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About This Book

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EUGENE FODOR
Hungarian-born Eugene Fodor (1905–91) began his travel
career as an interpreter on a French cruise ship. The
experience inspired him to write On the Continent (1936),
the first guidebook to receive annual updates and discuss a
country’s way of life as well as its sights. Fodor later joined
the U.S. Army and worked for the OSS in World War II.
After the war, he kept up his intelligence work while
expanding his guidebook series. During the Cold War, many
guides were written by fellow agents who understood the
value of insider information. Today’s guides continue Fodor’s
legacy by providing travelers with timely coverage, insider tips, and cultural
context.
Welcome to Scandinavia
Scandinavia is actually the kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, and
Denmark, but it more commonly encompasses Finland and Iceland.
From Norway’s breathtaking fjords and Sweden’s pristine lakes to
Denmark’s castle-dotted countryside, Finland’s bear-filled forests,
and Iceland’s steaming geysers, the region offers endless dramatic
scenery and outdoor adventures. Beyond the exciting capitals, you’ll
find charming towns, Sami villages, reindeer farms, and the aurora
borealis. As you plan your trip to Scandinavia, please confirm that
places are still open and let us know when we need to make updates
by writing to us at editors@fodors.com.

TOP REASONS TO GO
Norway: Explore picturesque harbors, spectacular fjords, and design-
forward cities.

Sweden: Find pristine lakes and forests and a crystal-filled kingdom.

Denmark: Visit the world’s oldest amusement park and wow at Viking
ships, castles, and odes to Hans Christian Andersen.

Finland: Shop; cruise the Åland Islands; sweat in a sauna; meet Santa
Claus; and ski, sled, and sleep in snow.

Iceland: Climb glaciers, horseback-ride to waterfalls, and relax in the

world-famous Blue Lagoon.
Contents
Cover
About This Book
Welcome to Scandinavia
Scandinavia Images

1 Experience Scandinavia
30 Ultimate Experiences
What’s Where
What to Eat in Scandinavia
Family-Friendly Experiences in Scandinavia
Fairy-Tale Castles in Scandinavia
Picture-Perfect Scandinavian Towns
Natural Wonders to Experience in Norway
Best Museums in Iceland
Aurora Borealis 101
What to Watch and Read

2 Travel Smart
Know Before You Go
Getting Here and Around
Essentials
Tours
Great Itineraries
On the Calendar
Helpful Icleandic Phrases
Helpful Norwegian Phrases
Helpful Finnish Phrases
Helpful Danish Phrases
Helpful Swedish Phrases
Contacts

3 Norway
Welcome to Norway
Norway Snapshot
Planning
 Oslo
Southern Norway
Central Norway
Bergen
The Western Fjords
Trondheim to Bodø
The Lofoten Islands
Northern Norway

4 Sweden
Welcome to Sweden
Sweden Snapshot
Planning
Stockholm
Side Trips from Stockholm
Dalarna: The Folklore District
Bohuslän
Göteborg (Gothenburg)
The South and the Kingdom of Crystal
Swedish Lapland

5 Denmark
Welcome to Denmark
Denmark Snapshot
Planning
Copenhagen
Side Trips from Copenhagen
Zealand
Bornholm
Funen and the Central Islands
Jutland
Faroe Islands

6 Finland
Welcome to Finland
Finland Snapshot
Planning
Helsinki
Side Trips from Helsinki
The Lakelands
Southwest Finland and the Åland Islands
Lapland
7 Iceland
Welcome to Iceland
Iceland Snapshot
Planning
Reykjavík
Reykjanes Peninsula and the South Coast
West Iceland and Snæfellsnes Peninsula
Westfjords

