Over Overseas Class-8 Science-1

SCIENCE-1 INDEX
CLASS-VIII
S.No. CHAPTER NAME Pg.No.
PHYSICS
1. FORCE AND PRESSURE 01-24
2. FRICTION 25-42
3. SOUND 43-66
CHEMISTRY
1. SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS 67-84
2. METALS AND NON-METALS 85-104
BIOLOGY
1. CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 105-122
2. MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 123-138
3. CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 139-153
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Physics
CHAPTER 1 FORCE AND PRESSURE
A football player kicks the ball

with his foot, applying a force and
directing the ball into a particular
part of the ground.
"Force is an action exerted on

an object which may change
the object’s state of rest or
motion."
1. Introduction THE
The word ‘force’ is frequently used in our day to day life. A football resting
on the ground, remains motionless, until you kick it. Your science book SPOT P
rests on the table until you pick it up. If you hold your book above the LIGHT
ground, then let it go, gravity pulls it to the floor. In each of these cases, the We always see or feel the effect of a
motion of the ball or book was changed by something pushing or pulling on force. It can only be explained by
it. Thus, an object will speed up, slow down, or turn only if someone is describing what happens when a
pushing or pulling on it. force is applied to an object.
2. Force
A push or a pull acting on some object is called a force.
SI unit of force – Newton ; C.G.S. unit of force – Dyne
1 Newton = 105 Dyne
THE
(a) Pushing a trolley (b) Pulling a drawer
SPOT P
LIGHT
Pushing, hitting and pulling of objects
are some ways of bringing objects in
motion. They move because we make
a force act on them.
(c) Hitting a hockey ball (d) Stopping a cricket ball

Fig.1 Force - a push or a pull
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Class-VIII
Table given below contains some examples of familiar situations involving

motion of objects. Each situation has been classified and grouped as a
push and/or a pull.
S. Description of Action : (pushing/ pulling /picking Action can
No. the situation / hitting / lifting / lowering/flying/ be grouped
kicking/ throwing/shutting/ as a
flicking) Push Pull
1 Moving a book Pushing Pulling Lifting — Yes Yes
placed on a
table
(a) Men pushing each 2 Opening or Pushing Pulling Shutting — Yes Yes
other during arm wrestling shutting a door
3 Drawing a Lowering Pulling — — No Yes
bucket of
water from a
well
4 A football Kicking Pushing — — Yes No
player taking a
penalty kick
5 A cricket ball Hitting Pushing Flicking — Yes No
hit by a
batsman
6 Moving a Pushing Pulling — — Yes Yes
(b) Girls pulling each loaded cart
other during dancing 7 Opening a Pulling — — — No Yes
drawer
3. Forces are due to an interaction
Let us consider a man standing behind a stationary car [see fig.2(a)]. Now,
if the man begins to push the car, that is, he applies a force on it, the car
may begin to move in the direction of the applied force [see fig.2(b)].
The man ‘pushes’ the car to make it move.
(c) Two wrestlers applying

force on each other while wrestling (a) (b)
Fig.2 A car being pushed by a man
Fig.3 Interaction between
From this example, we can conclude that at least two objects must interact for
two objects
a force to come into play. Thus, an interaction of one object with another
object results in a force between the two objects. Some other examples
of interaction between two objects are given in fig.3 and fig.4.
THE
SPOT P
LIGHT
Forces are always exerted by one
object on another object i.e., to apply
force atleast two objects are required.
B0BB-BC
Fig.4 Interaction between man and cow - both trying to pull each other
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Physics
4. Exploring forces
THE
In the game of ‘tug-of war’, two teams pull a rope in opposite directions
(see fig.5). Members of both the teams try to pull a rope in their direction. SPOT P
Sometimes the rope simply does not move. The team that pulls harder, LIGHT
that is, applies a larger force, finally wins the game.
The magnitude of force is measured
in terms of Newton, named after Sir
Isaac Newton (1642–1727), whose
work contributed much to the modern
understanding of force and motion.
THE
SPOT P
Fig.5 Tug of war : Rope will not move if the two teams pull with equal force LIGHT
Quantities that have both magnitude
and direction, are called ‘vectors’.
1. Take a heavy box which can be moved only by pushing hard. Try to push it Quantities that are just numbers
by yourself [see fig.6(a)]. Let's assume you are able to push the box with without any direction, are called
some difficulty. Now, ask one of your friends to help you in pushing it in the ‘scalars’.
same direction [see fig.6(b)]. You can see that, now, it is easier to move the
box.
2. Now, push the same box, but ask your friend to push it from the opposite
side [see fig.6(c)]. You can see that, now, it is very difficult to move the box.
The box will not move if both you and your friend apply same force. If the
box moves, it will surely move in the direction of greater force.
THE
SPOT P
LIGHT
400N 300N Since the effect of a force depends on
both magnitude and direction, force
400N is a vector quantity. A force vector
points in the direction of the force, and
Net force : 400 N Net force : 700 N its length is proportional to the
(a) (b) magnitude of the force.
300N
400N
Net force : 100 N

THE
(c)
SPOT P
Fig.6 Active physics 2 LIGHT
Conclusion : Forces applied on an object in the same direction add to one The combination of all the forces
another. If the two forces act in the opposite directions on an object, the net force acting on an object is called net force.
acting on it is the difference between the two forces. The net force acting on an object is
A force can be of different magnitudes i.e., one force can be greater or smaller also referred as the total force, the
than the other. The strength of a force is measured by its magnitude. Also, we resultant force, or the unbalanced
should specify the direction in which a force acts. If the direction or the magnitude force acting on the object.
of the applied forces change, their effect also changes.
Class-VIII
If many forces are acting simultaneously on an object, the effect

THE on the object is due to the net force acting on it.
SPOT P
LIGHT You are facing eastward, standing in front of a gate that can swing. In what
The ‘state of motion’ of an object is direction is your force if you pull the gate or push the gate?
described by its speed and the Explanation
direction of motion. The state of rest
Since you are facing eastward, to pull on the gate you have to apply force
can be considered as ‘the state of
motion with zero speed’.
in west direction i.e., westward. To push on the gate, you have to apply
force in east direction i.e., eastward.
1. Suppose you and your friend are pushing a door of a room from opposite
sides. Let you are trying to close the door while your friend is trying to
open it. Initially, the door is going nowhere i.e., neither it is getting closed
nor it is opening [see fig.7(a)]. This is because you and your friend are
applying same force on the door.
2. Now try to increase your force and ask your friend to do the same. Suppose
at some stage your force becomes more than your friend then, the door
(a) Door is not moving because the will get closed. This is because the door will move in the direction of net
forces exerted on it are equal but in force acting on it [see fig7(b)].
opposite directions.
5. Effects of force
Force can change the state of motion
A change in either the speed of an object, or its direction of motion, or
both, is described as a change in its state of motion. A force can bring a
change in the state of motion of an object.
1. Take a rubber ball and place it on a table top. Now, gently push the ball
along the level surface. You will observe that the ball begins to move
(see fig.8). Now, push the ball again while it is still moving. There will be a
change in its speed, it may increase or decrease depending on the direction
(b) Door is closing because the force of force applied by you.
pushing the door to close is greater 2. Now, place your palm in front of the moving ball. Remove your palm as
than the force pushing it open. soon as the moving ball touches it. Here, your palm does not apply a force
Fig.7 Active physics 3 on the ball. Thus, the speed of the ball does not change.
3. Now, let your palm hold the moving ball. You will observe that the ball
Force exerted
stops i.e., the speed of ball decreases to zero.
by hand on ball Conclusion : These observations suggest that a force applied on an object
may change its speed. If the force applied on the object is in the direction
of its motion, the speed of the object increases. If the force is applied in the
direction opposite to the direction of motion, then it results in a decrease in
the speed of the object.
Force can move a stationary object
A force can cause a stationary object to move, as when you throw a ball.
Fig.8 Active physics 4 Some examples of this are shown in fig.9 and fig.11.
Physics
(a) A player kicking the ball (b) A hockey player hitting the ball
Fig.9 Making an object move from rest.
Force can stop a moving object
THE
A force can cause a moving object to stop, as when you catch a ball. Some
examples of this are shown in fig.10. SPOT P
LIGHT
Net force on a body is a ‘single force
whose external effects on the body
are the same as the effects of several
actual forces acting on the body’.
(a) A goalkeeper stopping the ball (b) A cyclist applying brakes to

stop bicycle
Fig.10 Stopping an object by applying force on it.
1. How does the speed of an object travelling in a straight line change if a non
zero net force acts in the direction of motion of the object?
2. Suresh and Ramesh are applying forces on a table. If the table is not
moving, what can you predict about their forces? Neglect any other forces
(like friction) acting on the table.
3. A fielder catches a ball in the game of cricket. How are the directions of
force and the velocity of ball related?
Force can increase or decrease the speed of a moving object
A force can cause a moving object to increase or decrease its speed.
For example, when you kick a moving football in the direction of its motion,
its speed increases. When you apply a gentle brake in your bicycle, its
speed decreases as the applied force is opposite to the motion of the
Fig.11 Throwing a ball : the ball at
cycle. Some examples of this are shown in fig.12.
rest comes in motion by applying
force.
F
F Push Pull
Speed Speed
(a) Force exerted in the (b) Force exerted in opposite

