USTSHAPE REVIEWER

Science:
 Chemistry (Periodic table, ions, etc.) page 1
 Physics page 6
 Gen. Science 2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
 Earth Science/Geology Properties of matter that do not change as it is being
 Biology observed.
_______________________________________
Intrinsic:
 Properties that distinguish a substance from
CHEMISTRY another substances
 Ex: boiling point, acidity, etc.
Deals with properties, composition and structures of Extrinsic
matter, the changes it undergoes, and the laws and
 Properties that depend on the amount of matter
principles which govern these changes.
observed.
 Ex: Height, weight, etc.
5 BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY
1. Organic Chem – Study of chemicals containing
the element carbon
2. Inorganic Chem – Study of all elements and 3. MASS AND ENERGY RELATION
compounds other than organic compounds. Albert Einstein proved that increase in mass
3. Analytical Chem – Study of qualitative and generates increase in energy and vice versa.
quantitative analysis of elements and Equation: e = mc2
compounds.
4. Physical Chem – Study of reaction rates, 4. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
mechanisms, bonding and structure, and
thermodynamics. Physical Change – Physical properties of a substance
5. BioChem – Study of chemical reactions that changes.
happen within the biological process
Chemical Change
1. MATTER  Identity of a substance changes.
Anything that occupies space (volume) and has mass  Produces new kinds of matter
Substances:
 Elements: Law of Conservation of Mass:
 Metals Chemical react the mass of the reactants is always the
same as the mass of the products.
 Nonmetals
 Metalloids
Chemical change:
 Compounds: o Evolution of heat and light
 Acids o Evolution of a gas
 Bases o Formation of a precipitate
 Salts o Production of mechanical energy
o Production of electrical energy
Mixtures:
Homogenous:
 Solutions
Heterogenous:
 Colloids
 Suspensions
 5. LAW OF DEFINITE
COMPOSITION/PROPORTION
Composition:
Elements combined in ratios of simple whole numbers to
form a compound
Proportion:
Every sample of a given substance always contains the
same proportion by mass of its constituent elements.
6. LAW OF MULITPLE PROPORTIONS
When two elements combine to for two or more different
compounds, if the amount of one element is constant, the
masses of the other element in the different compounds
are in ratios of small whole numbers.
7. ENERGY IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
During chemical reactions, energy is either released or
absorbed.
Endothermic – Energy is absorbed
Exothermic – Energy is released
Reaction mechanism – Series of chemical steps
involved in a chemical reaction
Activation energy – Minimum amount of energy
needed to initiate a chemical reaction
Heat of reaction
 Total amount of heat released or absorbed
 Measured in KJ/mol
 Symbol:
 (-) H = exothermic
 (+) H = endothermic
Chemical reaction is based on temperature,
concentration of reactants, pressure, and presence of
catalysts and/or inhibitors.
Le Chatelier’s Principle
If a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by changing the
conditions, the position of equilibrium, shifts to
counteract the change to reestablish an equilibrium.
Chemical equilibrium represents a state of balance
between reactants and products.
8. PURE SUBSTANCE
Either an element or compound. Identified by physical
properties. Elements are always present in the same ratio
in a given compound which are separated using chemical
methods.
9. ELEMENT
Simplest form of substance that cannot be decomposed.
 Metals – Hard and shiny elements that are good
conductors of heat and electricity; tends to lose
electrons
 Nonmetals – Brittle elements that do not
conduct heat or electricity well
 Metalloids – Borderline elements between
metals and nonmetals.
10. COMPOUND
Substance formed when two or more elements are
combined chemically. Can be classified based on how
they change the color of a certain substance.
Indicators
 Substances that show different color changes to
different substances.
 Litmus is a colored substance often used to
determine the level of acidity or base of the
substance.
Acid:
 Compound with sour taste, corrosive and reacts
with a base to form salt and water
 Blue to red
Base:
 Chemical opposite of an acid
 Red to blue
Salt:
 Produced through the reaction of base and salt
 Dissolves in water and conducts electricity
Amphiprotic – Can either be proton donors or acceptors
(water)
Neutralization – Reaction by which equivalent
quantities of an acid and a base react to form a salt and
water.
Titration – Procedure used to quantitively mix acids and
bases.
pH
 Measure of the concentration of an acid or base
 Negative of the common logarithm of the
hydrogen ion.
 Scales from 0-14. 7 is neutral, while >7 are
bases and <7 are acids.
pOH scale – Measures the concentration of OH ions in a
solution.
 Solute – Substance being dissolved in a solution.
11. MIXTURES Solvent – Substance in which the solute is dissolved.
Materials made up of two or more substances which
when mixed together, still retains its own qualities. A solute dissolved in the solvent to form a solution.

 Homogenous mixture – Cannot be separated by Types of solutions:

ordinary chemical means.
 Heterogenous mixtures – Parts with dissimilar Nature Solute Solvent Solution
Solid-solid Copper Tin Bronze
properties. alloy
Solid-liquid Salt Water Salt
solution
12. OXIDATION NUMBER Solid-gas Dust Air Dust in air
Charge whether positive or negative which each atom in Gas-in- Hydrogen Platinum Hydrogen
a compound appears to have, as a result of the transfer of solid on
platinum
electrons from one atom to a more electronegative atom. Gas-in- CO2 Water Carbonated
liquid water
Oxidation of an element in a compound is determined by Gas-in-gas Hydrogen Chlorine Hydrogen
the number of electrons that was lost, gained, or shared chloride
with another atom during the chemical reaction. Liquid- Mercury Copper Mercury in
solid copper
Liquid- Alcohol Gasoline Alcogas
liquid
13. POLARITY Liquid-gas Water Air Water
Property of molecules having separate charges, or dipole vapor in air
with positive and negative poles. Polar molecules have
dipole moment while non-polar have none. Solubility – Amount of solute that dissolved in a given
amount of solvent to produce saturated solution at a
given temperature
14. MISCIBILITY
Tendency of liquids to dissolve in other liquids. Solubility of solids and liquids in a solvent are affected
by:
 Nature of the solute and solvent
15. MASS AND WEIGHT  Temperature
Mass – Quantity of matter
Weight – Measure of the pull of gravity on an object of Solubility of gases in liquid solvent are affected by:
given mass.  Nature of the solute and solvent
 Temperature
 Pressure
16. SIGNIFICANT NUMBERS
Rate of dissolution:
o Every nonzero digit in a recorded measurement  Size of solute particles
is significant  Diffusion rate of solute particles throughout the
o Zeros appearing between nonzero digits are solvent
significant  Kinetic energy of solute and solvent molecules
o Zeros appearing in front of all nonzero digits are
not significant. Semi-permeable – allowing certain substances to pass
o Zeros at the end of a number and to the left of a through but not others
decimal point are not significant if they serve as
place markers to show the magnitude of the Osmosis – Solution with greater solvent concentration
number. diffuses through the membrane to the side with lower
o Zeros at the end of a number and to the right of a solvent concentration until the concentrations on both
decimal point are always significant. sides of the membranes are equal