COPYRIGHT

INDEX

ABOUT OUR WRITERS

Maps
Sentrum
Kvadraturen, Aker Brygge, Tjuvholmen, and Bjørvika
Bygdøy, Frogner, and Majorstuen
Southern Norway
Central Norway
Bryggen and Nordnes
Sentrum
Sandviken and Greater Bergen
Western Fjords
Trondheim and the Lofoten Islands
Northern Norway
Norrmalm, Vasastan, and Kungsholmen
Gamla Stan and Skeppsholmen
Djurgården and Ostermalm
Södermalm
Side Trips from Stockholm
Dalarna: The Folklore District
Bohuslän Region
Göteborg
The South and the Kingdom of Crystal
Swedish Lapland
Indre By
Frederiksstaden and East Indre By
Christianshavn, Refshaleøen, Islands Brygge, and Amager
Vesterbro, Nørrebro, and Frederiksberg
Side Trips from Copenhagen
Zealand and Bornholm
Funen and the Central Islands, and Jutland
Helsinki City Center
Helsinki Beyond the City Center
Side Trips from Helsinki
The Lakelands
Southwest Finland and the Åland Islands
Lapland
City Center East
City Center West
Old Harbor and Vesturbær
Greater Reykjavik
Reykjanes Peninsula and the South Coast
West Iceland and Snæfellsnes Peninsula
Westfjords
 30 ULTIMATE EXPERIENCES
Scandinavia offers terrific experiences that should be on every traveler’s list.
Here are Fodor’s top picks for a memorable trip.

1 Bryggen, Bergen, Norway

The colorful wooden buildings of the old Hanseatic wharf in Bergen
are a UNESCO World Heritage Site, with a history that makes them
much more than popular postcard motifs. (Ch. 3)

2 Northern Lights, Finland

In northern Finland, the aurora borealis bathes the sky in mystical
hues as many as 200 days a year. Glamp in a glass igloo for the
ultimate viewing experience. (Ch. 6)

3 Silfra, Iceland
Snorkeling in the crystal-clear waters of Silfra, a fissure between the
North American and Eurasian tectonic plates, is an incredible
experience. (Ch. 7)

4 Downtown Reykjavík, Iceland

Home to nearly half of Iceland’s population, Reykjavík is the political,
cultural, and culinary hub of the country, with events that will delight
every kind of visitor. (Ch. 7)

5 Swedish Lapland
With its incredible natural beauty, Lapland offers the opportunity to
enjoy a full-on outdoor adventure complete with hunting, fishing, and
reindeer sledding. (Ch. 4)
6 Art in North Zealand, Denmark
Home to artists for centuries, North Zealand is also home to some of
the country’s most spectacular museums, including Louisiana and
the Rudolph Tegner Museum and Statue Park. (Ch. 5)

7 The Golden Circle, Iceland

This loop of essential Iceland sites includes Gullfoss waterfall, the
Geysir hot spring area, and Þingvellir National Park. (Ch. 7)

8 Hurtigruten Cruise, Norway

The former post and freight boats of the Hurtigruten line have been
transformed into modern cruise vessels that take you on amazing
voyages. (Ch. 3)

9 Dining in Malmö, Sweden

Enjoy everything from fine dining at two-Michelin-starred Vollmers to
a selection of delicious, unpretentious street food from all around the
world. (Ch. 4)

10 Møns Klint, Denmark

Hike some of Denmark’s most dramatic coastline with milky-white
chalk cliffs plunging into the emerald sea. Look for 70-million-year-
old fossils and a geological museum on-site. (Ch. 5)

11 The Snæfellsnes Peninsula, Iceland

This stunning peninsula is sprinkled with waterfalls, golden-and pink-
sand beaches, and lava fields, as well as the ice-capped volcano
from Journey to the Center of the Earth. (Ch. 7)
12 Bornholm, Denmark
Denmark’s version of Nantucket lures summer crowds with its foodie
scene, rugged cliffs, dramatic landscape, and beautiful beaches.
(Ch. 5)

13 Opera House in Oslo, Norway

Oslo has plenty of popular hangouts, but few have the fantastic
views afforded by the rooftop of the Opera House. (Ch. 3)

14 Lakeland, Finland
The Finnish Lakelands are Europe’s largest lake district. Winding
canals and other bodies of water are ripe for exploring by kayak or
steamboat. (Ch. 6)

15 Flåmsbanen, Norway
The thrilling train ride between the mountain communities of Flåm
and Myrdal boasts some particularly scenic views. (Ch. 3)

16 Vatnajökull Glacier, Iceland

Europe’s largest glacier (after the Severny Island ice cap) isn’t on the
mainland but in Iceland. Hike or go dogsledding. (Ch. 7)

17 Suomenlinna, Finland
This epic 18th-century fortress has several museums, bunkers, the
last Finnish World War II submarine, and walls spread over a
network of car-free islands connected by bridges. (Ch. 6)