direction of velocity direction of velocity
Fig.12 Changing the speed of an object by applying force on it
Class-VIII
Take a ball and place it on a table top. Make the ball move by giving it a
push [see fig.13(a)]. Now place the ruler from your geometry box in its
path. In doing so, you will apply a force on the moving ball. You will observe
that the ball changes its direction after it strikes the ruler [see fig.13(b)].
Now, repeat this activity of obstructing the moving ball by the ruler by
(a) A ball set in motion by pushing it. making different angles to its path. In each case you will observe that the
direction of motion of the ball is different after it strikes the ruler which
depends on the placement of the ruler.
Conclusion : A force can change the direction of moving object. A force
can be applied to obtain any desired direction of an object.
Force can change the direction of a moving object
A force can cause a moving object to change its direction. For example, in
the game of cricket, a batsman applies a force to change the direction of
the ball coming towards him. Some examples of this are shown in fig.14.
Force can make an object to rotate
(b) Direction of motion of the ball
If an object (like a fan), is free to rotate about an axis, a force applied on it
changes after it strikes the ruler
placed in its path. can cause its rotation. For example, force of wind causes a windmill to
rotate [see fig.15(a)] ; a person driving a car rotates the steering through
Fig.13 Active physics 5
the force applied by his hands [see fig.15(b)].
(a) A baseball player changing the (a) A windmill (b) A person rotating a car steering
direction of the ball using his bat. Fig.15 Causing rotation by the application of a force
1. Whenever the net force applied on an object is in the direction of its motion,
the speed of the object increases.
2. Both are applying forces which are equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction. So the net force on the table is zero.
3. Velocity and force are in opposite directions, that is why the ball comes to
rest (or stopped).
6. Force can change the shape of an object
A force may bring about a change in the shape of an object. For example,
stretching or compressing a spring changes its shape, pressing a rubber
(b) A girl whirling a stone in a vertical ball changes its shape. An example of this is shown in fig.16.
circle using a string. She is changing
the direction of stone by applying a
force on it. Take a lump of dough (wheat flour mixed with water) in a plate (see fig.17).
Now, press it down with your hands. You will observe that there will be the
Fig.14 Changing the direction of change in the shape of dough whenever you press it. Also, the dough
motion of an object by applying a remains at rest before and after applying a force i.e., in this case there is
force on it. a change in the shape of an object but there is no change in its state of rest
or motion.
Physics
(a) Original shape of ball
Conclusion : An object can not change its shape by itself, a force is required
to change its shape. A force does not necessarily cause a body to change (b) Pressing the ball changes its shape
its state of rest or motion. Fig.16 Force can change
the shape of an object.
In the fig.16(b), a force is applied on a rubber ball but, it is not moving.

How is it possible? Try to identify any other force present in this situation.
Explanation
First thing that should come in your mind is that ‘the ball is not moving,
then there must be equal and opposite forces acting on it’. Here, when the
ball is compressed, an equal force that is opposite in direction to the applied
force is developed in the ball that cancels out the applied force. Such a
force developed in the rubber ball is called ‘elastic force’. 50 N
1. Arun pushes a box with a force of 50 N [see fig.18(a)]. The box moves
slightly. He requests Varun to help him. Varun also pushes with a force of (a)
(a)
50 N [see fig18(b)]. The box now moves easily. Now, what is the net force
acting on the box?
Solution
Since, the forces applied by Arun and Varun are in same directions, the net 50 N
force acting on the box is equal to sum of forces applied by Arun and Varun.
Net Force = force applied by Arun + force applied by Varun
= 50 N + 50 N = 100 N 50 N
2. (a) If Arun and Varun push the box from opposite ends with the same force
[see fig.19(a)], what do you think will happen? What would be the net force? (b)
(b)
(b) Suppose Arun pushed extra hard with a force of 60 N [see fig.19(b)].
What do you think will happen? What will be the net force? Fig.18 Numercial Ability 1.1 (1)
THE
(a) (b)
Fig.19 Numerical ability 1.1 (2)
SPOT P
Solution LIGHT
(a) The box will not move because the forces acting on it are equal in magnitude A force can be defined as ‘a push or
but opposite in direction. Since, the forces are in opposite directions, the net pull exerted on an object that can
force will be the difference of the forces acting on the object. cause the object to speed up, slow
The net force on the box = 50 N – 50 N = 0 N. down, or change direction as it moves
(b) Again, in this case, the forces are in opposite directions. or it can change its shape and size’.
Thus, the net force on the box = 60 N – 50 N = 10 N. The box will move
but with some difficulty as the force acting on it is quite less.
Class-VIII
3. In a tug of war (see fig.20), the three members of team A pull with a force
of 120 N, 100 N and 135 N. The three members of team B pull with a
force of 120 N, 105 N and 130 N. Which team will win?
THE
SPOT P 135 N 100 N
120 N
120 N 105 N 130 N
LIGHT
It is the muscular force that enables
us to perform all activities involving
movement or bending of our body.
Fig.20 Numerical ability 1.1 (3)

Solution
Total force applied by team A = 120 N + 100 N + 135 N = 355 N
Total force applied by team B = 120 N + 105 N + 130 N = 355 N
Net force on the rope = Force applied by A – Force applied by B
= 355 N – 355 N = 0 N
Since, the net force on the rope is zero, it will not go either way i.e., no
team will win, its a tie !!
How are forces applied? Try to give some examples.

Solution
Forces are applied in many ways. For example, your muscles apply force
when you swing a tennis racket. Earth’s gravity apply a force called weight
that pulls on everything around you. On a windy day, the movement of air
can apply forces. Each of these actions can apply force because they all
can change an object’s motion. It is not necessary that to exert force,
there should be a contact between the two objects i.e., forces can act
through contact or at a distance.
7. Contact forces
When you press the keys on a computer keyboard, your fingers exert a
force on the keys. This force can be exerted only when your fingers are
touching the keys.
F A force that is exerted only when two objects are touching is called
contact force. A contact force can be small, such as the force you exert
to push a pencil across a sheet of paper, or large, such as the force exerted
by a traffic crane as it pulls a car along a street. Some examples of contact
forces are shown in fig.21.
Fig.22 A tennis player applying a

muscular force and directing the ball
through his racket.
(a) A karate fight (b) Stretching a bowstring

Fig.21 Examples of contact forces
Muscular force
When you push an object like a school bag or lift a bucket of water, the
force comes from the action of muscles in your body. (see fig. 22)
Physics
The force resulting due to the action of muscles is known as the

muscular force.
THE
Animals also make use of muscular force to carry out their physical activities
and other tasks. Animals like bullocks, horses, donkeys and camels are SPOT P
used to perform various tasks for us. In performing these tasks they use LIGHT
muscular force (Fig.23).
If you pull on a spring, the spring
stretches. If you pull hard enough on
a wagon, the wagon moves. When
you kick a football, it deforms briefly
and is set in motion. These are all
examples of contact forces, so named
because they result from physical
contact between two objects.
Fig.23 Muscular force of animals is used to carry out many difficult tasks
Friction
You must have seen that a ball rolling along the ground gradually slows
Motion
down and finally comes to rest. When you stop pedalling a bicycle, it
gradually slows down and finally comes to stop. A car or a scooter also Friction
comes to rest once its engine is switched off. Similarly, a boat comes to rest
if you stop rowing it. In all the above situations no force appears to be
(a) A ball rolling along the ground
acting on the objects, yet their speed gradually decreases and they come
stops after sometime due to friction.
to rest after some time. Since, there is a change in their state of motion,
some force must be acting on them. This force which is responsible for
changing the state of motion of objects in all the above examples is the
force of friction.
Friction is a force that resists motion. Friction is found everywhere in
our world. You feel the effects of friction when you swim, ride in a car, walk,
and even when you sit on a chair. Friction can act when an object is moving
or when it is at rest. Fig.24 shows some common examples of friction.
Suppose you are rowing a boat in water. What happens when you stop
rowing?
Explanation Friction
Once you stop rowing, friction between water and the boat brings it to a (b) A child stopped pedalling, the
stop in some time. The force of friction always acts on all the moving bicycle will come to rest in a short
objects and its direction is always opposite to the direction of motion. while.
Fig.24 Friction opposes the motion.
Tension
Tension is a force exerted by string, ropes, fibres, and cables when they
are pulled. A spider web consists of numerous fine strands that pull on one
another [see fig.25(a)]. We say that the strands are under tension. Thus,
tension keeps the spider web together.
THE
SPOT P
LIGHT
Since the force of friction arises due
to contact between surfaces, it is also
an example of a contact force.
(a) Tension keeps this (b) Two children pulling the rope, a tension
spider web together force is exerted by the rope on them.
Fig.25 Examples of tension force
Class-VIII
Normal force
If your pen is resting on your table (see fig.26), the force of gravity is
Normal force
pulling down on it, but since it is at rest, it must also be experiencing a
force of the table pushing upward. This force is called the normal force.
The force perpendicular to the surfaces of the objects in contact
is called normal force.
8. Non contact forces
Force of gravity
When you jump up in the air, you are pulled back to the ground, even
Fig.26 The upward normal force though nothing seems to be touching you. Forces can be exerted by one
exerted by the table balances the
object on another even though they aren’t touching each other. The force
downward force of gravity on the
pen. pulling you down to Earth is the gravitational force exerted by Earth. This
force is a noncontact force.
A non contact force is a force that one object exerts on another
when they are not touching. Non contact forces include the gravitational
force, the electric force, and the magnetic force.
Magnetic force
The force exerted by a magnet on a piece of iron or on an another magnet
is called magnetic force. Like (or similar) poles repel while unlike
(or opposite) poles attract (see fig.27).
(a) Repulsion between like poles
(a) Like poles repel (b) Unlike poles attract