Properties of a solution:
17. SOLUTION  Vapor pressure
Homogenous mixture between two or more substances.  Boiling point
  Freezing point
 Osmotic pressure
18. ELECTROLYTES
Acids, bases, and salts whose solutions conduct
electricity.
Ionization (covalent)/Dissociation (ionic) - Polar
molecules of water attract the atoms of the solute. The
bonds between the atoms of the solute weaken, and the
atoms separate into ions
19. TEMPERATURE
 Direction of heat flow between two bodies
 Uses Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin
 Kelvin and Celsius scales have identical degree
increments but different zeros;
K = oCelsius + 273 or 0Kelvin – 273
20. SPECIFIC HEAT
Calorie (cal) – Unit of measurement for heat energy.
Joule (J) – Unit of energy preferred in the SI system.
Specific heat – Number of calories required to raise the
temperature of 1 g of a substance at 1 0C.
21. ATOMS
Basic building blocks of matter. Besides negatively
charged electrons, atoms also contain positively charged
protons and electrically neutral neutrons.
Nucleus of an atom:
o Composed of protons and neutrons
o Contains most of the mass of the atom in a very
small volume
o Electrons orbit around the nucleus at various
energy levels and occupy most of the volume of
the atom
Atomic number:
 Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
 An atom has an equal number of protons and
electrons since atoms are electrically neutral
Mass number:
 Sum of protons and neutrons
 Does not appear on the periodic table since there
is no such thing
Each element represents the average mass numbers of all
isotopes as they occur on Earth. The average number is
the atomic weight.
Isotopes:
 Atoms with the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons
Electron Configuration:
Distribution of electrons in the various energy levels.
Explains their chemical behavior.
Locations of electrons: Main energy levels, sublevels,
and orbitals.
 From innermost, the electrons are on their lowest
state energy. While from the outermost,
electrons are on their highest state energy.
 Electrons can jump from one energy level to
another but cannot exist between levels.
 They absorb energy in order to move to higher
levels and emit energy upon moving lower
 Quanta: Energy that is lost or gained is done in
discrete quantities.
Orbital:
 Average path that an electron takes while
travelling around the nucleus.
 Vary in size, shape, and special orientation
 Electrons occupy orbitals and orbitals can hold
up to two electrons and have an opposite spin
(Pauli’s Exclusion Principle)
Valence electrons:
 Electrons in the outermost principal energy
level of an atom
22. ATTRACTIVE FORCES
Forces of attraction between molecules. Strongest in
solid where particles move the least and are close to each
other. Weakest in has where molecules move faster and
are farthest apart.
23. BOYLE’S LAW
“At constant temperature, the volume of a confined gas
is inversely proportional to the pressure on it.”:
V x 1/P
24. CHARLES LAW
“At constant pressure, the volume of a confined gas
varies directly with the absolute temperature.”:
VxT
25. LAW OF COMBINING VOLUMES OF
GASES
Under the same conditions, the volumes of reacting
gases and their gaseous products in ratios of small whole
numbers.
26. PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
Began by German chemist, Lothar Meyer (1830-1895)
and Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1906).
o The table is arranged in an order of the
increasing atomic number
o Groups/Families: Vertical columns in the
Periodic Table with elements who have similar
electron arrangements and similar chemical
properties
o Elements range from active metallic element to
an active nonmetallic element:
Active metal => less active metal => metalloid => less
active nonmetal => active nonmetal => inert
o Metals lose electrons and form positive ions
while nonmetals gain electrons and form
negative ions, or they often share electrons with
other nonmetals
o Homonuclear diatomic molecules:
Hydrogen + the magic 7
Hydrogen – Nitrogen – Oxygen – Fluorine – Chlorine –
Bromine – Iodine – Astatine
o Alkali metals
 Elements in the vertical column headed by
lithium
 Column II headed by beryllium are alkali
earth metals
 Column headed by oxygen are chalcogen
 Column headed by fluorine are halogens
All are unreactive elements known as inert gases or
noble gases
27. CHEMICAL BONDS
Attractive force which holds together the atoms of a
molecule
 When energy is absorbed, chemical bonds are
broken. While when chemical bonds are formed,
energy is released
Kinds of chemical bonds:
o Ionic bond
Where atoms are held together by an electrostatic force
due to transfer of electrons from one atom to another
o Covalent bond
Where atoms are held together by sharing electrons.
 Polar covalent bond
Atoms are held together by unequal sharing of electrons
 Non-polar covalent bond
Atoms are held together by equal or almost equal sharing
of electrons
o Metallic bond
Where delocalized electrons of a metal atom move
freely in their valence sell while being attracted
strongly to the positive kernel of the same or
neighboring atoms.
Molecules:
 Formed by sharing 1-2 pairs of electrons. Since
electrons are negatively charged, they repel each
other; the repulsion results in geometries of
covalent bond.
28. STOICHIOMETRY CALCULATIONS:
 Mole
Basic unit for all chemical calculations
The balancing numbers (coefficient) in an equation are
moles. Gram-to-mole conversion:
 Avogadro’s number of particles
What a mole of anything contains
6.02 x 1023
o Atomic and molecular masses in grams are
determined by the mass at one more of atoms or
molecules
o For gases, one mole of an ideal gas occupies a
volume of 22.4L at STP (Standard Temperature
and Pressure: 0 Celsius and 1 atm pressure)
o All stoichiometry problems assume a correctly
balanced equation
 Molarity of a solution
Number of moles of solute contained in 1L of solution.
29. CHEMICAL REACTION
Represented by a chemical equation
  Reactants
Substances that undergo a chemical reaction
 Products
New substances formed after chemical reactions
A balanced equation has the same number of atoms of
each element on both sides of the equation. Chemical
equations:
A. Composition reactions:
Where a single compound is formed as a result of the
chemical combination of two elements or compounds:
Ex:
Carbon + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide
C + O2 = CO2
B. Decomposition reactions
Where a compound is broken down by heat, light, or
electricity into simpler substances:
Ex:
Potassium chlorate => potassium chloride + carbon
dioxide
C. Replacement reactions:
Where a more active element displaces another from its
chemical combinations
Ex:
Bromine + potassium iodide => potassium bromine +
iodine
D. Double replacement reactions
Where reactants exchange ions, forming two different
compounds
Ex:
Ferric chloride + sodium hydroxide => ferric hydroxide
+ sodium hydroxide
30. COLLOIDS
Heterogenous mixtures whose properties are largely
dependent on the size of dispersed particles. These
particles are the right size to scatter light and remain
suspended indefinitely in its dispersing medium. Due to
its large exposed surface area, its many application are
based on the adsorption of other particles in its surface.
Lyophilic
 Solvent-loving
Lyophobic
 Solvent-hating
Two phases of colloids:
1. Dispersed phase
Made up of colloidal particles that are finely scattered
2. Dispersing medium
Medium of continuous matter in which the colloidal
particles are scattered or suspended
Properties of colloids:
1. Tyndall effect
Disperse or scatter a beam of light passing through it
2. Brownian movement
The constant random motion of tiny particles suspended
in a fluid caused by molecular collisions within the fluid.
3. Adsorption
Process by which solid attracts molecules of gas and
liquid to the surface
4. Rate of Settling
Colloidal particles are very dense that they do not sink
and may remain suspended for long period of time
5. Electrophoresis
Movement of charged particles through a fluid due to the
passage of electric current through the medium
31. MELTING/BOILING POINT
o Temperature at which a slid begins to melt
o Liquids start changing into gaseous phase
o Vapor pressure of a liquid equals the external
pressure surrounding the liquid
o Depends on the atmospheric pressure
o Becomes lower as the external pressure is
reduced
o Different for every substance
PHYSICS
Deals with the properties and interrelationships of matter
and energy, excluding chemical and biological changes.
Includes the study of force, motion, heat, light, sound,
electricity, magnetism, radiation, and atomic energy.
1. COORDINATE SYSTEM
Mathematical method m1 = mass of object 1
used to represent the m2 = mass of object 2
position of points. r = distance between the center of object 1 and center of
object 2
Cartesian Coordinate
System:
Up and right are
positive, down and left
are negative
2. KINEMATICS 4. PROJECTILE MOTION

A. Distance (d) A. Projectile

Scalar quantity that measures the interval between two
locations measured along the actual path connecting
them. Has a magnitude and is one-dimensional.
B. Displacement (d with a line on top)
Vector quantity that measures the interval between two
locations measured along the shortest path connecting
them. Has both magnitude and direction and is two-
dimensional.
An object/body thrown with an initial velocity and
whose motion is influenced by the pull of gravity.
B. Trajectory
The path of a projectile that follows through space
C. Gravitational free-fall
Motion of an object vertically downward with initial
velocity as zero.
Displacement formula:

C. Speed (v)
The rate of motion/change of position of an object over Velocity formula:
time. A scalar quantity (how fast an object is moving)
Average speed equation:

y = displacement
v = velocity
a = acceleration due to gravity
D. Velocity (v with a line on top) t = time elapsed
The rate of linear motion of an object in a particular
direction over time. A vector quantity (how fast and in D. Projectile Motion
which direction the object is moving) o Motion of a body projected into the air with a
Average velocity equation: constant acceleration
o Consists of two independent parts: the horizontal
and vertical motions
o Gravity only affects the object’s vertical motion
E. Acceleration (a with a line on top) that’s why it cannot change the object’s
The rate of change of velocity over time. Vector horizontal speed and the component of the
quantity. object’s horizontal velocity remains constant.
Average acceleration equation: Equations:

3. NEWTON’S LAW OF UNVIERSAL

GRAVITATION

Any two bodies of the universe attract each other with a

force that is directly proportional to the product of the
masses of the two bodies and inversely proportional to (x0y0) = initial position
the square of the distance between them: (v0xv0y) = initial velocity
a = acceleration due to gravity
t = time elapsed

G = gravitational constant
  The acceleration caused by the centripetal force
5. THREE LAWS OF MOTION
Created by Isaac Newton, the three laws of motion
describe the behavior of a moving object:
8. FRICTION
A. Law of Inertia: Force which acts between surfaces of objects in contact
A body will remain in its state of rest unless acted upon where one or both objects move or are about to move
by an outside force. If you are moving, inertia works to relative to each other.
keep you in motion.
B. Law of Acceleration Types of friction:
The acceleration of an object is directly related to the net A. Static/Starting friction:
force and is inversely related to its mass. Acceleration Force generated when one surface start to slide across
depends on force and mass. another surface
B. Kinetic/Sliding friction:
Weight (W) is the measure of the gravitational force of Force acting when the body is in motion. Less than static
an object. The metric unit for weight is Newton (N). friction
Mass (m) is the measure of the resistance of an object to C. Rolling friction:
change its state of motion-a measure of inertia. The Friction between two surfaces when one surface is
metric unit of mass is kilograms (kg). rolling over another.
W = mg

C. Law of Interaction
Equal and opposite force are equal and oppositely
directed, but do not balance each other since both are not
exerted on the same body.
9. WORK
Equal to the product of the magnitude of the force
exerted on the object and the displacement that the
object moves while the force is being exerted:

6. MOMENTUM
Product of the mass of an object and its velocity. Because of work, energy is transferred from the object
when force acts. No work is done if there is no force
Impulse: applied.
 Product of the force and the time during which
the force acts on the body.
 Impulse acting on the object of the mass causes
the velocity of the object to change. 10. ENERY
The capacity to do work.