18 Ærø, Denmark
This small island looks like the setting of a Hans Christian Andersen
fairy tale with its cobblestoned streets full of hollyhocks and timber-
framed houses with thatched roofs. (Ch. 5)

19 Gamla Stan, Sweden

Stockholm’s stunning Old Town is a delightful maze of cobbled
streets and winding alleyways, and one of the best-preserved
medieval city centers in Europe (Ch. 4)

20 Design District, Helsinki, Finland

Helsinki’s downtown Design District is a hub of Finnish style, packed
with boutiques, ateliers, vintage shops, and galleries. Look for labels
like Marimekko, Artek, and Iittala. (Ch. 6)

21 Svansele, Sweden
King of the forest, the moose is one of Sweden’s most renowned
national symbols. Take a moose safari in northern Sweden to see
these majestic beasts safely. (Ch. 4)

22 The Lofoten Islands, Norway

With mountains, fjords, rugged coastlines, sandy beaches, and lots
of farmland, the landscapes of this arctic archipelago seem the
embodiment of Norway. (Ch. 3)

23 Fine Dining in Copenhagen, Denmark

The New Nordic cuisine revolution started in 2004, and it’s still
reshaping Denmark. Noma alumni have opened eateries all over
Copenhagen, from taco trucks to Michelin-starred restaurants. (Ch.
5)
24 Sweden’s National Parks
Sweden is a hiker’s paradise with a massive 730,000 hectares of
national parkland spread across 30 different parks, with breathtaking
landscapes. (Ch. 4)

25 Visit Santa Claus in Finland

It’s Christmas all year long at the big guy’s HQ in Rovaniemi, where
you’ll find elves in pointy hats, workshop tours, and the world’s
cheeriest post office. (Ch. 6)

26 Sauna, Finland
Finns are crazy about their most famous invention. Many have
saunas at home and work, and there are also wild versions like a
sauna gondola and a sauna Ferris wheel. (Ch. 6)

27 Geirangerfjord, Norway
Geiranger is Norway’s most famous fjord, a UNESCO World
Heritage Site, and the inspiration for the fictional Arendelle in
Disney’s Frozen. (Ch. 3)

28 Swedish Design
Swedish design is famous around the world for being practical,
minimalist, sustainable, and aesthetically pleasing. (Ch. 4)

29 The Blue Lagoon, Iceland

No Iceland attraction is more iconic than the dazzling Blue Lagoon, a
naturally heated seawater pool and spa between Rekyjavík and
Iceland’s Keflavík Airport. (Ch. 7)
30 Royal Castles, Denmark
There are more than 100 castles and palaces in Denmark, some of
them still in use by the royal family. Frederiksborg and Kronborg are
an easy day-trip from Copenhagen. (Ch. 5)
WHAT’S WHERE

Norway. Norway, roughly 400,000 square km (155,000 square

miles), is about the same size as California. Western Norway is the
land of the fjords, with storybook Bergen as the region’s capital. Less
mountainous eastern Norway is home to the country’s real capital,
Oslo. The Sørlandet region, to Oslo’s south, is known for its long,
unspoiled stretches of beach and cute white wooden towns.
 Sweden. In Sweden, ultramodern cities give way to lush forests.
With 450,295 square km (173,860 square miles) for only 9 million
residents, almost all have room to live as they choose. Stockholm,
one of Europe’s most beautiful capitals, is built on 14 small islands.
Denmark. The Kingdom of Denmark dapples the Baltic Sea with
some 450 islands and the arc of one peninsula. Copenhagen is
Scandinavia’s largest city (population 1.5 million). North of
Copenhagen are royal castles (including Helsingør’s Kronborg of
Hamlet fame), ritzy beach towns, and top-notch museums. Funen,
the smaller of the country’s two main islands, is the birthplace of
Hans Christian Andersen. Jutland, Denmark’s western peninsula,
shares its southern border with Germany.
Finland. Finland is one of the world’s northernmost countries,
with its entire Lapland region above the Arctic Circle. Helsinki, the
capital since 1812, is built on peninsulas and islands along the Baltic
coast. Stunning architecture abounds, from 19th-century
neoclassical buildings to sleek, modern high-rises.
Iceland. Forged in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean by geothermal
activity, Iceland offers epic, unspoiled landscapes filled with
volcanoes, black-sand beaches, sparkling fjords, milky-blue
geothermal pools, and spouting geysers. Reykjavík is home to the
island’s famously vibrant cultural life. West Iceland and the
Snæfellsnes Peninsula are often referred to as “Iceland in a
nutshell,” with their glacier-topped volcano, wild landscapes, historic
villages, and teeming wildlife. Reykjanes Peninsula and the South
Coast are home to the country’s most famous attraction, the Blue
Lagoon, as well as the Golden Circle loop.
Another random document with
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of An introduction
to the study of fishes
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
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laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: An introduction to the study of fishes