Fig.27 Force between two magnets
State the direction of the named force acting on the object in italics.
1. The force of gravity exerts a force on a falling leaf.
2. A hockey stick experiences friction on rough ground as it slides northward.
(b) Attraction between unlike poles 3. The force of the wind is pushing against a cyclist who is cycling eastward.
Take a pair of bar magnets. Place one of the magnets over three round
shaped pencils. Now bring one end of the other magnet near the end of
the magnet placed on the pencils [see fig.28(a)]. Make sure that the two
magnets do not touch each other. You may observe a repulsion or attraction.
(a) Attraction between unlike charges Suppose you observe a repulsion in first case. Now, bring the other end of
the magnet near the same end of the magnet placed on the pencils [see
fig.28(b)]. This time you will observe an attraction.
Conclusion : One magnet exerts a force on other magnet without actual
physical contact with it. This force may be attractive or repulsive depending
on the nature of poles. Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
Electrostatic force
The electrons in an atom move around the nucleus. What keeps these
electrons close to the nucleus? The positively charged protons in the nucleus
(b) Repulsion between like charges exert an attractive force on the negatively charged electrons. All charged
Fig.29 Electrostatic force objects exert a force on each other. This force is called electrostatic force
between two charges or electric force.
Physics
The force exerted by a charged body on another charged body or uncharged

body is known as electrostatic force. The electrostatic force between two
charges can be attractive or repulsive (see fig.29). Objects with the same
type of charge repel one another and objects with opposite charges attract
one another i.e., ‘like charges repel and unlike charges attract’.
Take two plastic rods and suspend one of the pieces from the edge of a
table or roof with the help of a piece of thread. Now hold the other rod in
F
your hand and rub its one of the end with a woollen cloth. Bring the rubbed
end of the rod near the suspended rod. Make sure that the two pieces do
not touch each other. You may observe a little attraction between the two
rods (called ‘electric induction’). F
Now, rub the free end of the suspended rod with a woollen cloth. Again, Fig.30 Active physics 8
bring the piece of rod that was rubbed earlier with woollen cloth near the
free end of the suspended rod. This time, you will observe the repulsion
between the two rods (see fig.30) as they are similarly charged.
Conclusion : We can observe the electrostatic force between two charged
body without actual physical contact between them i.e., electrostatic force
is a non contact force.
You know that a coin or a pen falls to the ground when it slips off your
hand. Is there any force acting on them? Explain.
Fig.31 A skydiver is pulled
Explanation downward by the gravitational force
When the coin is held in your hand it is at rest. As soon as it is released, it
begins to move downwards. It is clear that the state of motion of the coin
undergoes a change. This is not possible without a force acting on it. Yes, THE
there is a force acting on them, ‘the force of gravity’. SPOT P
Gravitational force LIGHT
The leaves or fruits fall to the ground when they get detached from the The force of gravity acts on all of us
plant. The skydiver (see fig.31) is also being pulled downward, even though all the time without being aware of
there seems to be nothing touching him. Have you ever wondered why is it it. Water begins to flow towards the
ground as soon as we open a tap.
so? Objects fall towards the Earth because it pulls them. This force is
Water in rivers flows downward due
called the gravitational force or force of gravity, or just gravity. to the force of gravity.
The attractive force between two objects that have mass is called
gravitational force.
The force of gravity on an object is called weight. At Earth’s surface,
gravity exerts a force of 9.8 N on every kilogram of mass. That means a 1
kilogram mass has a weight of 9.8 N, a 2 kilogram mass has a weight of
19.6 N, and so on. On Earth’s surface, the weight of any object (in newtons)
is its mass multiplied by a factor 9.8; Since weight is a force, it is measured
in the unit of force i.e., newtons.
W = mass × 9.8. (Where g is acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s2)
F = 1 kg × 9.8 m/s2
Gravitational unit of force = kgf
1kgf = 9.8 N
1 kgf (kilogram force) is the force exerted by one kilogram mass when it is
kept in gravitational field of magnitude 9.8 m/s2.
Class-VIII
Are weight and mass the same thing?

Explanation
People often confuse weight and mass in conversation. However, weight
and mass are not the same. Mass is the amount of matter contained in an
object, usually measured in kilograms (kg). Weight is a force that depends
on mass and gravity, usually measured in newtons (N).
A 10 kg rock has the same mass no matter where it is in the universe i.e.,
mass is constant everywhere. A 10 kg rock’s weight however, depends
(a)
completely on its position in the universe. On Earth, the rock weighs 98
newtons. But on the Moon, it only weighs nearly 16 newtons. The same rock
weighs 6 times less on the Moon because gravity is weaker on the Moon.
9. Pressure
What happens when you walk on soft snow or dry sand? Your feet sink into
the snow or sand and walking can be difficult. If you ride a bicycle with
narrow tires over these surfaces, the tires will sink even deeper than your
feet. How deep you sink depends on your weight as well as the area over
which you make contact with the sand or snow. For example, when you
stand on snow with your normal shoes, you may sink deep into the soft
snow [see fig.32(a)]. However, if you use special kinds of supports (or snow
boards) having larger area than your shoes [see fig.32(b)], you can stand on
the snow very easily.
(b) In both cases, your weight exerts a downward force on the snow. What
Fig.32 Understanding pressure changed was the area of contact between you and the snow. By changing
the area of contact, you changed the ‘pressure’ you exerted on the snow
due to your weight. When you stood with supports (or snow boards), the
area of contact increased, so that the same force was applied over a larger
area. As a result, the pressure that was exerted on the snow decreased
and you didn’t sink as deep.
F Pressure is the force per unit area that is applied on the surface of an
object.
Force
Pressure=
THE Area
SPOT P Unit of pressure
LIGHT Since pressure is force per unit area thus, unit of pressure is Newton per
Strong winds during a storm or a square meter and in short it is called ‘pascal’ i.e.,
cyclone can blow away even the SI unit of pressure – Pascal ; C.G.S unit of pressure – dyne cm –2.
rooftops. The winds and cyclones are
caused by the difference in air 1 Pascal = 1 Newton/(meter)2
pressure. or 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 1 N m–2
1. A force of 20 N acts over a surface having an area of 4 m2. What is the

pressure on this surface?
Physics
Solution
THE
Given, force = 20 N ; area = 4 m2 ; pressure =?
SPOT P
We know that, pressure =
force
=
20
= 5 N/m2
LIGHT
area 4 The force which acts perpendicular
to a given surface area, used to
2. A pressure of 50 N/m2 acts on an area of 5 m2. Calculate the total force calculate the pressure acting on the
acting on the given area. surface is called thrust.
Solution
Given, pressure = 50 N/m2 ; area = 5 m2 ; force =?
force
We know that, pressure =
area
or Force = pressure ´ area = 50 ´ 5 = 250 N
3. A force of 800 N exerts a pressure of 40 N/m2. What area is it acting on?
Solution
Given, pressure = 40 N/m2 ; force = 800 N ; area =?
force
We know that, pressure = THE
force 800
area
SPOT P
or area = pressure =
40
= 20 m2 LIGHT
Pressure is inversely proportional to
4. A person weighs 600 N. He is wearing shoes with a total area of 0.02 m 2. the area of contact. So, the smaller
What pressure do they exert on the floor? the area, the larger is the pressure
on a surface for the same force.
Solution
Given, force = 600 N ; area = 0.02 m2 ; pressure =?
force 600
We know that, pressure = = = 30,000 N/m2
area 0.02
When you push a nail using a hammer into a wooden plank by its head,
the nail cannot be inserted in the plank. When you push the nail by the
pointed end, the nail can easily be inserted in the plank. Why?
Explanation
When you apply a force on the nail using a hammer with its head touching Hammer
the wooden plank, the pressure exerted on the plank is quite small. This is
because pressure is inversely proportional to area i.e., the larger the area,
smaller the pressure on a surface for the same force. When you apply the nail
same force on the nail with its pointed end touching the plank, pressure
exerted on the plank is sufficient to insert it into the plank (see fig.33). Fig.33 Applying force on a nail with
This is because the area of the pointed end of the nail is much smaller than its pointed end touching the plank
that of its head.
Some common examples related to pressure
(1) If you try to cut vegetables with a blunt knife, you will not succeed. But,
if you use a sharp knife, it is quite easy to cut the vegetables. This is
because the area of sharp edge of the knife is quite small and thus,
pressure is large enough to cut the vegetables.
Class-VIII
(2) The straps of shoulder bags are made wide (broad). This is because the
wide straps has larger area so that the pressure exerted on the shoulder
becomes quite small. Thus, it becomes quite comfortable to carry such
shoulder bags.
(3) Porters place on their heads a round piece of cloth, when they have to
carry heavy loads (see fig.34). By this they increase the area of contact
of the load with their head. So, the pressure on their head is reduced
and they find it easier to carry the load.
1. Since, the force of gravity acts vertically downward on an object, here also,
it acts vertically downward on a falling leaf.
2. A force of friction opposes the motion of an object. Since hockey stick is
moving northwards, it experiences a force of friction in opposite direction
i.e., southwards.
Fig.34 A porter carrying a heavy load
3. Here, the cyclist is moving eastwards and a force of wind is pushing against’
him. This means the force of wind is opposite to him i.e., westwards.
10. Pressure exerted by liquids (hydrostatic pressure) and
gases
Liquids and gases are fluids, which are materials that can flow and have no
definite shape. Like solid objects, fluids can exert pressure (or forces).
Fluid pressure is measured in pascal and also in mm of Hg.
Take a transparent hollow glass tube of length about 15 cm and diameter