Kinetic energy
7. TORQUE  Energy of motion
Force that tends to produce rotation about an axis (twist).  The magnitude of the kinetic energy depends on
both the mass and the velocity of the object
Rotational push according to the equation:
 The motion in which an object rotates about an
axis
 Occurs when some force is applied at any point
other than its center of gravity. m = mass of the object
Translational motion v2 = square of its velocity
 The motion in which a body or object moves
along a linear axis rather than a rotational axis. Potential energy
 Occurs when the force is directly applied at its  Energy of position/stored energy
center of gravity.
Centripetal force Gravitational energy
 Causes the object to be accelerated towards the  Potential energy associated with gravitational
circle’s center force:
Centripetal acceleration:

m = mass of the object
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = altitude of the object
11. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
o Applied to an isolated system that cannot absorb
nor release energy or mass from or its to
surroundings.
o States that the sum of all forms of energy within
the system is constant.
o Energy is conserved. It cannot be created nor
destroyed, only transformed.
12. HEAT
A thermal energy which may be absorbed or given off
by an object, causing a change in its volume.
Can be transferred in three ways:
A. Conduction
o Heat transfer in solids
o The molecules of the object in the heat transfer
energy from molecule to molecule. The
molecules conduct heat but do not move
B. Convection
o Heat transfer in fluids
o When a warmer thing comes along and displaces
a colder thing
C. Radiation
o Heat transfer that occurs in the absence of
any medium
o Uses electromagnetic waves
o Radiant energy can travel without the help
of molecules of matter
The quantity of heat in any system is measured by the
effect that this amount of heat produces on the system.
Fusion
 Process of changing the substance from its solid
phase to its liquid phase
Melting point
 Temperature at which fusion takes place
Vaporization
 Process of changing liquid to its vapor state
Boiling point
 Temperature at which vaporization takes place
Temperature is not a measure of heat, but an expression
of heat content.
Specific heat
 The addition/removal of heat increases/decreases
the temperature of a particular substance.
13. WAVE
A disturbance that travels through a medium. A
transmission of a disturbance that repeats its form across
space and time
Two types of waves:
 Electromagnetic waves
Does not require a medium for propagation
 Mechanical waves
Requires a medium for propagation
Parts of a wave:
1. Wavelength
The distance from any point in its movement to the next
point.
2. Amplitude
The maximum distance the molecules of a wave are
displaced from their normal rest position.
Crest – high point in a wave
Trough – low point in a wave
Both are equal
3. Period
The time it takes for the wave to move from one crest to
the next
4. Frequency
The number of cycles the wave completes in one second
Frequency is the reciprocal of a period f = 1/T
The medium (which could be anything) moves up and
down, or oscillates. It oscillates, but the wave itself
moves in a direction that is perpendicular to the
oscillation.
o The velocity of the wave is the product of the
wavelength and frequency
o The speed of a sound wave through a medium
depends on the temperature and the density of
the medium.
o Sound waves travel faster at a higher
temperature and through elastic materials
Transverse waves – Waves that move perpendicular to
the direction of the wave’s advances
Longitudinal waves – Waves that move in the same
direction in which it causes its medium to move
14. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
The swinging motion of a pendulum. A pendulum has
maximum potential energy when it is up, but when it
swings going down, it has its maximum kinetic energy.
15. LIGHT
Sunlight
o Polychromatic light that breaks up when
refracted by a prism
Visible light
o Electromagnetic radiation that can be perceived
by the eye: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and
violet
A. Interaction with material
1. Reflection
o Bouncing back of a wave when it hits a barrier
that does not absorb the wave’s energy
o You see transmitted and reflect light
2. Refraction
o Bending of light
when it passes from
one material to
another. Because light
travels at different
speed in different
materials; so, it must
change speeds at the
boundary between the two materials
B. How light travels
1. Interference
o Occurs when to waves overlap
o If a peak of one wave is aligned with another
wave, then both waves will produce a larger
wave that is the sum of both two overlapping
peaks.
2. Diffraction
o Spreading of light
waves as they pass
through a small
opening or around a
battery.
16. SOUND
Longitudinal compression wave that can move through
all kinds of media (air, water, steel, etc.). It’s speed
depends on the on the two properties of the medium:
density and resistance to compression
Reflection
o An echo is the result of reflection of sound
o Sonar depends on the reflection of sounds
propagated in water
Refraction
o Bends the sound waves from their original path
o Sound downwind and upwind are caused by this
due to the velocity of the wind that is generally
greater at an altitude of many meters near the
ground.
Diffraction and Interference
o Interference paths are different for sounds of
different frequencies, so that the interference
produces distortion in complex sounds.
o Two sounds of different frequencies may
combine to produce a third sound which is equal
to the sum/difference of the original two
frequencies.
Doppler effect
o Change in frequency of a sound due to the
motion of either the source or the observer.
 o If the source is moving closer to you, the higher
the frequency. But if the source is moving
farther from you, the lower the frequency.
Resonance
- Tendency of a system to oscillate at a larger
amplitude at some frequencies than others (the
system’s resonant frequencies/resonance
frequencies)
17. ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Light
- Made up of stream of photons and tiny packets
of energy
- Light waves are electromagnetic waves
Electromagnetic spectrum
- Arrangement of waves on a scale of decreasing
wavelengths and increasing frequencies and
energy.
The invisible spectrum:
1. Radio waves – Longest wavelength and lowest
frequency. Used for communication and cooking
2. Microwaves – Used in radar to locate objects
and determine their distance and speed
3. Visible light (visible spectrum)
4. Infrared rays – Heat
5. Ultraviolet rays – Cause suntan and are food-
processing plants to destroy germs
6. X-rays – Shortest wavelength and highest
frequency. Used to penetrate skin and tissue
Visible Light/Visible Spectrum
o Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet
o The frequency determines the color
o Amplitude determines the brightness
o When the colors are mixed together, we see
them as white light
18. HALF-LIFE
The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time required
for one-half of the nuclei in a microscopic sample to
disintegrate. The given is always the same.
19. ELECTRICITY
The basic property of all matter. Caused by the flow of
electrons between atoms.
Electric current
- Flow of electrons
Good conductors
- Materials that allow electrons to move freely
- Wires made up of copper, silver, and aluminum
Good insulators
- Materials that slow down the flow of electrons
within conductors
- Rubber, plastic, wood, glass, and air
- They keep electricity from escaping and giving
people electric shocks.
Static electricity
- Most common type of electricity found in nature
- Buildup of positive/negative charges on objects
by the accumulation or loss of electorns
Current electricity
- Controlled flow of electrons
- The charges are continuously on the move
Circuit
o Formed by connecting both ends of a conductor
o A complete, closed circular path for an electric
current.
o Provides the force needed to drive the electrons
around the circuit
o Resists the flow of electricity so it is converted
to heat, light, or mechanical energy.
20. OHM’S LAW
States that the amount of current passing through a
conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across
the conductor and inversely proportional to the
resistance of the conductor:
V = IR
V = Difference in voltage between two locations
(potential difference)
I = Amount of current that is flowing between the two
points (Amperes)
R = Resistance of the conductor between the two
locations of interest (Ohms)
21. RESISTANCE
Quantity of resistance in an electric circuit determines
the amount of current flowing in the circuit for any given
voltage applied to the circuit.
Ohm
 - Unit of resistance. Magnetic field:
- The amount of resistance that limits the passage  The magnetic force extends outward from the
of current to one ampere when a voltage of one poles to create an area around the magnet where
is applied to it its magnetism can be felt.
 It is believed to be caused by the rotation of
- Symbol = Ω electrons within a substance.
 Every electron in every substance act like a
A. Series Circuit magnet.
o A circuit where resistors  Opposite poles attract and like poles repel.
are arranged in a chain, so
that the current only has
one path to take GEN. SCIENCE
o The current is the same
through each resistor
1. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
o Total resistance of the
circuit:
Science
- Systematic study concerned with facts,
principles, and methods (experiments) that could
be observed in our natural or physical and social
environment.
B. Parallel Circuit
o A circuit where
Scientific Study
resistors are arranged - Well-planned and reasoned study which can be
with their heads
repeated many times over and yield almost the
connected together,
same result
and their tails
connected together.
Technology
o The current breaks up
- Application of scientific knowledge to improve
with some flowing
life or satisfy needs
along each parallel
branch and re-combining when the branches
Applied Science:
meet again.
1. Machines:
o The voltage across each resistor is the same
- Tools, gadgets, or devices.
o Total resistance of the circuit: - Helps us do our activities faster and better
- Makes it possible for us to do certain things we
normally can’t
- Ex: Airplanes, Internet, CT-scan, etc.