Author: Albert C. L. G. Günther

Release date: November 7, 2023 [eBook #72060]

Language: English

Original publication: Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black, 1880

Credits: Peter Becker, Karin Spence and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file
was produced from images generously made available
by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF FISHES ***
 AN INTRODUCTION
TO THE

STUDY OF FISHES
BY

ALBERT C. L. G. GÜNTHER
M.A. M.D. Ph.D. F.R.S.
KEEPER OF THE ZOOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM

Carpit aquas pinnis.

EDINBURGH
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK
1880

[All rights reserved.]

Printed by R. & R. Clark, Edinburgh.
 PREFACE.

The scope of the present work is to give in a concise form an

account of the principal facts relating to the structure, classification,
and life-history of Fishes. It is intended to meet the requirements of
those who are desirous of studying the elements of Ichthyology; to
serve as a book of reference to zoologists generally; and, finally, to
supply those who, like travellers, have frequent opportunities of
observing fishes, with a ready means of obtaining information. The
article on “Ichthyology,” prepared by the late Sir J. Richardson for the
eighth edition of the “Encyclopædia Britannica,” is the only
publication which has hitherto partly satisfied such requirements; and
when I undertook, some years ago, to revise, or rather rewrite that
article for the new edition of that work, it occurred to me that I might
at the same time prepare a Handbook of Ichthyology, whilst
reserving for the article an abstract so condensed as to be adapted
for the wants of the general reader.
From the general plan of the work I have only departed in those
chapters which deal with the Geographical Distribution of Fishes.
This is a subject which has never before been treated in a general
and comprehensive manner, and seemed to demand particular
attention. I have, therefore, thought it right to give nominal lists of the
Faunæ, and the other details of fact on which I have based my
conclusions, although all the necessary materials may be found in
my “Catalogue of Fishes.”
A few references only to the numerous sources which were
consulted on the subjects of Chapters 1–12, are inserted in the text;
more not required by the beginner; he is introduced to a merely
elementary knowledge of facts well known to the advanced student.
With regard to the illustrations, about twenty have been prepared
after originals published by Cuvier, J. Müller, Owen, Traquair,
Duméril, Cunningham, Hasse, Poey, Siebold, and Gegenbaur. A
similar number, representing extinct fishes, have been taken, with
the kind permission of the author, from Owen’s “Palæontology.” My
best thanks are due also to the Committee of Publications of the
Zoological Society, and to the Editors of the “Annals and Magazine
of Natural History,” and of the “Journal des Museum Godeffroy,” for
the loan of woodcuts illustrating some of my papers on South
American fishes and on larval forms. The remainder of the
illustrations (about three-fourths) are either original figures, or formed
part of the article on ‘Ichthyology’ in the former edition of the
“Encyclopædia Britannica.”
London, 3d October 1880.
 CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
PAGE
Fish defined—Ichthyology defined 1

CHAPTER I.
History and Literature 2
Aristotle, 2—Belon, 4—Salviani, 6—Rondelet, 6—Faunists and
Anatomists of the Seventeenth Century, 7—Ray and Willughby, 8—
Artedi, 9—Linnæus, 10—Gronow and Klein, 12—Pupils and
Successors of Linnæus, 12—Bloch, 13—Lacépède, 15—Anatomists
and Faunists preceding Cuvier, 16—Cuvier, 17—Agassiz, 20—J.
Müller, 22—Discovery of Ceratodus, 25—Recent publications on
Fishes, 26—Latest systematic works, 33.

CHAPTER II.
Topographical description of the External Parts of Fishes 35
Form of the body, 35—External parts of the head, 36—Trunk and Tail, 39
—Fins; their structure, position, and function, 40—Skin and Scales, 45.

