetti the Mrs. Maria Cosway and Michel and Isabella
Oginesy, Bartolozzi the Mrs. Harding, Mariano Bovi the Lady Diana
Sinclair, and Charles White the pretty Infancy (Lord Radnor’s
children). Only less fashionable than Cosway’s were the miniatures
of Samuel Shelley. In portrait-manner, and in fanciful composition,
Reynolds was his model and inspiration, but the result, in spite of
high finish and a certain charm of elegance, was a very little
Reynolds, for Shelley’s drawing generally left something for criticism.
Naturally, miniature-painting found happy interpretation in coloured
stipple, and Shelley was fortunate in his engravers, especially
Caroline Watson, with her exquisite delicacy and brilliantly minute
finish, and William Nutter, who was equally at home with the styles of
many painters.
An artist whose dainty and original manner of portraiture, enjoying a
great vogue in its day, was also particularly well suited to the tinted
stipple was John Downman. A man of interesting personality and
individual talent, he began, as a pupil and favourite of Benjamin
West, to take himself seriously and ambitiously as an “historical
painter,” to borrow a definition of the period. Indeed, after he had
won a fashionable reputation for the singular charm and style of his
portraits, and become an A.R.A., we find a contemporary critic of the
Royal Academy exhibition of 1796 confessing surprise at seeing a
scriptural subject painted with such exceptional care and simplicity of
expression by “a hand accustomed to delineate the polished and
artificial beauties of a great metropolis.” But it was to these portrait-
drawings that the artist owed his popularity, and these and the
engravings of them, neglected for three-quarters of a century, are the
things that to-day make Downman a name to conjure with among
collectors. His portraits, exceptionally happy in their suggestion of
spontaneous impression and genial intuition of character, were
drawn with pencil, or with finely-pointed black chalk or charcoal. The
light tinting of hair, cheeks, lips and eyes, with the more definite
colouring, in the case of the female portraits, of an invariable sash
and ribbon on a white dress, was effected in a manner peculiar to
himself. Instead of the usual way, the colour was put on the back of
the drawing, and showed through the specially thin paper he used
with softened effect. How he happened upon this method of tinting
his drawings is rather a romantic story. Seized by the press-gang
and taken to sea, about the beginning of the American War of
Independence, he was kept abroad for nearly two years, and when,
at last, he managed to return to England he found his wife and
children in a state of destitution at Cambridge. There his happy gift of
portraiture brought him a livelihood. One day he left by chance a
drawing face downward upon the table, and one of his children
began daubing some pink paint on what was seemingly a blank
piece of paper. Downman, finding his drawing with daubs upon the
back, perceived delicate tints upon the face, and so he looked with a
discoverer’s eye, and thought the thing out; and the novel way he
had accidentally found of transparently tinting his drawings proved
his way to prosperity. It introduced him into the houses of the socially
great to the royal palace even, and the fashionable beauties of the
day, as well as those who would have liked to be fashionable
beauties, and the favourite actresses, all readily offered their
countenances to Downman’s charming pencil, knowing it would lend
them the air of happy young girls. Of course there was a willing
market for prints from these gladsome and novel presentations of
faces which the people seemed never to tire of; so among the
collector’s prizes to-day are the Mrs. Siddons by Tomkins, the
Duchess of Devonshire and the Viscountess Duncannon by
Bartolozzi, Lady Elizabeth Foster by Caroline Watson, Miss Farren
(Countess of Derby) by Collyer, and Frances Kemble by John Jones.
The social reign of the Court beauties lasted over a long period, and
survived many changes of fashion, from the macaroni absurdities
and monstrous headdresses to the simple muslin gown and the
straw “picture” hat. The days of “those goddesses the Gunnings”
seemed to have come again when the three rival Duchesses,
Devonshire, Rutland, and Gordon, were the autocrats of “the ton,”
ruling the modish world not only with the sovereignty of their beauty,
elegance, wit and charm, but with the fascinating audacity of their
innovations and the outvieing heights of their feathers.
“Come, Paris, leave your hills and dells,