2. Products:
22. ELECTRICAL POWER - Materials produced
Power – Rate at which work is done. It has unit of Watts
- Make life more pleasant, convenient, and
1 W = 1(J/S)
comfortable.
Electric power: - Ex: Toothpaste, Chemical Fertilizers, etc.

3. Processes:
- Way of doing things
- Ex: Food preservation, prawn culture, etc.

23. MAGNETISM
A force of push and pull and is a close relative of
2. SCIENTIFIC METHOD
electricity.
- Logical method to acquire knowledge that is
 Poles used to explain different phenomena in nature.
The two ends of every magnet which the magnetic force
extends. One is the south pole the other the north pole. Phenomena
- A thing observed in nature
 Fact
- A scientifically tested observation
Scientific Method:
1. State the problem
Problem is specific, measurable, and attainable
2. Gather information pertinent to the problem
Recall past experiences, interview the knowledgeable,
and research
3. Formulate hypothesis
Educated guess
4. Test the hypothesis (Experiment)
 Controlled experiment:
Manipulating one of the conditions or factors that may
affect the result of the experiment
 Trials:
Number of times the experiment is repeated
 Controls:
Factors that are kept constant throughout the experiment
 Variables: Factors that change
- Independent: Factors changes
- Dependent: Result of the factors changed of the
independent variable
5. Presentation of Data
 Tables: Organized
 Graph: Easy to read
- Line: Comparing two continuously changing
variables
- Bar: Comparing a changing value to an
unchanging value
6. Conclusion: Result of the experiment
 Law: Describes what happened but does not
explain the cause
 Theory: Hypothesis explained from
observations
7. Apply the principal to other
situations/Recommendation:
Create a scientific report about your experiment and
publish it in a scientific journal where other scientists
may repeat the same experiment.
3. SCIENTIFIC ATTRIBUTES
Obtained through the use of models and ideas, or
through serendipity or accidental discovery.
Scientific Attributes:
o Curiosity – Keen observation of things and
events in the surroundings
o Logic and System – Use of step-by-step
experimental methods and keeping of accurate
records
o Open-Mindedness – Readiness or willingness
to change or modify ideas or principles when
necessary
o Intellectual honesty – Acknowledging
contribution of others to one’s success
o Hard work and perseverance – Continued
effort to do or achieve something despite
difficulties, failures, or opposition.
o Objectivity – Goal of eliminating personal
biases in the practice of science
o Creativity and critical thinking – Ability to
think clearly and rationally about what to do and
what to believe, thereby creating new things and
solving problems in novel ways.
4. MEASUREMENT
Comparing a quantity with a chose standard.
Basic Quantities SI Unit
Length Meters
Mass Kilograms
Time Seconds
Electric current Amperes
Temperature Kelvin
Amount of substance Moles
Luminous intensity Candelas
What affects the degree of accuracy of
measurements:
o Accuracy – Closeness of measurements of a
quantity to its actual (true) value
o Precision – Repeated measurements under
unchanged conditions show the same results.
5. MATTER
Anything that occupies space and possesses the
attributes of gravity and inertia. Occurs in 4 states:
o Solid
- Resists any change in shape
- Caused by a strong attraction between the
molecules of which it is composed
o Liquid
- Does not resist forces that act to change its shape
- Molecules are free to move with respect to each
other
o Gas
- Molecules are widely dispersed and freely move.
- No resistance to shape and little resistance to
change in volume.
o Plasma
- Overall charge-neutral mix of electrons, ions,
and neutral atoms.

Most substances are solid at low temperatures, liquid at
medium, and gaseous at high.
1. Melting/Freezing Point
- Temperature at which any given substance
changes from solid to liquid and vice versa
2. Boiling Point
- Temperature which changes from liquid to gas
and vice versa/
- Vapor pressure is equal to external pressure
surrounding the liquid
- Depends on atmospheric pressure
6. CHANGES IN MATTER
Physical change
- Change in matter that has no chemical reaction
- Composition of its molecules remains
unchanged
- Substance does not lose chemical identity
- Melting, evaporating, and freezing
- Alteration in size and shape of a substance
- Cutting, grinding, crushing, etc.
Chemical change
- Chemical composition of each molecule changes
- Properties of the original substance are now lost
and new substances with new properties are
produced
- Burning, rusting, etc.
7. MACHINES
Devices that can:
1. Multiply force - Effort it takes to do certain
amount of work
2. Multiply speed or distance
3. Change the direction of the force
4. Transfer energy from one place to another
5. Transform energy from one form to another
Simple machine – 1-2 parts only:
 Inclined plane
 Lever
 Screw
 Wheel and axle
 Pulley
 Wedge
Compound/Complex machines – 2 or more simple
machines
8. DENSITY
Substance equal to the mass of the material divided by
its volume. A solid has a higher density than a liquid or
gas because its particles are very close to one another.
p = mass/volume
How to measure density:
Solids:
- Weighed to determine their mass then immersed
in a liquid to determine their volume.
- V of the liquid displaced by object = object’s v
Liquid:
1. First weigh an empty container
2. Then weigh the container with the liquid in it
3. Subtract the empty weight from the full weight
Gas:
- Weighed in an airtight container of known
volume and weight.
9. CLIMATE AND WEATHER
Atmosphere
- Constant state of change
- Changing conditions in the atmosphere are the
main causes of weather and climate
Climate
- Long-term effect of the sun’s radiation on the
rotating earth’s varied surface and atmosphere
Weather
- State of the atmosphere at a particular time and
place
Elements of Weather:
 Temperature
- Measure of the degree of hotness of the air
- 3 scales: Kelvin scale, Celsius scale, and
Fahrenheit scale.
- Thermometer is a common instrument used to
measure temperature
 Humidity
- Measure of the amount of water vapor in the air
- Common measure is relative humidity
- If the amount of water vapor in the air remains
the same, the relative humidity decreases as the
air is heated and increases as the air cools.
 - Relative humidity is often highest around dawn
where the temperature is the lowest, and lowest
in mid-afternoon, where the temperature is the
highest.
- Hygrometer and psychometer are used to
measure atmospheric humidity
Humidity = vapor in the air/air’s vapor holding capacity
 Precipitation
- Produced when droplets and crystals in clouds
grow large enough (1km) to fall to the ground
- Raindrop, rain, drizzle, freezing rain, snow, hail,
and sleet
- Measured using rain gauge
 Wind
- Horizontal movement of air
- Wind vanes are used to determine wind direction
- Anemometers are used to measure wind speed
 Cloud
- Excess water vapor in the air that condenses into
liquid droplets or iced crystals
- Produced by the cooling of air as it rises
- Takes many different forms based on the pattern
of air motions:
Fluffy cumulus clouds:
- Forms by rising masses of air called thermals
- Has a flat base
- Transforms into a cumulonimbus
cloud/thunderstorm
Fibrous cirrus clouds
- Consist of trails of falling ice crystals twisted by
the winds
- Form high in the troposphere and crystals never
hit the ground
Stratus clouds
- Form when an entire layer of air cools or
ascends.
 Pressure
- Force of the air on a given surface divided by the
area of that surface
- Barometer measure the air pressure
10. WATER
- Odorless, tasteless and colorless
- Universal solvent
- Chemically indestructible
- Expands and floats on water when frozen or in
the solid state
- Freezing point of 0 degrees Celsius and boiling
point of 100 degrees Celsius
- Can absorb great quantities and capacities
Ocean water
- The ocean is blue due to the molecular scattering
of the sunlight
- Variations in color may be caused by particles
suspended in the water, water depth, cloud
cover, temperature, etc.
- Hydrologic Cycle/Water Cycle: Series of
movements of water above, on, and below the
surface of the earth.
- 4 stages: Storage – Stored temporarily in the
ground, Evaporation – Evaporates from the
Earth’s surface, Precipitation – Condenses into
clouds and falls back to the earth as
precipitation, and Run-off – Runs into the seas
or re-evaporates into the atmosphere.
EARTH SCIENCE
- Science that collectively seek to understand
Earth and its neighbors in space.
- Geology, Oceanography, Meteorology, and
Astronomy
1. HOW OLD IS THE EARTH?
Earth is between 4 to 5 billion years old. This
information came from the study of rocks because
changes in them occur very slowly.
Law of Superposition:
In undisturbed sedimentary rocks, each layer is younger
than the layer below it and older than the layer above it.
Layered rocks are older than the igneous rocks.
Radioactive dating:
 Reliable way to tell the Earth’s age
 Uranium 238 is a metal that slowly changes into
lead (Uranium-Lead method)
 Half-life is 4.5 billion years – half of the
uranium would’ve decayed into lead
 This is how scientists are able to determine the
age of rocks by measuring the amount of
uranium and lead present in the rock sample.
2. FOSSILS
Hardened remains or imprints of organisms that lived a
very long time ago.
Paleontologists – Scientists who study plant and animal
fossils.