CHAPTER III.
Terminology and Topography of the Skeleton 51
Axial portion, 51—Vertebra and its parts; terms defined, 51—Skull; bones
topographically enumerated, 53—Bones of the limbs, 59—Synonymic
list of bones, 59.

CHAPTER IV.
Modifications of the Skeleton 63
Branchiostoma, 63—Cyclostomes, 64—Chondropterygians, 66—
Holocephali, 70—Ganoids, 71—Dipnoi, 71—Chondrostei, 74—
Polypteroidei, 77—Lepidosteoidei, 80—Amioidei, 82—Teleostei, 83—
Classification of the bones of the Teleosteous skull according to the
vertebral doctrine, 85—their morphological classification, 86—Limb-
bones of Teleosteans, 92.

CHAPTER V.
Myology 93
 General arrangement of the Muscles, 93—Electric organs, 94.

CHAPTER VI.
Neurology 96
Of Branchiostoma, 96—Spinal chord, 96—Brain, its size, 97—Brain of
Osseous fishes, 97—of Ganoids, 98—of Chondropterygians, 100—of
Cyclostomes, 101—Spino-cerebral nerves, 103—Spinal nerves, 107—
Sympathic system, 108.

CHAPTER VII.
The Organs of Sense 109
Smell, 109—Sight, 111—Hearing; connection of the ear with the air-
bladder, 116—Taste, 119—Touch, 120.

CHAPTER VIII.
The Organs of Nutrition and Digestion 121
Food and mode of feeding, 121—Buccal and abdominal cavities and their
openings, 123—Mouth and tongue, 123—Forms, texture, and
arrangement of teeth, 124—Intestinal tract, 127—Liver, 132—
Pancreas, 133—Spleen, 133.

CHAPTER IX.
Organs of Respiration 135
Respiration, 135—Structure and arrangement of the gills, 136—
Pseudobranchiæ, 140—Accessory respiratory organs, 142—Air-
bladder; its varieties, structure, and functions, 142.

CHAPTER X.
Organs of Circulation 150

CHAPTER XI.
Urinary Organs 155

CHAPTER XII.
Organs of Reproduction 157
Fishes are dioecious, 157—Hermaphroditism, 157—Oviparous and
viviparous fishes, 157—Generative organs of Branchiostoma, 157—of
Cyclostomes; their ova, 158—Female organs of Teleosteans and their
ova, 158—Instances of females taking care of their progeny, 160—
Male organs of Teleosteans, 162—Instances of males taking care of
 their progeny, 163—Generative organs of Ganoids, 163—of
Chondropterygians and their ova, 166.

CHAPTER XIII.
Growth and Variation of Fishes 170
Changes of form of the body or certain parts, normally accompanying
growth, 170—Changes dependent on sexual development, 176—
Secondary sexual differences, 176—Mixogamous, polygamous, and
monogamous fishes, 177—Hybridism as a cause of variation, 178—
Regular and irregular growth of fishes, 178—Leptocephali not a normal
state of development, 179—Changes of colour of the muscles and
external parts; chromatophors, 182—Albinism, 183.

CHAPTER XIV.
Domesticated and Acclimatised Fishes, etc. 185
Domesticated fishes, 185—Acclimatisation of fishes, 185—Artificial
impregnation of ova, 186—Tenacity of life, 186—Reproduction of lost
parts, 188—Hybernation, 188—Useful fishes, 189—Poisonous fishes,
189—Poison-organs, 190.

CHAPTER XV.
Distribution of Fishes in time 193
Oldest fish-remains, 193—Devonian fishes, 194—Carboniferous, 196—
Permian, 197—Triassic, 197—Liassic, 198—Oolitic, 199—Cretaceous,
199—Tertiary, 200—Post-pliocene, 201.

CHAPTER XVI.
The Distribution of existing Fishes over the Earth’s Surface.—
General Remarks 202
Freshwater-, Marine-, and Brackish-water Fishes, 202—Changes of the
habitat of numerous fishes, active, 203—or dependent on geological
changes, 204—Agencies operating upon the distribution of Freshwater
and Marine fishes, 205.