You’ll scorn your dowdy goddesses,
If you once see our English belles,
For all their gowns and boddices.
Here’s Juno Devon all sublime;
Minerva Gordon’s wit and eyes;
Sweet Rutland, Venus in her prime;
You’ll die before you give the prize.”
So sang the enthusiastic poet; though the “satirical rogues” who

wrote squibs and drew caricatures were not quite so kind, and a
writer in the “Morning Post,” with a whimsical turn for statistics,
actually drew up a “Scale of Bon Ton,” showing, in a round dozen of
the leading beauties of the day the relative proportions in which they
possessed beauty, figure, elegance, wit, sense, grace, expression,
sensibility, and principles. It is an amusing list, in which we find the
lovely Mrs. Crewe, for instance, credited with almost the maximum
for beauty, but no grace at all; the Countess of Jersey with plenty of
beauty, grace and expression, but neither sense nor principles; the
Duchess of Devonshire with more principles than beauty, and more
figure than either; her Grace of Gordon with her elegance at zero,
and the Countess of Barrymore supreme in all the feminine
attractions.
When personal gossip about these fashionable beauties was
rampant upon every tongue; when the first appearance of one of
them in a new mode was enough to ensure her being enviously or
admiringly mobbed in the Mall, naturally the portrait-prints in colour
responded to the general curiosity. But there was a public which,
having other pictorial fancies than portraiture, even pretty faces
could not satisfy without the association of sentiment and story. So
there were painters who, recognising this, furnished the engravers
with the popular subject-picture. It was well for their link with
posterity that they did so, for how many of them would be
remembered to-day were it not for these prints? One of the most
prominent was William Redmore Bigg, who won a great popularity by
painting, with the imagination of a country parson, simple incidents of
rustic and domestic life, charged with the most obvious sentiment.
The people took these pictures to their hearts, and they were a gold-
mine to the engravers. As to their artistic qualities we have little
opportunity of judging to-day except through the familiar prints.
These are innumerable, and they all have a conventional prettiness.
In colours the most pleasing, perhaps, are the Saturday Morning of
Burke, the Saturday Evening and Sunday Morning of Nutter; Dulce
Domum and Black Monday of John Jones; Romps and Truants of
William Ward; Shelling Peas and The Hop Picker of Tomkins;
College Breakfast, College Supper, and Rural Misfortunes of
Ogborne, The Sailor Boy’s Return and The Shipwrecked Sailor Boy
of Gaugain.
Then there was William Hamilton, a prolific and prevalent artist. Sent
to Italy in his youth by Robert Adam, the architect, he returned with a
sort of Italianate style of storied design, classical, historical,
allegorical, conventional; but, happily, he developed a light, pretty
and decorative manner of treating simple familiar subjects, which
was pleasing alike to engravers and public. The charming plates
from Thomson’s Seasons, engraved by Tomkins and Bartolozzi; the
graceful set of The Months by Bartolozzi and Gardiner; the idyllic
Morning and Evening by Tomkins, with Noon and Night by Delattre,
the numerous designs of children at play, such as Summer’s
Amusement, Winter’s Amusement, How Smooth, Brother! feel again,
The Castle in Danger, by Gaugain; Breaking-up and The
Masquerade by Nutter; Blind Man’s Buff and Sea-Saw, Children
feeding Fowls, Children playing with a Bird, by Knight; Playing at Hot
Cockles, and others by Bartolozzi: these are among the prettiest
colour-prints of the period and the most valued to-day—especially
The Months. Hamilton’s work just synchronised with the popular
vogue for the coloured stipple, and without these prints how much
should we know of an artist so esteemed in his day, and so
industrious? One might almost ask the same of Francis Wheatley,
whose popularity also survives but through the engraver’s medium. It
was only after his return from Dublin, where he might have continued
to the end as a prosperous portrait-painter had not Dublin society
discovered that the lady it had welcomed as Mrs. Wheatley was
somebody else’s wife, that Wheatley began painting those idealised
urban, rustic, and domestic subjects, which gave him such
contemporary vogue and led to his prompt admission among the
Royal Academicians. Had he never painted anything else he would
always be remembered by his thirteen Cries of London, published by
Colnaghi at intervals between 1793 and 1797, and so familiar to us
through the accomplished copper-plates of the Schiavonetti brothers,
Vendramini, Gaugain and Cardon, though, alas! so wretchedly
hackneyed through the innumerable paltry reproductions. But what a
fascinating, interesting set of prints it is! How redolent of old
lavender! How clean, serene, and country-town-like the London
streets appear; how sweet and fragrant they seem to smell; how
idyllic the life in them! As one looks at these prints one can almost
fancy one hears the old cries echoing through those quiet Georgian
streets. Perhaps the London streets of 1795 were not quite so dainty
as Wheatley’s sympathetic pencil makes them look to have been.
But, remember, that in those days lovely ladies in muslin frocks and
printed calicoes of the new fashion, who had sat to Reynolds, and
whose portraits were in the print-shop windows, were still being
carried in the leisurely sedan-chair, and there were many pretty airs
and graces to be seen; while in those streets, too, the youthful
Turner was seeing atmosphere and feeling his graphic way to
immortality, and young Charles Lamb was walking about, “lending
his heart with usury” to all the humanity he saw in those very streets
which these Wheatley prints keep so fragrant. Of the numberless
other colour-prints after Wheatley perhaps the most valued to-day
are, in mezzotint, The Disaster, The Soldier’s Return and The
Sailor’s Return, by William Ward, The Smitten Clown, by S. W.
Reynolds; in stipple, the Summer and Winter of the Bartolozzi
“Season” set, of which Westall did the Spring and Autumn; The
Cottage Door and The School Door, by Keating; Setting out to the
Fair and The Fairings, by J. Eginton, and the pretty Little Turkey
Cock by Delattre, all admirable examples of the kind of art that made
Wheatley’s reputation.
The pleasant uninspired rusticities and sentimentalities of Henry
Singleton were to popular as to engage the abilities of some of the
leading engravers, who must certainly have made the best of them
for the colour-printer, since Singleton’s colouring was accounted
poor even in his own day. Among the most taking examples we have
Nutter’s pretty pair The Farmyard and The Ale-house Door, Burke’s
Vicar of the Parish, Eginton’s Ballad-Singer, Knight’s British Plenty
and Scarcity in India, some children subjects by Meadows and
Benedetti, and E. Scott’s Lingo and Cowslip, which shows that
genuinely comic actor, John Edwin, and that audaciously eccentric
and adventurous actress, Mrs. Wells, in O’Keefe’s notorious
Haymarket farce, “The Agreeable Surprise,” a group which
Downman also pictured, though with infinitely more spirit and
character.