- Fossils include records of the past
- Fossils can also be petrified or changed into
rock. When sediment seeps inside a dead plant
or animal, the material fills any open space.
After some time, the dead plant/animal breaks
apart and the material hardens. What remains is
a cast fossil.
- Another fossil is the remains or skeleton of
primitive animals.
- Reveals the size, shapes, and appearances of
living things from long ago. Fossils also tell us
about their habits and habitats.
- Ice and amber prevent decay. When
plants/animals get trapped in this resin, they are
retained.
- Amber is a hardened resin formed by coniferous
trees.
3. GEOLOGIC TIME
A. Precambrian Era
- Lasted from the beginning of the earth to about
600 million years ago.
- Algae, sponges, and worms are some of the
primitive organisms that existed. However, life
was too primitive to be able to leave many
fossils.
- Early mountains were worn down only to be
uplifted again.
- Most of the rocks are igneous or metamorphic.
B. Paleozoic Era
- Many fossils were found in layers of
sedimentary rocks.
- Marine invertebrates lived near the shores of
shallow waters.
- Marine life has developed shells which formed
beds of limestone and coral reefs.
- Amphibians had adapted to breathing air out of
the sea during the Devonian Period.
- Land plants such as ferns and marsh plants had
developed which gave the land animals more
food to eat to multiply.
- Marine life had multiplied such as clams, snails,
and fish.
- The late Paleozoic era appeared the reptiles.
- Towards the end, the land climate changed, and
many kinds of plants grew during this era.
C. Mesozoic Era
- Formation of several continents
- New bodies of water were formed.
- Dinosaurs existed during this era which many
believed were the descendants of the primitive
reptiles that survived the Paleozoic. Another
theory counter clocks this theory, believing they
descended from birds.
- Some dinosaurs were carnivores adapted to eat
other dinosaurs, while others were herbivores
with digestive organs to eat vegetarian diet.
- Towards the end of the Mesozoic, the continents
had separated into their present positions, the
dinosaurs died, leaving the only surviving
reptiles today: turtles, snakes, lizards, crocodiles,
and alligators,
D. Cenozoic Era
- Volcanic activity was widespread, forming
immense flow of lava and basalt.
- Warm-blooded animals such has marsupials and
primitive mammals roamed the land.
- Mammals had developed tooth structures for
specific diets, limb structures for various
positions, and increasing brain size.
- Towards the end, the Northern Hemisphere was
covered by glaciers which was the start of the
Pleistocene Ice Age which lasted 2 million
years.
4. PROPERTIES OF THE EARTH
1. Pythagoras (c. 580-c. 500 B.C.)
- Greek philosopher and mathematician
- Thought that the earth had a spherical shape
which was proven by Eratosthenes
2. Eratosthenes (c. 276-c. 194 B.C.)
- Greek astronomer
- Measured the earth’s circumference
Circumference of Earth: 40, 000 km
Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
- English Mathematician and physicist
- Predicted that the Earth was not a perfect sphere.
His reason: the equatorial portion swings
outward due to the rapid spinning of Earth
(equatorial bulge).
- The earth is also irregular due to the mounts and
valleys above and below sea level.
J.P. Hayford
- Computed the standard earth in terms of an
oblate spheroid.
- The dimensions are a regular geometric form
that is close to the contour of Earth.