CHAPTER XVII.
The Distribution of Freshwater Fishes 208
List of Freshwater Fishes, 208—Continuous and interrupted range of
distribution, 209—The ways of dispersal of Freshwater fishes, 211—A
wide range of a type is not necessarily proof of its antiquity, 212—Each
fauna is composed of ancient, autochthont, and immigrant species, 213
—Division of the globe into zoological regions; freshwater fishes have
 been spread in circumpolar zones, 215—Cyprinidæ and Siluridæ, most
important families in recognising the zoo-geographical regions, 216—
Division of the faunæ of Freshwater fishes, 217—I. Equatorial Zone,
218—Indian Region, 220—African Region, 227—Tropical American or
Neotropical Region, 233—Tropical Pacific Region, 238—II. Northern
Zone, 240—Europe-Asiatic or Palæarctic Region, 243—North
American or Nearctic Region, 246—III. Southern Zone, with
Tasmanian, New Zealand, and Fuegian Sub-regions, 248.

CHAPTER XVIII.
The Fishes of the Brackish Water 251

CHAPTER XIX.
The Distribution of Marine Fishes 255
Shore-fishes, Pelagic, and Deep-sea fishes, 255—List of Shore-fishes,
257—Oceanic areæ as determined by Shore-fishes, 259—Distribution
of Shore-fishes compared with that of Freshwater-fishes, 260—I. Arctic
Ocean, 261—II. Northern Temperate Zone, 262—Temperate North-
Atlantic, 262—with British, 263—Mediterranean, 264—and North
American districts, 266—Temperate North-Pacific, 268—with
Kamtschatkan, 269—Japanese, 270—and Californian districts, 271—
III. Equatorial Zone, 272—with Tropical Atlantic, 278—Indo-Pacific
Ocean, 278—and the Pacific Coasts of Tropical America, 279—IV.
Southern Temperate Zone, 281—with the Cape of Good Hope, 283—
South Australia and New Zealand, 283—Chile, 288—and Patagonia,
289—V. Antarctic Ocean, 289.

CHAPTER XX.
Distribution of Pelagic Fishes 292

CHAPTER XXI.
The Fishes of the Deep Sea 296
Deep-sea fishes a recent discovery, 296—Physical conditions affecting
these fishes, 297—Characteristics of Deep-sea fishes, 299—Their
vertical and horizontal distribution, 304—List of Deep-sea fishes, 305.
 SYSTEMATIC AND DESCRIPTIVE PART.