of about 2.5 cm. Take a good quality rubber balloon and tie it using thread
on one end of the tube. Hold the tube from the middle to keep it in a
vertical position [see fig.35(a)]. Ask one of your friends to pour some water
in the tube. You will observe that the rubber balloon bulges out [see fig.35(b)].
As you increase the height of the water column in the pipe, the bulge in
the balloon will increase.
Conclusion : Liquids exert pressure on the surfaces (objects) in contact.
More the height of liquid column above a surface, more will be the pressure
(a) (b)
on that surface.
Take a big soft drink bottle. Take a cylindrical glass tube of length about
6 cm. Now, heat one end of the glass tube and then quickly insert it near
the bottom of the bottle (see fig.36). Next, paste some adhesive material
around the tube-bottle joint to avoid the leakage of water from the joint.
Cover the mouth of the glass tube with a good quality rubber balloon using
a thread. Now fill the bottle up to half with water. You will observe that the
rubber balloon fixed to the glass tube bulges. Pour some more water in the
bottle. You will observe that this bulge increases.
Conclusion : Again, this activity shows that liquids can exert pressure on
an object which is proportional to the height of liquid column above the
object.
Physics
F It is true for any liquid that ‘the pressure depends only on the height
of the column of fluid above the surface where you measure the
pressure’. It does not depends on the area of the surface in contact or the
shape of the liquid column (see fig.37). The greater the height of the column Increasing
of fluid above a surface, the greater is the pressure exerted by the fluid on
the surface.
Fig.38 The pressure exerted by

a fluid increases as the depth
Fig.37 Pressure depends only on the height of the fluid above a surface, not on the
shape of the vessel. Pressure at the bottom of each section of the vessel is same.
Pressure and depth
Fig.38 shows how pressure changes with depth. At the top of the glass filled
with water, the water pressure is zero because there is no column of water
above that level. Pressure in the middle of the glass depends on the column
of water from the top of the glass to the middle of the glass. Pressure at the
bottom depends on the entire height of the water. Pressure increases with
depth because the column of water pushing down becomes taller and heavier.
Take a big soft drink bottle. Drill four holes all around near the bottom of Fig.39 Active physics 11
the bottle at the same height from the bottom (see fig.39). Now fill the
bottle with water. You will observe that the water coming out of the holes
falls at the same distance from the bottle.
Conclusion : The liquid exerts pressure on all side of the wall not just on
the bottom. This pressure depends on the depth in the liquid.
Pressure acts in all directions
Fig.40 shows that the fluid exerts pressure on each face of the cube or
Submarine
from all sides of a submarine, not just on their tops. This pressure is Cube
perpendicular to the surface, and the amount of pressure depends only on
the depth in the fluid.
Similar to liquids, gases also exert pressure on the walls of their
containers. A force applied to a fluid (liquid or gas) creates pressure. Pressure Pressure
Pressure acts in all directions, not just the direction of the applied force.
Fig.40 The pressure on all objects in
When you inflate a car tyre, you are increasing the pressure in the tyre.
a fluid is exerted on all sides,
This force acts up, down, and sideways, in all directions inside the tyre. perpendicular to the surface of the
object, no matter what is its shape.
1. Why do the tools meant for cutting and piercing always have sharp edges?
2. In fig.41, two identical bricks are placed on a table in two different ways
(A and B). In which case, the pressure on the table is more and why?
3. What happens when you push down on an inflated balloon?
11. Atmospheric pressure A B
Though you don’t feel it, you are surrounded by a fluid that exerts pressure
on you constantly. That fluid is air or atmosphere surrounding the Earth.
The envelop of air surrounding the Earth is known as the
Fig.41 Check your concepts 3(2)
atmosphere.
Class-VIII
The atmosphere at Earth’s surface is only about 1/1000 times as dense as

water. But, the atmospheric air extends up to many kilometres above the
surface of the earth which is large enough to exert a large pressure on the
objects at Earth’s surface.
The pressure exerted by the air present in the atmosphere is known
as atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure on our body is a result
of the weight of the atmosphere exerting force on our body. Atmospheric
pressure is approximately 100,000 N/m2 at sea level.
A manometer is used to measure pressure. A barometer is used to
measure the atmospheric pressure.
Suppose the area of your head is 10 cm ´ 10 cm which is equal to
(10/100) m ´ (10/100) m = 0.01 m2. Therefore, the weight (force) of air
on your head is 100,000 N/m2 ´ 0.01 m2 = 1000 N.
This means weight (force) of air in a column of the height of the atmosphere
and area 10 cm ´ 10 cm (see fig.42) is as large as 1000 N.
The force pushing down on your body due to atmospheric pressure is as

large as the weight of a luxury car. Then, why doesn’t this pressure cause
you to be crushed?
Explanation
Your body is filled with fluids such as blood that also exert pressure.
Fig.42 Pressure on your head The pressure exerted outward by the fluids inside your body is equal to
the atmospheric pressure. This pressure inside your body cancels the
pressure exerted from outside by the atmosphere. Thus, you are not
crushed under this large force due to the atmospheric pressure.
You don’t feel the atmospheric pressure because there is an equal,
internal pressure pushing out from the inside of your body. This internal pressure
balances the external pressure exerted on you by the atmosphere.
What happens to the atmospheric pressure if you go at higher altitudes or

walk up on a mountain?
Explanation
If you start at the base of a mountain and walk up, the height of the
column of air above you decreases. This means, with increasing elevation,
the amount of air above you decreases, and thus, the atmospheric pressure
Applied force
also decreases.
As you go higher in the atmosphere, atmospheric pressure decreases.
Fluid
(gas)
Pressure
1. Tools meant for cutting and piercing always have sharp edges because
Fig.43 Check your answers 3 (3) their edges have small areas which create a large pressure on the surface
to make the cutting or piercing quite easy.
2. In the case B, the pressure on the table is more because the area of
contact of the brick with the table is small (smaller the area of contact,
larger will be the pressure on the surface).
3. The downward force you apply creates forces that act sideways as well as
down (see fig.43). As a result, the shape of balloon changes from all sides.
This means a downward push on the balloon creates pressure in all
directions.
Physics
Take a good quality rubber sucker. It looks like a small rubber cup [see
fig.44(a)]. Press it hard on a smooth plane surface. You will observe that
the sucker sticks to the surface [see fig.44(b)]. This is because when you
(a) A rubber sucker
press the sucker, most of the air between its cup and the surface escapes
out. The sucker sticks to the surface because the pressure of atmosphere
acts on it. Now try to pull it off the surface. You have to apply a large force
to overcome the atmospheric pressure.
Conclusion : The magnitude of atmospheric pressure is very large. In

fact, it would not be possible for any human being to pull the sucker off the
surface if there was no air at all between the sucker and the surface.
(b) Pressing the sucker
on a smooth surface
Class-VIII
NCERT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS

1. Give two examples of each of situation in which you Ans. (a) The fingers are the agents, lemon is the object.
push or pull to change the state of motion of an The effect of force is the lemon juice being
objects. expelled by squeezing.
Ans. (i) We push a bicycle to move it. (b) The hand is the agent, toothpaste tube is object
(ii) We pull the table to change its position. and the coming out of paste from toothpaste
2. Give two examples of situations in which applied tube is the effect of force.
force causes a change in the shape of an object. (c) Suspended load is agent, spring is the object, the
Ans. (i) When we press the foam, its shape changes. effect of force can be seen in the form of
(ii) When we stretch the rubber band, then its shape elongation of spring on suspension of load.
changes. (d) Athlete is the agent, bar is the object. The effect
3. Fill in the blanks. of force can be seen in the form of jump.
(a) To draw water from a well we have to ______
6. A blacksmith hammers a hot piece of iron while
at rope.
making a tool. How does the force due to
(b) A charged body ______ an uncharged body
hammering affect the piece of iron?
towards it.
Ans. The force due to hammering causes change in shape
(c) To move a loaded trolley we have to ______ it.
of iron and iron can be moulded in the shape of the
(d) The north pole of a magnet ______ the north
required tool.
pole of another magnet.
7. An inflated balloon was pressed against a wall after
Ans. (a) Pull (b) Attracts (c) Push/pull (d) Repels
it has been rubbed with a piece of synthetic cloth.
4. An archer stretches her bow while taking aim at the
It was found that the balloon sticks to the wall. What
target. She then releases the arrow, which begins
to move towards the target. Based on this force might be responsible for the attraction
information fill up the gaps in the following between the balloon and the wall?
statements using the following terms : Ans. Electrostatic force.
muscular, contact, non-contact, gravity, friction, 8. Name the force acting on a plastic bucket containing
shape, attraction water held above ground level in your hand. Discuss
(a) To stretch the bow, the archer applies a force why the forces acting on the bucket do not bring a
that causes a change in its ______. change in its state of motion.
(b) The force applied by the archer to stretch the Ans. Muscular and gravitational forces act on plastic
bow is an example of ______ force. bucket. The force acting on the bucket do not bring
(c) The type of force responsible for a change in a change in state of motion because they are acting
the state of motion of the arrow is an example in opposite direction with equal magnitudes.
of a ______ force. Therefore the net force on bucket remains zero.
(d) While the arrow moves towards its target, the 9. A rocket has been fired upward to launch a satellite
forces acting on it are due to ______ and that due in its orbit. Name the two forces acting on the rocket
to ______ of air. immediately after leaving the launching pad.
Ans. (a) shape (b) muscular Ans. (i) Gravitational force.
(c) contact (d) gravity, friction (ii) Force of friction.
5. In the following situations identify the agent exerting 10. When we press the bulb of a dropper with its nozzle
a force and the object on which it acts. State the kept in water, air in the dropper is seen to escape
effects of the force in each case. in the form of bubbles. Once we release the pressure
(a) Squeezing a piece of lemon between the fingers on the bulb, water gets filled in dropper. The rise
to extract its juice. of water in the dropper is due to
(b) Taking out paste from a toothpaste tube. (a) pressure of water
(c) A load suspended from a spring while its other (b) gravity of the earth
end is on a hook fixed to a wall. (c) shape of rubber bulb
(d) An athlete making a high jump to clear the bar (d) atmospheric pressure
at a certain height. Ans. (d) atmospheric pressure.
Physics
EXERCISE # 1
Multiple choice questions 11. A block has dimensions 5 cm × 20 cm × 10 cm. It
1. A force has : has a mass of 2 kg. The ratio of minimum to
(1) Magnitude only maximum pressure it exerts on the change in
(2) Direction only orientation is
(3) both magnitude and direction (1) 1 : 1 (2) 1 : 2 (3) 1 : 4 (4) 4 : 1
(4) None of these 12. A rectangular iron block is kept over a table with
different faces touching the table. In different cases,
2. Which of the following is not a pushing force?
the block exerts
(1) Kicking (2) Throwing
(1) same thrust and same pressure
(3) Lifting (4) Hitting
(2) same thrust and different pressure
3. Four forces are acting on a body. If the body doesn't
(3) different thrust and same pressure
change its position or shape, the forces
(4) different thrust and different pressure
(1) must be of equal magnitude.
13. An iron block of sides 5 cm × 8 cm × 15 cm has
(2) must be parallel & opposite. to be pushed along the floor. The force required will
(3) must add up to zero when taken as vectors. be minimum when the surface in contact with
(4) must be in a single line. ground is
4. In which of the following case the property of force (1) 8 cm × 15 cm surface
is applied that 'force can change the direction of an (2) 5 cm × 15 cm surface
object'? (3) 8 cm × 5 cm surface
(1) A player kicking the moving ball (4) Force is same for all surfaces
(2) A hockey player hitting the ball 14. The size of an air bubble rising up in water
(3) A girl whirling a stone in a vertical circle using (1) decreases
a string (2) increases
(4) All of the above (3) remains same
5. What force keeps the spider web together? (4) may increase or decrease
(1) Magnetic force (2) Tension force 15. Pressure in liquids depend on
(3) Normal force (4) Muscular force (1) shape of container
6. Gravitational force acts (2) mass of liquid filled
(1) only between the Sun and the planets moving (3) height of liquid column above the point where
around it. you measure the pressure
(2) only between the Earth and the bodies on it. (4) all of the above
(3) between all bodies in the universe. 16. Pressure is also measured in
(4) only between the Sun and the Earth. (1) Joule (2) mm of Hg
7. What will be the gravitational force on an object (3) mm of Ag (4) Metre
having mass 20 kg? 17. As we go deeper beneath the surface of liquid, the
(1) 169 N (2) 961 N (3) 196 N (4) 86 N pressure
8. The relation between the S.I. unit of force and the (1) remains same (2) increases
weight of a 1 kg mass is : (3) decreases (4) depends on weather
(1) 1 kgf = 1 N (2) 1 kgf = 0.98 N 18. Atmospheric pressure is measured by
(3) 1 kgf = 9.8 N (4) 1 N = 9.8 kgf (1) Barometer (2) Manometer
9. Which of these is not a contact force? (3) Screw gauge (4) None of these
(1) Friction (2) Muscular force 19. A manometer is used to measure
(3) Magnetic force (4) None of these (1) height (2) pressure
10. Which of the following class of forces is different from (3) liquid density (4) atmospheric pressure
others? 20. How does pressure vary as we come down from
(1) Magnetic force (2) Electrostatic force mountain top to sea level?
(1) Increases (2) Decreases
(3) Gravitational force (4) Stretching of a spring
(3) Remains same (4) Depends on weather
Class-VIII
True or false
1. A force cannot be seen but the effect of force can 2. Column-I Column-II
be felt.
2. If we apply the brakes to a moving car, it comes to (A) SI unit of force (i) Friction
rest. This shows that force can make a moving object (B) Spring balance (ii) Muscular force
go slower. (C) Force opposing (iii) Weight
3. Gravity and friction are both contact forces.
the motion measurement
4. Gravity attracts all objects towards the earth.
5. Magnetic force attracts all kinds of metals. (D) Force exerted by (iv) Newton
6. A boy throws a ball down from the second floor of muscles
a building. In this case, electrostatic force is acting (E) Thrust (v) mass × 9.8
on the ball. (F) Hydrostatic (vi) Perpendicular
7. When a force of 1N acts on an area of 1 m2, the pressure force
pressure exerted is equal to one pascal. (G) Weight (vii) Pascal
8. The foundations of high rise buildings are kept wide
so that they exert less pressure on the ground and Fill in the blanks
prevent the buildings from sinking into the ground.
1. The ............. or push acting on a body is commonly
9. When a force acts on a large area, the pressure it
exerts is more. called force.
10. In the frozen northern regions of Canada, the 2. To draw water from a well we have to ............. the
Eskimos wear large snowshoes as those help them rope.
to walk on freshly fallen snow. 3. To move a loaded trolley we have to ............. it.
Match the Column 4. The force applied by the archer to stretch the bow
is an example of ............. force.
1. Column-I Column-II 5. The force of gravity is a ............. force.
(A) Opening a drawer. (i) Push 6. A charged body ............. an uncharged body
(B) Electrostatic force (ii) Contact force towards it.
(C) Closing a drawer (iii) Pull 7. The north pole of a magnet ............. the north pole
(D) Muscular force (iv) Push or pull of another magnet.
(E) Force (v) Non-contact force 8. Force divided by ............. is called pressure.
(F) A physical quantity (vi) Depth
9. An instrument used to measure ............. is called
that determines
a pressure gauge.
the pressure in
liquids 10. ............. and ............. are together called fluids.
EXERCISE # 1 ANSWER KEY

Multiple choice questions
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. 3 3 3 4 2 3 3 3 3 4
Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 2 4 2 3 2 2 1 2 1
True or false
1. True 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. False
6. False 7. True 8. True 9. False 10. True
Match the column
1. (A) ® (iii), (B) ® (v), (C) ® (i), (D) ® (ii), (E) ® (iv), (F) ® (vi)
2. (A) ® (iv), (B) ® (iii), (C) ® (i), (D) ® (ii), (E) ® (vi), (F) ® (vii), (G) ® (v)
Fill in the blanks
1. Pull 2. Pull 3. Pull/Push 4. Contact/Muscular
5. Non-contact 6. Attracts 7. Repels 8 Area
9. Pressure 10. Gases, liquids
Physics
EXERCISE # 2
Very short answer type questions 8. Explain how it is possible to drink a liquid by using
1. What is the requirement for a force to come into a straw?
play? 9. What is atmospheric pressure at sea level?
2. Name the unit used to express the strength of a
10. Why does a spaceman have to wear special
force.
pressurized suits?
3. When does the net force become zero?
Long answer type questions
4. Place your palm in front of the moving ball.
Does your palm apply any force on the ball? 1. What is force? Explain the four effects of a force.
5. What are the two states of motion? 2. Explain contact and non-contact forces by giving
6. Does the application of a force always result in the suitable examples.

change in the state of motion of an object?
3. Distinguish between thrust and pressure. Write their
7. Give two examples of muscular force. units. What is the relation between them? Explain
8. What is the site of the pressure exerted by liquid an application where we reduce pressure acting on
on the container? a body.
9. Do gases also exert pressure on the walls of
4. (i) What do you mean by atmospheric pressure?
containers?
(ii) Why does a fountain pen start leakage at higher
10. Can you separate two hollow hemispheres, if all the
air is sucked out from them? altitudes?
Short answer type questions Numerical problems
1. It is necessary to keep the bathroom floor clean and 1. Two boys exert forces of 40 N and 60 N in opposite
free of oily substances, why?
directions on an object. Calculate the resultant force.
2. Why does a needle have a pointed tip?
2. You want to lift a heavy box. The force of gravity
3. Why are railway tracks laid on wooden or iron
pulls it downwards with a force of 500 N. Your father
sleepers?
applies an upward force of 220 N from below. How
4. Why do the building foundations have a large
horizontal area of contact with the ground? much force will you have to apply to lift it upwards?
5. Why are the dams made stronger and thicker at the 3. In a game of tug of war, three girls of team A pull
bottom than at the top? the rope with forces of 100 N, 120 N and 170 N.
6. Why do porters (coolies) place a round cloth on their In team B, the three members pull the rope with
heads while carrying load?
forces of 130 N, 150 N and 155 N. Who will win
7. Why does a deep sea diver have to wear specially the tug of war? What is the resultant force?
designed suits?
Class-VIII
4. In the following figures illustrated below, find out 2. In the picture shown below, the man is
whether the body remains stationary or in motion.
Also specify the direction of motion.
6N
(i) 4kg 4N
3N
(1) Applying no force on the stool
4N
(ii) 3kg 5N
(2) Applying pressure on the stool
5. Two individual forces of magnitude F1 and F2 act (3) Applying force on the stool
on a body of mass 1 kg as shown in the figure (i) (4) Both (2) & (3)
and (ii). If the net force in case (i) is 3N & the net
3. A clown in a circus is pedaling and moving a unicycle
force in case (ii) is 9N, then find the magnitude of
in the direction shown. Identify the kind of forces
forces F1 and F2. (assume F1 > F2) indicated using arrows A, B and C respectively.
(i) F 1
1kg
F2
Direction of motion
F1 F2
(ii) 1kg
6. A force of 500 N acts on a square piece of plywood,

each of whose sides is 5 m long. Calculate the
pressure acting on the piece of plywood. A C
7. A boy stands on the ground. The area below his feet B
is 70 cm2. The pressure he exerts on the ground is (1) A–Applied force, B–Normal force, C–Friction force
7 N/cm2. Calculate the total force acting on the ground.
(2) B–Applied force, C–Normal force, A–Friction force
8. A force exerts a pressure of 45 N/m2 when it acts
on an area of 10 m2. Calculate the total force. (3) C–Applied force, A–Normal force, B–Friction force
9. A force of 400 N exerts a pressure of 20 N/cm2. (4) A–Applied force, C–Normal force, B–Friction force
What is the area on which the force acts?
4. Which picture shows a pulling force?
10. Calculate the pressure if a force of 2 N is applied
on an area of 2 mm2.
Activity based questions
1. A groups of acrobats stack themselves (1) (2)
as shown. Given that all the acrobats

ha ve t he same weight, which
acrobats'(s) must be the strongest?
(1) 5, 6, 7, 8
(2) 3 (3) (4)
(3) 1
(4) 2
Physics
5. The arrow in following diagram shows the direction 7. Which of the pictures shows that a force changes
a sailing ship moves. What happens if a strong wind the shape of an object?
blows from the same direction?
(1)
(1) The sailing ship moves faster (2)