Henry Cavendish (1731-1810)
- English scientist
- Determined the mass of the Earth
- Experimented with the gravitational constant in
Newton’s universal law of gravitation. The
constant was determined by measuring the force
of attraction between suspended lead balls.
Then, computed the mass of the Earth from
Newton’s equation.
5. LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES
Equator
- Line drawn in the middle of the globe/map. 0
degrees latitude.
Line of Latitude
- North and south of the equator are many other
lines. Drawn east to west around the Earth.
Latitude
- Measured from 0 degrees at the equator to 90
degrees at the North Pole.
Meridian/Longitude
- North-south line drawn from the North Pole to
South Pole
- Meridian represents 0 degrees longitude
- Not parallel, farthest apart at the equator
- Get closest together as they reach the poles
where they meet
International Date Line
- East and west longitudinal lines meet at 180
degrees meridian
6. MAPPING THE EARTH
Map
- Drawing of earth, or part of earth on a flat
surface.
Globe
- Spherical model of earth
- Shows the sizes, shapes, and locations of all the
continents on Earth and all bodies of water.
Symbols
- Drawings that stand for real places or things
- A legend explains each symbol used on the map.
7. TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
Topography
- Describes the surface features of an area or the
“lay of land.”
Topographic maps
- Scale models of some part of the earth’s surface
- Uses contour lines to show relief
- Contour line: Line that passes through all points
on a map that has the same elevation.
8. LAYERS OF THE EARTH
1. Crust
- Thin outermost layer of the Earth
- Layer where all life on Earth exists.
- 1, 800 km thick
- Materials: Silicon, oxygen, aluminum, calcium,
sodium, and potassium.
- Three types of solid rocks: Igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic
- Crust varies in thickness with the thickest being
found in the continents where mountain peaks
are located and the thinnest in ocean depths.
- Crust does not have the same thickness
everywhere on Earth
2. Mantle
- Mohorovicic Discontinuity/Moho: Boundary
between the crust and mantle
- 2, 900 km thick
- Makes up 80% of the Earth’s volume
- Denser than the outermost layer of the Earth.
- 870 degrees Celsius
3. Inner core
- Earth’s solid, innermost layer
- 5, 100 km thick
- Contains iron and nickel
- 5000 degrees Celsius
- Very dense due to the intense pressure at this
depth that pushes the particles of iron and nickel
together.
- Creates the presence of a magnetic field
4. Outer core
- Layer surrounding the inner core
- 2, 900 km thick
- 2, 200 degrees Celsius
- Made up of liquid iron and nickel
- Heat makes the iron and nickel molten
Temperature increases as you go down into the earth you
go.
 9. TERRESTRIAL MAGNET
William Gilbert (1540-16003)
- English physician of Elizabeth I
- Concluded that the Earth behaves like a giant
magnet due to the comparison of the direction of
the magnetic force with similar measurements
made over the earth’s surface.
- Irregularities in the Earth’s magnetic field are
caused by the needle of a compass to point to
slightly different magnetic poles in different
regions around the world.
- Dip pole: a point that has been located in each
hemisphere
- Magnetic poles: Dip poles
10. PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
A. Continental Drift Theory
Alfred Wegener (1880-1930)
- German geologist and meteorologist
- Created the first theory of continental drift
which was based on biologic and geologic
evidence.
- He observed that until 200 million years ago,
whenever a new species appeared, it did in so
many regions where suitable habitat existed. But
now, those regions are now widely separated.
- He suggested that the continents were all part of
a huge landmass called Pangea surrounded by a
single ocean Panthalassa.
- Pangea was supposed to have begun to break up
which caused the continents to slowly drift to
their present locations.
- He stated that all continents are moving apart.
- To prove his theory, they examined what was
known about the climates of the past and tried to
arrange the continents in each geologic period.
Additional evidence of continental drift came from a
study of magnetism in ancient rocks.
- When the iron-bearing minerals harden, their
molecules line up pointing toward the magnetic
pole.
- The pole is separated by the ocean, so if the
continents were put back together, the pole
positions would fit.
B. Seafloor Spreading (Tectonic plates splitting apart
from each other)
- It was believed that the continents are on top of
rigid rock plates that are continually moving
across the face of Earth
C. Lithosphere and Asthenosphere
Lithosphere
- Upper part of the mantle and crust
- Has no sharp boundary
- Gradually turns into the soft asthenosphere
Asthenosphere
- Soft due to its material being close to the
melting point due to the high temperature and
pressure found at such depths.
D. Isostasy
- The floating crust caused by the mantle (which
also floats) exerts downward force on the mantle
which is balanced by an upward force by the
mantle on the crust.
- When a material is added to an area of crust, it
will sink. When it is removed, it will float.
Two major sections of the crust:
 Continental Crust
- Makes up landforms such as mountains and
plains
 Oceanic Crust
- Found under the ocean
E. Ocean Floors
- Ocean floors are very young
- There is a system of trenches that are parallel to
the belts where earthquakes and volcanoes
occur.
Narrow ridges/Mid-ocean ridges:
- Can be found in all oceans
Harvy H. Hess and Robert S. Dietz
- Proposed that ocean floors are widening.
Ocean Floor Spreading
- Ocean floor bulges until it opens and allows soft,
basaltic material to move out through the crack.
Each new addition of lava hardens to form a new
floor and to expand the width of the ocean basin.
Echo sounding
- Method to investigate ocean floors.
- An instrument on board a ship sends out a pulse
of high-frequency sound waves
Convection currents and seafloor spreading
- Parts of the Plate Tectonics theory
- The Pacific floor contains many submerged
ancient volcanoes (guyots) that were once above
the ocean surface but later sank below it.
Oceanic Trench
- At one boundary of each plate, molten rock rises
to form a new ocean floor
- At the opposite boundary, the plate usually
slides underneath the adjacent one and melts
when it reaches the asthenosphere.
Two kind of plate boundaries
 Convergent boundaries
- If the boundaries of two plates pushes against
each other
- May be found between two continental plates:
an ocean and a continental plate, and between
two ocean plates
Subduction zone
- When ocean plates push against each other, the
plate edges are bent downward into a deep
trench
 Divergent boundaries
- If the plate pulls away from each other
11. TYPES OF ROCKS
Magma
- Heat from the Earth’s interior that causes
materials under the crust to melt within Earth
Lava
- Heat from the Earth’s interior that causes
materials under the crust to melt on the surface.
Igneous
- Cooled and hardened lava
- Can be seen on the side of a volcano
- May be basalt and felsite and have many small
mineral crystals
Obsidian
- When magma cools quickly, crystals do not
form, and the minerals stay mixed in a glass-like
solid.
Sedimentary rocks
- Materials cemented together by minerals in the
water
Metamorphic rocks
- High pressure and temperature deep beneath the
Earth’s surface causes changes in sedimentary
and igneous rocks that are deeply buried
Rock Cycle
- Continuous change from magma to rock
12. FOSSIL FUESLS
- Petroleum, coal, and natural gas.
- Formed millions of years as a result of
incomplete decomposition of organic, matter
under extreme conditions of temperature and
pressure.
13. MINERALS
- Crystalline solid with definite composition and
structure
- Common minerals found on earth are calcite,
mica, quartz, gypsum, and rock salt.
Rock
- Aggregate of minerals
Characteristics of Minerals:
- Inorganic
- Produced in nature
- Solids
- Atoms have the same internal/crystalline pattern
- Chemical composition is definite
Silicates
- Most abundant mineral
- Ex: Mica, feldspar, and topaz
Carbonates
- Calcites
Oxides and hydrated oxides
- Hematite, bauxite, iron, and aluminum
Two properties of rock-forming minerals:
 Crystal form
- Most minerals are crystalline solids
- Their tiny particles are arranged in lattice
structures with definite geometric patterns
- Have a distinctive shape
- Good crystals are rare due to the mineral grains
interfering with another’s growth
  Cleavage Tides
- Tendency of a substance to split along certain - Periodic rise and fall of the sea level
planes which are determined by the arrangement - Caused by the Moon’s gravitational pull on
of particles in its lattice. Earth
- Flat, parallel face and minute, parallel cracks.
Eclipse
5 most common crystals and minerals: - Blocking of light by a heavenly body so that the
o Quartz Crystals source of light seems to disappear.
- Well-formed with 6 sided prisms and pyramids
- No cleavage Lunar Eclipse
- Colorless or milky - When Earth passes between the Sun and Moon
- Glassy luster so that Earth’s shadow falls on the Moon.
- Gray/pink/violet due to impurities
- Hard enough to scratch glass and feldspar Solar Eclipse
- Used in jewelry and optical instruments - When the Moon passes directly between the Sun
o Feldspar Crystals and Earth
- Rectangular with blunt-pointed ends
- White/light shades of pink and gray
- Soft mineral used as insulation 16. LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
o Ferromagnetic minerals
- Silicates of iron and magnesium Life on Earth is
- Dark green to black dependent on the
o Clay minerals atmosphere
- Aggregates of microscopic crystals
- White/light colored when pure and often Composition of
discolored with iron compounds the atmosphere:
- Dull luster Nitrogen – 78%
- Very soft, forming a smooth powder when Oxygen – 21%
rubbed Argon – 0.93%
- Lack of effervescence in acids Carbon Dioxide –
o Calcite Crystals 0.035%
- Hexagonal
- Perfect cleavage in three directions so that 5 layers of the Atmosphere:
fragments of calcite have a characteristic 1. Troposphere
rhombic shape - Touches the Earth and where we live in
- Chief constituent of limestone and marble - Almost all weather takes place here
- Source of lime for glass, mortar, and cement - Most of the air it contains is within 3mi of the
planet’s surface
2. Stratosphere
- Layer above the troposphere
14. SOIL - High concentration of ozone (special form of
- Mixture of weathering residue, decaying organic oxygen that filters out harmful UV rays/radiation
matter, living creatures, air, and moisture from the sun)
- Almost all life on land is dependent on this - Warmed by chemical reaction occurring when
 Factors that affect the type of soil: ozone breaks down into oxygen
- Rock material, climate, and terrain 3. Mesosphere
Desertification – Productive soil in a semiarid area - Layer above the stratosphere
becomes unproductive and desert conditional prevail. - Air cools as a result of lack of ozone
4. Ionosphere
- Layer above the mesosphere
- Where air is thin and cold
15. SEASONS - Reflects radio waves back to Earth and makes
- Occur due to the tilt in Earth’s rotational axis long-distance broadcasts possible
and its revolution around the Sun. 5. Thermosphere
- Outer edge of the atmosphere
 - Where the sun’s rays first hit and air temperature
rises again
Greenhouse effect
- Absorbs infrared radiation going from Earth’s
surface out into space resulting in the trapping of
heat in the atmosphere
Global warming
- Increase in carbon dioxide caused by excessive
burning of petroleum and coal causes the
atmosphere to become warmer.
BIOLOGY
- Study of living organisms
- Biological concepts and process skills,
technology and attitudes and values for
addressing the needs and problems of society.
Biotechnology
- Development of techniques in genetic
engineering and increased understanding of the
molecular basis of cellular processes have led to
the emergence of a new and exciting field of
scientific research
1. CELL
- Basic structure of all living things
- Foundation of cell theory
- Can reproduce to form new cells which are
almost identical to the original cells.
- Sex cells reproduce by meiosis while somatic
(autosomes/body cells) reproduce by mitosis
Two types of cells:
 Prokaryotic
- Cells that do not have a nuclear membrane or
membrane-bound organelles
- Bacteria
 Eukaryotes
- Most cells making up all other living organisms
Parts of a cell:
Important parts:
o Cell membrane
- Double layer of lipids that surrounds the cell
- Gatekeeper
- Controlling what move into and out of the cell
o Nucleus
- Separated from the cytoplasm by a thickened
membrane that is more selective than others.
- Control center of the cell
- Contains genetic information
o Cytoplasm
- Semi fluid liquid that fills the cell and hold
components of a cell
- Holds dissolved nutrients (amino acids and
sugars)
- Colloidal suspension that contains the highly
organized structure “Organelles”
- Contains chemicals for that cell to carry out its
living activities.
General parts of the cell:
o Mitochondria
- Powerhouse of the cell
- Where energy (ATP) is obtained from food
consumed and made available for the use of the
cell.
o Chloroplast
- Site of photosynthesis
o Plastids
- Store chlorophyll for the use of chloroplasts
o Lysosomes
- Membrane-bound vacuoles in the cytoplasm
which contains hydrolytic enzymes that digest
materials entering the cell.
o Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Does not have ribosomes attached
- Transportation system of the cell
o Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Has ribosomes attached
- Carries out cell transportation but mainly of the
necessary protein materials needed by the cell
o Golgi Apparatus
- Manufactures, synthesizes, stores, and
distributes hormones, enzymes, and other
protein materials needed by the cell
o Peroxisomes
- Manufactures, stores, and secretes oxidation
enzymes needed by the cell
o Vacuoles
- Fluid-filled sacs which usually contain water,
proteins, pigments, organic acids, or metabolic
wastes.
o Basal bodies
- Short, cylindrical, microtubules which help in
cell movement by directing the formation of
cilia and flagella
o Cell wall
- Nonliving, inflexible, outer component of plant
cells which supports and protects the cell.
- Main component is often cellulose
o Centrioles
- Small cylindrical bodies which lie outside the
nucleus in animal cells in specialized area of
cytoplasm
- Play a role in cell division and in cell motility
 o Nucleolus
- Dark-straining organelle within the nucleus
which contains RNA, proteins, and some DNA
- Helps with the synthesis of ribosomal RNA
o Chromosomes
- Thread-like structures composed mainly of DNA
which is arranged in genes
- Hereditary information of the cell
o Ribosomes
- Tiny, grainy structure attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum
- Serves as the protein factory of the cell
- Contains enzymes to carry out protein synthesis
Animal Cells vs. Plant Cells
- Plant cells have centrioles, chloroplasts –
captures light energy and uses it to make the
cell’s food, and a cell wall
Multicellular organisms:
- Not all cells express all the information
- Cells develop in different ways as the embryos
develop.
- This allows for cellular differentiation
development of specialized cellular organelles,
cells, tissues, organs, and systems that make
each member of a species unique.
Homeostasis:
- An internal control that obtains the maintenance
of balance or working equilibrium that is
optimum for their needs
- This accounts for all movement into and out of
the cell
- Though the cell can adjust to environmental
needs and amounts, there is a limit to how much
and how often it can adjust.
 State of equilibrium
- Molecular movement when it meets the needed
concentration of materials on either side of the
cell membrane
- Where the cell operates most efficiently
 Transportation of cells
- Active transport, passive transport, endocytosis,
phagocytosis, or exocytosis.
- Kind of transportation depends on the type,
function, and environment of the cell.
 Turgor pressure
- Helps the cell to adjust to its needs and
environment since cells are constantly changing
environments and needs which must be met to
stay alive.
- The pressure determines the amount of water
maintained inside the cell to counterbalance the
environment outside of the cell.
Proteins provides the cell energy, general maintenance,
growth, and reproductive functions.
All living things need carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and
oxygen to survive.
Protein Degradation:
- Process by which proteins are broken down into
the smallest units “amino acids”
- Then the amino acids are reconstructed into
peptide chains (process of protein synthesis)
that can be used by materials needed by the cell
2. CELL DIVISION
Process of cell reproduction following several stages to
produce two daughter cells
Two types of cell division:
A. Mitosis
- Where two daughter nuclei receive the same
chromosome complement as the parent nucleus.
- All kinds of asexual reproduction are caried out
in mitosis as eukaryotic cells.
- Responsible for growth, regeneration, and cell
replacement in multi-cellular organisms
Stages:
1. Interphase
- In the cytoplasm, oxidation and synthesis
reactions take place. In the nucleus, DNA
replicates
itself and
forms
messenger
RNA,
transfer
RNA and
ribosomal RNA.
2. Prophase
- Chromatids shorten and thicken. The nucleoli
disappear, and the nuclear membrane breaks
down and disappears as well. Spindle fibers
begin to form.