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Total manufacturing assurance :

controlling product quality, reliability,

Dr. Douglas Brauer and Dr. John Cesarone

and by CRC Press

© 2022 Douglas Brauer and John Cesarone

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

ISBN: 978-1-032-07636-2 (hbk)

Section i introduction to tMA

Chapter 1 The World of Manufacturing ...............................................................3

Chapter 2 Total Manufacturing Assurance ......................................................... 11

Section ii Strategic Manufacturing Management

Chapter 3 Strategic Operations ........................................................................... 17

Chapter 4 Innovation and Technology Transfer .................................................. 35

Chapter 5 Engineering Economic Analysis ........................................................ 59

Chapter 6 Management Control .......................................................................... 77

6.3.3 Material Requirements Planning ............................. 100

Chapter 7 Organizational Leadership ............................................................... 133

7.2 Teaming ................................................................................. 137

Section iii Manufacturing System control

Chapter 8 System Definition ............................................................................. 161

Chapter 9 Product Manufacturing Degradation Control .................................. 185

9.4.3 Flexible Production Lines ........................................ 252

Chapter 10 System Maintenance ........................................................................ 263

Section iV System improvement Monitoring

Chapter 11 Big Data System Planning................................................................ 293

11.4 Data System Implementation.................................................302

Chapter 12 Data Recording and Feedback .........................................................309

Chapter 13 Performance Analytics ..................................................................... 323

Appendix: Reactions to Group Situations Test (RGST) .................................. 343

Sabri Cetin, PhD

of its commercialization are presented in conjunction with a detailed technology

NEVER SHRINK FROM DOING ANYTHING WHICH YOUR BUSINESS

Basic demands included improved working conditions, recognition of unions as bar-

1.2 INNOVATION IN MANAGEMENT AND MANUFACTURING

do so as world technological events and consumer thirst for advanced technologies

FIGURE 1.1 I4.0 manufacturing system intelligence.

and information technology. It is clear that advanced technologies, fundamentally

Total Manufacturing Assurance

Strategic Manufacturing System Improvement

Economic Analysis Product Manu- Data Recording

Organizational System Performance

Continuous Improvement Feedback Loop

FIGURE 2.1 TMA network.

2.1 STRATEGIC MANUFACTURING MANAGEMENT

2.2 MANUFACTURING SYSTEM CONTROL

2.3 SYSTEM IMPROVEMENT MONITORING

A fundamental task in any business is planning. Without a disciplined planning

FIGURE 3.1 Inputs to manufacturing strategy.

Potential High Market

Low Market Share

FIGURE 3.2 Product ROI/success relationship.

Opportunities & Threats Strengths & Weaknesses

External Analysis Internal Analysis

FIGURE 3.3 Strategic planning pyramid.

A preference for manufacturing strategies with greater flexibility is desirable.

3.2 STRATEGIC PLANNING PATH

Exploit & Neutralize

Company Strengths Company Weaknesses

Competitor Weaknesses Competitor Strengths

Sustainable Competitive Advantages

FIGURE 3.4 Strategic planning fundamentals.

As depicted in Figure 3.4, strategic planning is fundamentally about exploiting