(2) The sailing ship moves slower
(3) The sailing ship come to rest
(4) Nothing happens
6. Following diagram shows a moving ping pong ball
is hit by a player. What effect of the force is shown (3)
in the below picture?
(4)
(1) The force changes the direction of the moving

object
(2) The force changes the mass of the moving
object
(3) The force changes the shape of the moving
object
(4) The force can stop the moving object

Numerical problems
1. A force of 20 N acting in the direction of greater force 2. 280 N 3. Team B, 45 N
4. (i) Motion, by a force of 7 N in the direction of 4 N
(ii) Motion, by a force of 1 N in the direction of 5 N
5. F1 = 6 N, F2 =3 N 6. 20 Nm–2 7. 490 N 8. 450 N

9. 20 cm2 10. 106 Pa

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ans. 2 4 1 4 1 1 3
Class-VIII
Important Notes
Physics
CHAPTER 2 FRICTION
A climber slowly moves up the side

of a rock. This is possible due to a
force called ‘friction’ which is
exerted on the climber at each
place where he touches the rock.
Friction b alan ces gravity’s
downward pull on the climber and
keeps him from sliding down the
rock.
"When two objects in contact

try to slide past each other,
friction keeps them from
movin g or slows t hem
down."
1. Introduction
Friction is found everywhere in the world. You can feel the effects of friction
when you ride a bicycle, while walking, and even when you sit on a sofa.
THE
You must have seen a driver of a car slowing down the vehicle at a traffic
signal. You too, slow down when you stop pedalling a bicycle or by applying SPOT P
brakes. Imagine pushing a ball away from you on a floor. As the ball rolls,
it slows down and then stops. Every object moving over the surface of
LIGHT
another object slows down when no external force is applied on it and Friction can act when an object is
finally it stops. In each of the above cases, one force is responsible for moving or when it is at rest, it is present
slowing down of the objects, that force is called friction. in almost all real-life situations. It
always acts in the direction opposite
2. Friction to the direction of motion of the object.
Friction is a force that opposes the movement between two surfaces
in contact.
The magnitude of the frictional force depends on the types of surfaces in
contact. The frictional force is usually larger on the rough surfaces and
smaller on the smooth surfaces.
Friction is always parallel to the surfaces in contact
We know that, when an object is in contact with a surface, there are forces
acting on the object. One such force we have discussed in the previous
chapter was normal force, that is perpendicular to the surface in contact.
When the object moves or attempts to move along the surface, there is also
a force that is parallel to the surface. This parallel force is called the
frictional force, or simply friction.
In some cases, friction is desirable while in other cases, friction reduces the
THE
effectiveness of machines. Without friction, you would not be able to walk ;
the wheels of a vehicle would have no grip on a road surface and the SPOT P
vehicle would not be able to move forward or backward.
On the other hand, friction is undesirable in most of the cases. Friction
LIGHT
causes mechanical parts to seize and wear out, and mechanical energy to The word ‘friction’ comes from Latin
be converted into heat. word ‘fricare’ which means ‘to rub’.
Friction is present whenever, particles come in contact, it is present in
every medium namely, solids, liquids and gases.
Class-VIII
Gently push a book on a table to the right [see fig.1(a)]. You will observe
that the book stops after moving some distance. Now, push the book again
but in opposite direction i.e., to the left [see fig.1(b)]. Still, you will observe
the same result i.e., the book stops after moving some distance.
Conclusion : A force must be acting on the book that is opposing its
Force
motion. This force is called the force of friction.
3. Spring balance
(a) Spring balance is a device used for measuring the force acting on an object
or the weight of an object. It consists of a coiled spring which gets stretched
when a force is applied to it. The stretch in the spring is measured by a
Force pointer moving on a graduated scale (see fig.2). The reading on this scale
gives the magnitude of the force.
F Spring balance usually measures force in terms of grams or kilograms.
The force in kilograms can be converted in newtons by multiplying it by a
factor 9.8. For example, if spring balance measures 1.5 kgs, then it is
1.5 ´ 9.8 = 14.7 N.
(b) Take a shoe and attach its lace to the hook of a spring balance. Put the shoe
and spring balance assembly on the floor. Now, pull the shoe by the spring
Fig.1 Active Physics 1 balance (see fig.3). You need to apply some force. Note down the reading
When a book is pushed on a table, it on the spring balance when the shoe just begins to move. It gives you a
fina lly stops after moving some measure of the force of friction between the sole of the shoe and the floor.
distance.
Now wrap a piece of polythene around the shoe and again pull it by the
spring balance. You will observe a change in the reading of the spring
balance. Repeat this activity by wrapping a piece of jute bag around the
shoe. Again, you will get a new reading of the spring balance.

Conclusion : Friction depends on both of the surfaces in contact, therefore,
the value of friction is different for different pairs of surfaces.
The force of friction on a carrom ‘striker’ is very small when it is sliding on

ice. What happens when the same ‘striker’ is allowed to slide on a piece
Fig.2 A spring balance of sandpaper? Does the friction remain the same?
Explanation
When the striker slides on a piece of sandpaper, it experiences a large
frictional force as the surface of sandpaper is quite rough. Thus, it will
stop in a very short time interval. No, friction is not the same as it varies
with the pair of surfaces in contact.
A boy falls down when he steps on a banana peel. Why?

Explanation
When a boy walks on a road, the friction between soles of his shoes and
the road surface is quite large. Thus, he has an adequate grip on the road
surface and he can walk easily. When he steps on a banana peel, a smooth
Fig.4 A boy falls down layer of banana peel between his shoes and the road reduces the friction
when he steps on a banana peel. significantly. This causes the boy to slide easily (see fig.4).
Physics
1. Make an inclined plane on a smooth floor. Use a wooden board supported

by bricks [see fig.6(a)]. Put a mark with a pen at any point A on the inclined
plane. Now let a pencil cell move down from this point. Note down the
distance travelled by the cell when it comes to rest using a scale.
2. Now spread a piece of cotton cloth over the table [see fig.6(b)]. Make sure
that there are no wrinkles in the cloth. Now, again let a pencil cell move
down from the point A. Again, note down the distance travelled by the cell
when it comes to rest using a scale. You will find that in this case, the
distance travelled is less as compared to the case 1. This means the friction
is more in this case. (a) Friction is quite small on ice.
ic ks
Br A
rk
Ma
W
oo
de
n
Bo
ar
d
Tab
l e
Ce (b) Friction is quite large on coarse
ll
surface near sea shore.
Fig.5 An object sliding on a surface;
(a) Pencil cell covers a greater distance on smooth table. friction varies from surface to surface.
ic ks
Br A
rk
Ma
W
THE
P
oo
de
SPOT
n
Bo
LIGHT
ar
d
Tab
le If two objects are in contact, frictional
Ce forces always try to prevent one object
ll
from sliding on the other object.
(b) Pencil cell covers a smaller distance on cotton cloth.

Conclusion : Again, we conclude that ‘friction depends on both of the
surfaces in contact’. More the distance travelled by an object on a surface,
less will be the friction between them and vice-versa.
4. The cause of friction
Friction is caused by the irregularities on the two surfaces in contact. Even
those surfaces which appear very smooth have a large number of minute
irregularities on them. If you look through a microscope at two smooth
surfaces touching each other, you would see tiny hills and valleys on both Fig.7 Tiny hills and valleys
sides (see fig.7). These tiny hills and valleys on both the surfaces lock into (irregularities) on the surfaces in
one another. As surfaces slide or try to slide across each other, the hills and contact cause friction.
valleys grind against each other and cause friction. In order to move an
object, we have to apply a force to overcome interlocking (or friction).
Class-VIII
F The tiny hills on the surfaces in contact may change shape or wear away
when the two surfaces slide across each other. For example, if you rub
THE sandpaper on a piece of wood, friction affects the wood’s surface and
SPOT P 5.
makes it either smoother (hills wear away) or rougher (they change shape).
Types of friction
LIGHT
On rough surfaces, there are a larger There are many kinds of friction that exist in different media.
number of irregularities. So the force
(i) Static friction : It exists when two surfaces try to move across each
of friction is greater if a rough surface
is involved. The frictional force usually other but not enough force is applied to cause motion.
becomes smaller as the surfaces (ii) Sliding friction : It exists when two surfaces slide across each other.
become smoother.
(iii) Rolling friction : It exists when one object rolls over another object.
(iv) Air friction (air resistance) : It exists when air moves around an
object.
(v) Viscous friction : It exists when objects move through water or other
liquids.(see fig. 8)]
Applied force Applied

force Motion
Cloth
Static air
(a) No motion friction friction
Table
Motion
(b) Motion through air
(a) A cloth slides smoothly
when pulled across a table.
Sliding
Motion
(b) sliding motion friction
Applied force Fish
Force Viscous
Cloth
friction
Brick Rolling
(c) Rolling motion friction
Table
Fig.8 Types of friction
(b) A brick put on the cloth, a greater
force is needed to move the cloth.
1. Is friction desirable in some cases? If yes, give an example.
2. Which device can be used to measure the friction between two surfaces?
3. Why does a bicycle slow down when brakes are applied?
THE
SPOT P Take a piece of cloth and attach a spring balance to it. Now, pull the piece
of cloth across a table [see fig.9(a)]. The cloth slides smoothly, and the
LIGHT spring balance measures almost no force. Now put a brick on the piece of
cloth and again pull it across the table [see fig.9(b)]. You will observe that
Increasing the force that pushes
you have to apply a greater force to keep the cloth moving. Thus, the
surfaces together increases the
amount of friction. spring balance measures a greater force.
Conclusion : Putting the brick on the top of the paper greatly increases
the friction force thus, a greater force is required to keep the cloth moving.
Physics
6. Friction depends on the force between surfaces