3. Metaphase
- Each chromosome moves to the equator, or
middle of the spindle. The paired chromosomes
attach to the spindle at the centromere.
4. Anaphase
- Separation of sister chromatids into a single-
stranded chromosome. The chromosomes
migrate to opposite poles of the cells.
5. Telophase
- Chromosomes begin to uncoil and the nucleoli
as well as the nuclear membrane reappear.
- In plant cells, a cell plate appears at the equator
which divides the parent cell into to daughter
- In animal cells, an invagination of the plasma
membrane divides the parent cell.
Two types:
B. Meiosis
- Two successive cell divisions where
chromosomes duplicate only once. Which results
in daughter cells with a haploid number of
chromosomes or one-half of the chromosome
number in the original cell. Occurs during the
formation of gametes and in spore formation in
plants.
3. LIFE FUNCTIONS
Basic functions of life compromising total cell
metabolism:
1. Respiration – Release of energy by oxidation of
food.
2. Assimilation – Absorption of nutrients.
3. Regulation – Maintaining stability of
organism’s chemical makeup under constantly
changing internal and external environment
(homeostasis)
4. Synthesis – Building up of complex molecules
from simple compounds.
5. Irritability – Response to stimuli.
6. Movement – Ability to change position
7. Bioluminescence – Production of internal light
within some organisms.
8. Transportation – Movement of nutrient, water,
ions, and other materials into and out of various
cells and tissues of organisms. The process
includes absorption of small molecules across
cell membranes and secretion of biochemical
substances.
9. Metabolism – Nutrients and simple molecules
are used to form more complex molecules for
growth, repair, and reproductions (anabolism).
Releases energy from chemical bonds
(catabolism) and to provide small molecules
such as simple sugar and amino acids
(anabolism).
10. Ingestion – Taking in food.
11. Digestion – Special for of catabolism that breaks
down food into smaller molecules and releases
energy.
12. Secretion – Formation of useful substances.
13. Absorption – Allows small molecules to pass
through cell membranes throughout the body
tissues.
14. Excretion – Getting rid of wastes of the cell.
15. Reproduction – Organism produces offspring
either sexually or asexually. Main purpose is for
the perpetuation of species.
A. Asexual – Reproduction without the use of
gametes or sex cells. One parent can reproduce
by itself.
 Fission – Splitting of the body of an organism
into two identical parts
 Budding – Growing of bud out of the parent
cells or bodies which when detached can grow
into another organism that resembles the
appearance of the parent
 Sporulation – Spore formation as in fern plant
and mushrooms
B. Sexual – Requires the union of male and female
gametes “fertilization”. Male gametes “sperm cells”
and female gametes “egg cells”. Two types of
fertilization:
 External fertilization – Union of sperm cells
outside of the body of female organisms.
 Internal fertilization – Union of sperm cells
inside the body of female organisms

4. PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Process that occurs within all plant cells which supply all
the carbohydrates used by both plants and animals.
Chloroplasts
- Absorb light energy from the sun.
- Carbon dioxide and water are present as raw
materials.
Chemical equation of photosynthesis:
Two-step process of Photosynthesis:
1. Light reactions
- Involves trapping light energy by the chlorophyll
molecules and its conversion to chemical energy
in the form of ATP and NADPH.
- When light strikes the leaf, the chlorophyll is
excited, and its energized electrons leave the
pigment.
2. Dark reactions
- The ATP and NADPH move to the stroma and
participate in the formation of sugar.
- Energy gets stored in the sugar molecules
through a series of chemical controlled by
different enzymes.
Glucose is the starting material for the production of
other food molecules such as complex carbs, proteins,
and fats. Food of land organisms come from green plants
while aquatic organisms feed on chlorophyll-bearing
algae and plankton.
5. CELLULAR RESPIRATION
- Catabolic activity that breaks down carbs, fats,
and proteins to produce energy in the form of
ATP.
- Consumes oxygen and produces carbon dioxide
and water as by-products.
- In eukaryotic cells, the process takes place in the
mitochondria.
- In prokaryotic cells, the process takes place in
the cell membrane.
ATP
- Energy currency of the cell.
 Consists of a molecule of adenosine which three
phosphates are attached to:
When the second or third phosphate splits off from
the ATP molecule, energy is released which is used
by the cell for its various functions.
Respiration
- Animals and plants must respire to remain alive
- When land animal respires, they give off carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere 24 hours. However, in
green plants, leaf cells in photosynthesis used
the carbon dioxide during the day. But at night
plants release it. While plant roots continuously
give off carbon dioxide into the soil since its
cells do not photosynthesize.
Aerobic Respiration:
- Release of energy from organic compounds
occurs in the presence of oxygen.
- The oxidation, or process of breaking down and
releasing energy is stimulated by enzymes and
acids present in and around the mitochondria.
Anaerobic Respiration:
- No oxygen present and occurs by a fermentation
process.
- Lactic-acid is produced as a by-product which
results in muscle fatigue and soreness.
- There is a step-by-step breakdown of food. The
final products are carbon dioxide, water, and
ATP.
Photosynthesis and respiration are considered as
opposite processes only in terms of starting materials
and end products.
6. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Characterized by the presence of carbon:
o Carbohydrates
- Made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
atoms.
- CnH2nOn
- Can range from simple sugars to large and
complex forms like starch and glycogen
- Serves as energy molecules or energy reserves in
living organisms.
- Cellulose gives strength and protection to plant
cells.
o Lipids
- Macromolecules (fats, oils, & waxes)
- Made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
- Made of fatty acids and glycerol.
- Some excess food in the body is stored as fat.
 - Waxes give a protective body covering to
organisms while making plant and animal tissues
water-resistant.
o Proteins
- Made up of amino acids.
- Component of muscle and all other tissues.
- They control the rate of chemical reaction inside
the cell as enzymes.
o Enzymes
- Proteins that act as catalysts (can increase
chemical reaction).
o Nucleic Acids
- Carriers of hereditary information in living
organisms.
- The physical information and traits of the
organisms are controlled by this.
o Vitamins
- Substances necessary in very small amounts for
the body growth and activity.
- Needed to prevent diseases.
- Organic substances essential to life but not as
energy sources.
7. INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Characterized by the absence of carbon:
o Water
- Most abundant inorganic compound
- 65% to 95% of the substance of all living things
are water
- Medium transport for food, minerals, and other
substances in a living system.
o Minerals
- Chemical elements or compounds occurring
naturally.
- Absorbed by plant roots in the form of ions
8. POLLINATION
Transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower
to the stigma of another flower. Two types:
o Self-pollination
- Transfer of pollen grains of one flower to the
stigma of the same flower.
o Cross-pollination
- Transfer of pollen grains of one flower to the
stigma of another flower.
9. FOOD CHAIN
 Depicts the transfer of Sun’s energy through
many organisms
 Dependence of animals on plants and the
interdependence of animals upon each other for
food energy needs.
Food chain:
1. Producers
- Green plants
- Forms the first link of the food chain
2. First order consumers
- Herbivorous insects and animals
3. Top consumers
- Carnivorous animals
Trophic level
- Feeding level in the food chain
- Only an average of 10% of the energy stored in
the body of an organism can be transferred to the
next higher trophic level. This makes the energy
transfer in living systems highly inefficient.
- The total mass of any trophic level at any one
time must be much greater than the total biomass
of the total trophic level which it supports.
10. FOOD WEB
Complex food relationship whereby a certain kind of
food maybe eaten by more than one consumer.
11. OXYGEN CYCLE
Two processes involved in the oxygen cycle:
 Photosynthesis
- Production of carbs and oxygen from carbon
dioxide and water.
 Oxidation of organic compounds (cell
respiration)
The chemical changes that make the oxygen cycle
possible are also the same chemical changes involved in
the carbon and hydrogen cycles.
12. PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
Occurs only in the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the
biosphere, but not the atmosphere because phosphorus
does not form a gaseous compound.
13. SULFUR
The burning of coal and petroleum, volcanic eruptions,
and decay of organic matter are processes that release
sulfur into the atmosphere.
 14. THE LIVING PLANT: PARTS AND THEIR
FUNCTIONS
Parts of a flower:
 Roots
- Helps the growth of the plant.
- Roots hold the plant to the ground and absorbs
the water and mineral nutrients from the soil.
- They conduct water to the stem through the
xylem tubes.
 Root hairs
- Absorbs most of the water that enters the plant.
- Not covered with cuticle and therefore, not
waterproof.
- Water can easily pass through their walls.
 Stem
- Holds the leaves up to the sunlight and supports
the upper parts of the plant.
- Transports materials between roots and leaves.
 Xylem and Phloem
- Xylem is where water and dissolved mineral
nutrients move upward from the roots to the
leaves.
- Phloem is where food materials move downward
from the leaves to the roots.
- Both contain conducting tubes extending from
the roots to the stems to the leaves.
- Water and dissolved substances reach the leaves
due to a push from below or root pressure, and a
pull from above related to the loss of water from
the leaves.
- Phloem tubes extends from the roots to the
leaves.
- Sugar produced from the leaves move downward
to other parts of the plant through the phloem.
 Leaves
- Sites of food making in the plant.
- Different structures in the leaf help carry out this
function.
 Stomata
- Tiny openings on the surface of the leaf.
- They allow entry and exit of gases such as
carbon dioxide, oxygen, and water vapor.
 Xylem tubes
- Continues to the leaves for the transport of
water.
15. GENETICS AND HEREDITARY
Mendel’s law of genetics:
A. Law of Dominance
- Every organism receives a trait from both of
their parents. One trait may have dominance
over the other and mask the recessive trait to
keep it from showing in the offspring. They are
usually darker, heavier, or larger of the two
traits.
B. Law of Segregation
- The genes carried in the same place on
homologous chromosomes will separate when
gametes form. Then the egg and sperm cell unite
to form a new offspring.
C. Law of Independent Assortment.
- The genes for one characteristic (alleles) are
inherited independently of the genes form
another characteristic (second pair of alleles)
except when gene linkage occurs (two genes
located on the same chromosome). Genes on
separate chromosomes are inherited
independently.
Basic Language of Genetics
o Humans have 23 chromosomes in each cell.
- Each person has one pair of sex chromosomes
which determines the sex: XX for female and
XY for male.
- The remaining 22 chromosomes are autosomes.
o Each pair of chromosomes is a homologous
pair.
- For each 23 pairs in humans, one chromosome
from each pair is from the other and one from
the father.
o Chromosomes are made up of sub-units
“Genes”.
- Individual genes code for various traits or
characteristics of all living things.
o Alleles
- Pairs of genes that have the same position on
each member of a pair of chromosomes, and
which can take an alternate form.
- Allele codes for dominant traits are assigned
upper case letters, and recessive traits are
assigned the same letter, but in lowercase form.
o Phenotype (appearance)
- Dominant gene controls
o Homologous chromosomes
- Bearing genes for the same characters
o Homozygous trait
- Identical pair of alleles, pure blood
o Heterozygous trait
- Mixed pair of alleles
o Hybrid
- Organism carrying unlike genes for certain traits
o Mutation
- Sudden appearance of a new trait or variation
which is inherited.
o Lethal
- Deadly, can cause the death of an organism.
 16. BEHAVIOUR OF LIVING ORGANISMS
Stimulus
- Anything in the environment which causes
living things to act.
- Both plants and animals respond to this.
- Plant responses are tropisms.
Behaviors
- Actions that animals take in response to their
environment.
Instinct
- Reflexes that are linked together in a more
complicated type of inborn behavior.
Habit
- Learned behavior
Insight learning
- Most complex form of learning
17. EVOLUTION OF ORGANISMS
Jean Lamarck Theory:
- Organisms evolve in response to its environment
by acquiring a trait which would adapt them to
live in its changing environment.
Charles Darwin Discovery:
- All living things have a common ancestry.
- Species adapt to changes in their environment,
which results in biological diversity.
Alfred Russel Wallace Theory:
“The theory of natural selection proposed that
adaptations occur due to constantly changing
environment.”
- Members of species have different traits which
can be inherited.
- All species produce more offspring that can
reproduce or survive.
- Some individuals adapt to change, and they
survive and reproduce more successfully than
those who cannot adapt.
- The offspring of subsequent generations inherit
adaptive characteristics.
- Natural selection produces populations adapted
to their particular environment.
Stanley Miller:
- Proposed that each era is briefly marked by rapid
adaptive radiation normally followed by mass
extinction that ended each era.
- Life-supporting molecules arose under abiotic
conditions
18. CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS
Organizing information based on similarities.
Binomial Nomenclature – Carl Linnaeus
- Aristotle used genus and species names with the
intention of creating a consistent international
language.
19. ECOLOGY
Study of interactions of organisms with their
environment, both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic)
Ecosystem – Environment and all organisms and all
things within it.
Biotic potential of a population
- Maximum rate of growth that will occur under
ideal conditions.
Carrying capacity of the environment
- Limits the size of a given population.
- Variables such as the change of seasons may
cause fluctuations in population size due to
different capacities over time.
Interactions
- Competition for food, space, and other things
limits population size.
- Symbiosis is the close association of two
species: Commensalism, mutualism, and
parasitism.
Balanced ecosystem
- Recycles dead and used materials.
- Has an energy source
- Producers, consumers, decomposers, and abiotic
components
Succession
- Sequence of communities in an environment
evolving from simple to complex

Population
- Group of individuals belonging to the same
species which can interbreed and produce
offspring and occupying a defined area.

Population growth
- Rate of change in total population.
- Population change can be due to births, deaths,
immigration, and emigration.