First Sub-class—Palæichthyes.
PAGE
First Order—Chondropterygii 313
I. Plagiostomata 313
A. Selachoidei—Sharks 314
Families: Carchariidæ (Blue Shark, Tope, Hammerhead, Hound),
316—Lamnidæ (Porbeagle, Carcharodon, Fox-Shark, Basking-
Shark), 319—Rhinodontidæ, 323—Notidanidæ, 324—Scylliidæ
(Dog-fishes), 325— Hybodontidæ, 328—Cestraciontidæ (Port
Jackson Shark), 328—Spinacidæ (Spiny Dogs, Greenland
Shark), 330—Rhinidæ, 334—Pristiophoridæ, 335.
B. Batoidei—Rays 335
Families: Pristidæ (Saw-fishes), 336—Rhinobatidæ, 337—
Torpedinidæ (Electric Rays), 338—Rajidæ (Rays and Skates),
340—Trygonidæ (Sting Rays), 342—Myliobatidæ (Eagle Rays),
344.
II. Holocephala 348
Family: Chimæridæ, 348.
Second Order—Ganoidei 350
I. Placodermi 351
II. Acanthodini 355
III. Dipnoi 355
Families: Sirenidæ (Lepidosiren, Protopterus, Ceratodus), 355—
Ctenododipteridæ, 359—Phaneropleuridæ, 360.
IV. Chondrostei 360
Families: Acipenseridæ (Sturgeons), 360—Polyodontidæ, 362.
V. Polypteroidei 363
Families: Polypteridæ, 364—Saurodipteridæ, 365—
Coelacanthidæ, 365—Holoptychidæ, 365.
VI. Pycnodontoidei 366
Families: Pleurolepidæ, 366—Pycnodontidæ, 366.
VII. Lepidosteoidei 367
Families: Lepidosteidæ, 367—Sauridæ, 368—Stylodontidæ, 368
—Sphærodontidæ, 368—Aspidorhynchidæ, 369—
Palæoniscidæ, 369—Platysomidæ, 370.
VIII. Amioidei 370
Families: Caturidæ, 371—Leptolepidæ, 371—Amiidæ (Bow-fin),
 371.
Second Sub-class—Teleostei.
First Order—Acanthopterygii 374
I. A. perciformes 374
Families: Percidæ (Freshwater-Perches, Bass, Sea-Perches,
Centrarchus), 375—Squamipinnes (Coral-Fishes), 397—
Mullidæ (Red-Mullets), 403—Sparidæ (Sea-breams), 405—
Hoplognathidæ, 410—Cirrhitidæ, 410—Scorpænidæ, 412—
Nandidæ, 418—Polycentridæ, 418—Teuthididæ, 418.
II. A. beryciformes 419
Family: Berycidæ, 420.
III. A. kurtiformes 424
Family: Kurtidæ, 424.
IV. A. polynemiformes 425
Family: Polynemidæ, 425.
V. A. sciæniformes 426
Family: Sciænidæ (Meagres), 426.
VI. A. xiphiiformes 431
Family: Xiphiidæ (Sword-fishes), 431.
VII. A. trichiuriformes 433
Families: Trichiuridæ (Scabbard-fishes, Hairtails), 433—
Palæorhynchidæ, 437.
VIII. A. cotto-scombriformes 438
Families: Acronuridæ (Surgeons), 438—Carangidæ (Horse-
Mackerels, Pilot-fish, Boar-fish), 440—Cyttidæ (John Dorey),
450—Stromateidæ, 452—Coryphænidæ (Dolphin, Sun-fish),
452—Nomeidæ, 455—Scombridæ (Mackerel, Tunny, Bonito,
Albacore, Sucking-fish), 456—Trachinidæ (Stare-gazer,
Weever, etc.), 462—Malacanthidæ, 467—Batrachidæ, 467—
Psychrolutidæ, 469—Pediculati (Angler, Antennarius, etc.), 469
—Cottidæ (Bull-heads, Gurnards), 476—Cataphracti (Flying
Gurnards), 480—Pegasidæ, 482.
IX. A. gobiiformes 483
Families: Discoboli (Lump-suckers), 483—Gobiidæ (Gobies,
Dragonets), 485.
X. A. blenniiformes 490
Families: Cepolidæ (Band-fishes), 490—Trichonotidæ, 490—
Heterolepidotidæ, 491—Blenniidæ (Wolf-fish, Blennies), 492—
Acanthoclinidæ, 498—Mastacembelidæ, 499.
XI. A. mugiliformes 499
Families: Sphyrænidæ (Barracudas), 499—Atherinidæ
(Atherines), 500—Mugilidæ (Mullets), 501.
 XII. A. gastrosteiformes 504
Families: Gastrosteidæ (Sticklebacks), 504—Fistulariidæ (Flute-
mouths), 507.
XIII. A. centrisciformes 508
Family: Centriscidæ, 508.
XIV. A. gobiesociformes 510
Family: Gobiesocidæ, 512.
XV. A. channiformes 513
Family: Ophiocephalidæ, 513.
XVI. A. labyrinthibranchii 514
Families: Labyrinthici (Climbing Perch, Gourami), 514—
Luciocephalidæ, 519.
XVII. A. lophotiformes 519
Family: Lophotidæ, 519.
XVIII. A. tæniiformes 520
Family: Trachypteridæ (Ribbon-fishes), 520.
XIX. A. notacanthiformes 523
Family: Notacanthidæ, 523.
Second Order—Acanthopterygii Pharyngognathi 523
Families: Pomacentridæ (Coral-fishes), 524—Labridæ (Wrasses,
Parrot-wrasses), 525—Embiotocidæ, 533—Chromides, 534.
Third Order—Anacanthini 537