THE
Force of friction increases if the two surfaces are pressed harder.
For example, you can drag a mat easily when nobody is sitting on it. But, SPOT P
when a person is sitting on the mat, it is very difficult to drag the mat.
The greater the force pressing the two surfaces together, the
LIGHT
greater will be the force of friction between them. The force of friction is proportional to
the weight of an object placed on a
surface. If the weight doubles, the
It is quite easy to move a cloth alone on a surface. But when you place a force of friction also doubles.
book on it, you have to pull hard to move the same cloth. Why?
Explanation
The two surfaces in contact are still the cloth and the table. But, the book
causes the cloth to press harder into the table’s surface. The tiny hills and
valleys in the cloth and in the table are pressed together with a much
greater force, thus, the interlocking between the two surfaces increases.
This increases the friction between the two surfaces in contact. Thus, it
becomes harder to pull the same cloth.
Friction increases with weight
You know that the friction force between two hard surfaces is approximately
proportional to the force pressing the surfaces against each other. If an
object is placed on a floor, the force between the object and the floor is the
weight of the object. For a heavy object, the weight is quite large, therefore,
the force between the object and the floor is also large. Thus, the friction (a)
force between them is large.
Suppose you have to push a heavy box across the floor. You can push the
box with its face having larger area touching the floor as shown in fig.10(a).
Also, you can push it with its face having smaller area touching the floor
as shown in fig.10(b). In which case, the force of friction acting on the box
is more?
Explanation
You know that, the force of friction is proportional to the weight of the
object with hard surface is placed on another hard surface. In both the
cases (a) and (b), box and the floor remains the same, this means, the
weight of the box is also the same. Since, the weight is same in both the
cases, the force of friction acting on the box in each case is also the same. (b)
Here, we get a good result that ‘for hard contact surfaces, the force of
Fig.10 Building concept 4
friction does not depend on the ‘area of contact’ between the two surfaces.
F The rule that ‘the force of friction does not depend on the area of contact’
is true for dry and hard surfaces. It is not true if the surfaces are wet, or if
they are soft. Rubber is soft as compared to the surface of a road. The
friction between rubber and surface of road also depends on how much
rubber is contacting with the surface of road. Thus, wide tyres (made of
rubber) have more friction than narrow tyres.
1. Yes, friction is desirable in many cases. For example, we cannot walk on

the road without friction. Friction provides the necessary grip between our
shoes and the road so that we can walk comfortably.
2. Spring balance can be used to measure the friction between two surfaces.
Break pads
3. On applying brakes, you provide a pressing (push) force between the ‘brake
Rim Wheel
pads’ and the ‘rim’ of the wheel. This creates a friction between the ‘brake
pads’ and the rim of the wheel (see fig.11). Friction makes the bicycle slow Fig.11 Check you answers 1 (3)
down or stop. (Bicycle break system)
Class-VIII
THE 7. Static friction

SPOT P Suppose you push on a heavy box and the box doesn’t move. This means
the forces acting on the box are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction
LIGHT i.e., the net force on the box is zero [see fig.12(a) on next page]. The force
The direction of static friction is you exert on the box is balanced by a force acting on the box in the
opposite to the applied force. Also, it opposite direction. This force is called static friction.
acts in a direction opposite to the Static friction is the force between two surfaces in contact that
direction in which an object tends to tends to prevent a stationary object to start moving.
move.
F In other words, ‘static friction is the force exerted on an object at rest that
prevents the object from sliding’.
The static friction is exerted on the bottom of the box where it touches the
floor. Suppose you push harder and the box still doesn’t move [see fig.12(b)].
This means that the force of static friction has increased to balance the force
you apply. However, there is an upper limit to the value of the static friction
force between two surfaces. If your applied force becomes greater than the
maximum value of static frictional force, then the box begins to move.
Applied F The maximum static friction is called the starting friction or limiting
force friction. It is the amount of force that must be overcome to start a stationary
object to move.
Static
Friction 8. Sliding friction or dynamic friction
When the force pushing on the box is larger than the maximum static
friction force, the box begins to slide. When the box is sliding, a different
(a) Static friction balances frictional force acts on the box. This force is sliding friction.
the force applied to the box.
The force that opposes the movement of two surfaces that are in contact
and are sliding over each other is called sliding friction.
Applied F In other words, ‘sliding friction is the force exerted on an object in motion
force that opposes the motion of the object as it slides on another object’.
The magnitude of the applied force is usually greater than that of sliding
friction (see fig.13). Unlike static friction, the magnitude of sliding friction
Static does not change if you push on the box harder. As long as the object is
Friction sliding, the force of sliding friction is constant. If the force you apply is
greater than sliding friction, the box speeds up as it slides. If the force you
(b) Static friction increases to balance apply is equal to sliding friction, the box slides with a constant speed.
the greater force applied to the box.
Motion
Fig.12 Static friction
prevents the box from sliding.
Applied
force
Sliding
friction
Fig.13 Understanding sliding friction

THE
SPOT P Sliding friction is smaller than static friction
The force required to overcome friction at the instant an object starts moving
LIGHT from rest is a measure of static friction (starting friction). On the other
The direction of sliding friction is hand, the force required to keep the object moving with the same speed is
opposite to the applied force. Also, a measure of sliding friction. Static friction is not created by motion, but it
the direction of sliding friction is results from the interlocking of hills and valleys. When the box starts sliding,
always opposite to the motion of the the contact points on its surface, do not get enough time to lock into the
sliding object. contact points on the floor. So, the sliding friction is slightly smaller than
the static friction and you find it somewhat easier to move the box already
in motion than to get it started.
Physics
9. Friction : a necessary evil

Friction is often undesirable, it causes wear of machine parts, engines,
soles of shoes, etc. Thus, friction is an evil. But, it can also be useful. For THE
example, walking on the road is not possible without friction. Walking or
running on the road involves static friction. Friction has advantages as well
SPOT P
as disadvantages and thus, friction is a necessary evil. LIGHT
F There are many applications where friction is both useful and necessary. Static friction is greater than sliding
friction. This is because it takes more
Friction is useful/necessary in many cases force to break the interlocking
(1) Friction is required to hold vessels like glass tumbler, a kulhar between two surfaces than it does to
(earthen pot). Without friction it would not be possible to hold such vessels keep them sliding once they are
already moving.
(see fig.14).
(2) You could not write with pen or pencil if there were no friction. When
your teacher is writing with chalk on the blackboard, its rough surface rubs
off some chalk particles which stick to the black board. It could not happen
if there were no friction between the chalk and the board. Here, wear
caused by friction is useful for writing with chalk !!
(3) Friction is useful for brakes and tyres. The brakes on a bicycle create
friction between two rubber brake pads and the rim of the wheel. Friction
between the brake pads and the rim slows down the bicycle. Friction is also
necessary to make a bicycle go on the road. Without friction the bicycle’s
tyres would not grip the road. All the automobiles/vehicles move on the
road due to the friction between their tyres and the road.
(4) You could not fix a nail in the wall without friction. Friction keeps nails in
place. When a nail is hammered into wood, the wood pushes against the nail
on all sides (see fig.15). The force of the wood against the nail surface creates
a lot of friction. Each hit of the hammer pushes the nail deeper into the
wood. The deeper the nail goes, the more is the push force of the wood on
the nail surface, thus greater is the force of friction to keep the nail in place. Fig.14 Without friction, Laluji
(5) You could not tie a knot without friction. A knot tied on a rope made of smooth cannot hold the ‘kulhar’ in his
fibre like nylon can be opened easily as friction between the surfaces of nylon hand.
fibres is quite small. A knot tied on rope made of jute is difficult to open as the
friction is quite large between the surfaces of jute fibres involved in the knot.
1. Two boxes A and B made of same material are placed on a table (see
fig.16). Box A has 1 kg weight and box B has 2 kg weight. If you try to
push each of them, which one will have the greater force of friction?
B
P u s h Force
force of of
1 kg 2 kg
Fig.16 Check your concepts 2 (1)

2. Suppose you are trying to push a box placed on a floor in north direction.
But, the box does not move. Which type of friction exist in this case? What
Fig.15 Friction keeps the
is its direction?
3. The maximum value of static friction for two surfaces in contact is 100 N.
Is the value of sliding friction greater than, less than or equal to 100 N?
Class-VIII
Why is it hard to pull out a nail fixed in a piece of wood or a wall?