I. A. gadoidei 537
Families: Lycodidæ, 537—Gadidæ (Cod-fishes, Hake, Burbot,
Ling, Rockling, Torsk), 539—Ophidiidæ (Brotula, Fierasfer,
Sand-eel, Congrogadus), 546—Macruridæ, 551.
II. A. pleuronectoidei 553
Family: Pleuronectidæ (Flat-fishes), 553.
Fourth Order—Physostomi 559
Families: Siluridæ; their skeleton, 559—divided into eight subdivisions
and sixteen groups; Clariina, 563—Plotosina, 563—Silurina, 565—
Hypophthalmina, 566—Bagrina, 567—Amiurina, 567—Pimelodina, 568
—Ariina, 569—Doradina, 572—Rhinoglanina, 573—Malapterurina
(Electric Catfish), 574—Hypostomatina (Preñadillas, Loricaria, etc.),
575—Aspredinina, 580—Nematogenyina and Trichomycterina, 581—
Stegopholina, 581.
Families of Physostomi continued: Scopelidæ, 582—Cyprinidæ (Carps),
587—divided into fourteen groups, viz. Catostomina (Suckers), 588—
Cyprinina (Carp, Crucian Carp, Gold-fish, Barbels, Gudgeons), 589—
Rohteichthyina, 596—Leptobarbina, 597—Rasborina, 597—
Semiplotina, 598—Xenocypridina, 598—Leuciscina (White fish, Tench,
Dace, etc.), 598—Rhodeina, 601—Danionina, 601—
 Hypophthalmichthyina, 602—Abramidina (Bream, Bleak), 602—
Homalopterina, 604—Cobitidina (Loaches), 604.
Families of Physostomi continued: Kneriidæ, 606—Characinidæ, 606—
Cyprinodontidæ, 613—Heteropygii (Blind Fish of the Mammoth Cave),
618—Umbridæ, 619—Scombresocidæ (Gar-pike, Saury, Half-beak,
Flying Fish), 619—Esocidæ (Pike), 623—Galaxiidæ, 624—Mormyridæ,
625—Sternoptychidæ, 627—Stomiatidæ, 629.
Families of Physostomi continued—Salmonidæ: Salmo, difficulty of
distinguishing species, 630; constant specific characters, 635—hybrids,
638—sexual development, 638—migratory species and their retention
in freshwater, 639—Growth of Salmonoids, 641—their domestication
and acclimatisation, 641—species enumerated, 642—Smelt and
Capelin, 646—Coregonus, 647—Grayling, 649—marine genera, 650.
Families of Physostomi continued: Percopsidæ, 651—Haplochitonidæ,
651—Gonorhynchidæ, 652—Hyodontidæ (Moon-eye), 653—
Pantodontidæ, 653—Osteoglossidæ, 653—Clupeidæ (Herrings,
Anchovies, Shads, Mossbanker, Menhaden, etc.), 655—
Bathythrissidæ, 663—Chirocentridæ, 663—Alepocephalidæ, 664—
Notopteridæ, 664—Halosauridæ, 665—Hoplopleuridæ, 665—
Gymnotidæ (Electric Eel), 666—Symbranchidæ, 668—Murænidæ
(Eels, Congers, Murænas, etc.), 669.
Fifth Order—Lophobranchii 678
Families: Solenostomidæ, 678—Syngnathidæ (Pipe-fishes, Sea-horses),
679.
Sixth Order—Plectognathi 683
Families: Sclerodermi (File-fishes, Coffer-fishes), 684—Gymnodontes
(Globe-fishes, Sun-fish), 686.
Third Sub-class—Cyclostomata.
Families: Petromyzontidæ (Lampreys), 691—Myxinidæ, 694.
Fourth Sub-class—Leptocardii.
Family: Cirrhostomi (Lancelets), 696.
APPENDIX.
Directions for Collecting and Preserving Fishes 697
Alphabetical Index 707
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

According to the views generally adopted at present, all those

Vertebrate animals are referred to the Class of Fishes, which living in
water, breathe air dissolved in water by means of gills or branchiæ;
whose heart consists of a single ventricle and single atrium; whose
limbs, if present, are modified into fins, supplemented by unpaired,
median fins; and whose skin is either naked, or covered with scales
or osseous plates or bucklers. With few exceptions fishes are
oviparous. However, there are not a few members of this Class
which show a modification of one or more of these characteristics, as
we shall see hereafter, and which, nevertheless, cannot be
separated from it. The distinction between the Class of Fishes and
that of Batrachians is very slight indeed.
The branch of Zoology which treats of the internal and external
structure of fishes, their mode of life, and their distribution in space
and time, is termed Ichthyology.[1]