Explanation
A nail fixed in a piece of wood experiences a large push force exerted by
wood on its surface from all sides. This force of the wood against the nail
surface creates a lot of friction. When we try to pull out the nail from the
piece of wood, this large friction opposes the motion of nail (see fig.17).
Thus, it is hard to pull out nail fixed in a piece of wood or wall.
Push force 10. Rolling friction

of wood Suppose a bicycle is moving on a road. The wheel of the bicycle rotates
about the axle and the axle itself is moving in a straight line. As a result,
the motion of the wheel is a combination of both spin (rotational) motion
and linear motion (see fig. 18).
Force of When a spinning wheel moves ahead on a surface, its motion is called
‘rolling motion’ or simply ‘rolling’. Rolling reduces the friction
significantly.
Fig.17 Building concepts 5 When one body rolls over the surface of another body, the resistance
(opposition) to its motion is called the rolling friction.
It is lot easier to move a loaded filing cabinet across a horizontal floor using
Spin (rotation) a cart with ‘wheels’ than to ‘slide’ it. Since the rolling friction is smaller
than the sliding friction, sliding is replaced in most machines by rolling by
the use of ball bearings.
Linear
motion Gently push a book on a table [see fig.19(a)]. You will observe that the
book stops after moving some distance. Now, take a few pencils which are
Road
Wheel cylindrical in shape. Place them parallel to each other on a table. Place
Fig.18 Rolling motion the same book over it. Again push the book [see fig.19(b)]. You will observe
the pencils rolling as the book moves. But, in this case you will observe that
the book stop after covering a greater distance than before.
Conclusion : It is easier to move the book by rolling than to slide it.
Rolling friction is quite less as compared to the sliding friction.
What type of motion will you predict for automobiles if there is no friction?
Explanation
Fo If there is no friction between the tyres of the automobiles and the road,
rce
they cannot be started or stopped or turned to change the direction of
motion. If a push force is given to them, they will just slide over the surface
(a) without rolling of their tyres. They will continue to move with a constant
speed in a straight line i.e., they will never stop.
11. Friction and energy
Friction changes energy of motion into heat energy. You may have noticed that
rubbing your hands together quickly can make them warmer on a cold day.
You are feeling the effect of friction changing energy of motion into heat.
Fo
Heat in machines
rce
Friction is always present in any machine with moving parts. If the machine
is small, or the forces are low, the amount of heat produced by friction
may also be small. A sewing machine gets warmer as it runs, but usually
(b) not so hot that parts melt or break. You might have observed that the jar of
a mixer becomes hot when it runs for a few minutes. Larger machines
have more problems with heat.
Physics
F Igniting a matchstick involves friction. When you strike (rub) a matchstick

against the rough surface of matchbox, it catches fire (see fig.20). Here,
friction between the matchstick and the rough surface of matchbox produces
enough heat to ignite the matchstick that causes fire.
Friction causes wear
Another way friction changes energy is by wearing away moving parts. You
have probably noticed that objects that slide against each other often get
rounded or smoothed. Each time two moving surfaces touch each other,
tiny bits of material are broken off by friction. Breaking off bits of material Fig.20 Stricking a match
consumes energy. Sharp corners and edges are rounded off and flat surfaces stick produces fire by friction
may be scratched or even polished smooth and shiny.
F Water flowing over stones in a stream or river causes the stones to be
rounded and smooth due to friction (see fig.21). Friction wears out the
soles of your shoes (see fig.22 on next page), ball bearings, screws, etc.
12. Fluid friction
Fluids are the substances which can flow on application of force or pressure
on them. Gases and liquids are fluids.
The force of friction exerted by the fluids on the objects moving through Fig.21 Rocks or stone worn out by
them is called fluid friction. the friction due to flowing water.
F The frictional force exerted by fluids is also called drag. Fluid friction affects
a boat moving through water and an aeroplane flying through air.
Air is a mixture of gases and it is also a fluid. Though air is very light, yet it
exerts frictional force on objects moving through it. This friction is called
air resistance.
Air resistance is a form of friction that acts to slow down any object
moving in the air.
Similarly, water and other liquids exert force of friction when objects move
through them. This friction is called viscous friction. Fig.22 Soles of shoes
The resistance offered by the liquids to the motion of the object moving wear out due to friction.
through them is called viscous friction.
Factors that affect fluid friction
The fluid friction (air resistance or viscous friction) on an object moving in a Air
fluid depends on resistance
(i) Speed of the object in the fluid. The faster an object moves in a fluid,
the greater is the fluid friction acting on it.
(ii) Shape of the object moving in the fluid. For example, a piece of
paper crumpled into a ball falls faster than a flat piece of paper falls.
Here, the force of friction on the flat piece of paper is more than the piece
of paper crumpled into a ball.
(iii) Nature of the fluid. This means a given object experiences different
amounts of friction in different fluids. For example, an object moving with
a certain speed experiences a greater friction in water than that
experienced in air.
Motion
1. Force of friction is greater for box B as it has more weight as compared to
box A.
2. Here, static friction is exerted on the surface of the box which is in contact
with the floor. We know that, the direction of static friction is opposite to
the applied force thus, in this case it is acting in south direction.
3. The value of sliding friction is less than 100 N because sliding friction is
smaller than static friction. Ground
F When a person falls in air using parachute, the fluid friction (air resistance) Fig.23 This parachutist need not worry, she
that acts on a parachute slows the fall (see fig.23). In this case, friction will land safely on the ground as friction
offered by air slows down her speed.
allows a parachutist to land safely without any injury.
Class-VIII
Why the force of friction on a carrom ‘striker’ is very small when it is

THE
SPOT P sliding on ice?
Explanation
LIGHT
When the ‘striker’ slides on ice, a thin layer of water between the striker
The effect of fluid friction is negligible at
low speeds. But at very high speeds its
and the ice allows the striker to slide easily. Water and other liquids, such
effect is quite significant, it can heat up as oil, can greatly reduce the friction between surfaces.
the object moving in the fluid.
Fig.24 Building concepts 7
13. Reducing friction

Frictional forces are unavoidable. Any motion where surfaces move across
each other or through air or water always creates some friction. Unless a
force is continually applied, friction eventually slows down all motion to a
stop. For example, bicycles have very low friction, but even the best bicycle
THE slows down if you stop pedalling on a level road. Friction cannot be
SPOT P completely eliminated but it can be reduced. Many clever inventions have
been devised to reduce friction. You use them every day.
LIGHT Lubricants reduce friction in machines
Powdered graphite is also used as a
lubricant in machines where high Keeping a fluid such as oil between sliding surfaces keeps the surfaces
temperatures are involved. At high from actually touching each other. Instead of wearing away each other’s
temperatures liquid lubricants like oil hills and valleys, surfaces separated by oil stir up the oil instead. The force
may burn out or decompose, that of friction is greatly reduced, and surfaces do not wear out as fast.
may increase the friction instead of A fluid used to reduce friction is called a lubricant. You add oil to a car engine
reducing it. so the pistons can slide back and forth with less friction. Even water can be
used as a lubricant under conditions where there is not too much heat.
A bicycle and a motor mechanic uses grease between the moving parts of
these machines. In some machines, it may not be advisable to use oil as lubricant
thus, an air cushion between the moving parts is used to reduce friction.
How does oil or grease reduce the friction between moving parts of a machine?
Explanation
Surface When oil or grease is applied between the moving parts of a machine, a
thin layer is formed there and moving surfaces do not directly rub against
each other (see fig.25). Interlocking of irregularities is avoided to a great
extent. This reduces the friction and the movement of the machine parts
become smooth.
1. Suppose the outer surface of a glass tumbler is greasy, or has a film of

Oil Surface cooking oil on it. Would it become easier or more difficult to hold it?
Fig.25 Lubrication reduces 2. Why is it convenient to pull the luggage fitted with rollers?
3. Why do you sprinkle fine powder on the carrom board?
Physics
Ball bearings reduce friction

A ball bearing is a device containing many balls that reduce friction while
supporting a load (see fig.26). Ball bearings change sliding friction into
rolling friction, thereby reducing friction by up to 100 times. For example,
a metal shaft rotating in a hole rubs and generates a lot of heat due to
large friction [see fig.27(a)]. Ball bearings that go between the shaft and Fig.26 Ball bearings reduce
the inside surface of the hole allow the shaft to spin more easily [see fig.27(b)].
The shaft rolls on the bearings instead of rubbing against the walls of the
hole. Well oiled (or well greased) bearings rotate easily and greatly reduce
friction.
Air cushion reduces friction
Another method of reducing friction is to separate two surfaces with a
cushion of air. For example, a hovercraft floats on a cushion of air created
(a) Friction between a shaft and
by large fans. an outer part of a machine
produces a lot of heat.
F A hovercraft (air-cushion vehicle, ACV) is a craft capable of travelling over
any surface while supported by a cushion of high-pressure air which is
ejected against the surface below and contained within a ‘skirt’. Hovercrafts
(see fig.28) are unique among all other forms of ground transportation in
their ability to travel equally well over land, ice, and water. Small hovercrafts
are used for sports or passenger services, while giant hovercrafts have (b) Friction can be reduced by
placing ball bearings between
civilian and military applications. shaft and the outer part.
Fig.27 Use of ball bearing
THE
SPOT P
LIGHT
In many machines, oil is pumped
around moving parts. The oil does
two important things. First, oil
Fig.28 A hovercraft moving just above water. Air cushion present between hovercraft reduces friction so less heat is
generated. Second, the oil absorbs
and water reduces friction. This gives a smoother and faster drive as compared to a boat. the heat and carries it away from the
moving parts.
A magnetically levitated train (maglev train) uses electromagnets to
float above the track once the train starts moving (see fig.29). There is no
contact between train and track i.e., only air is present between them.
So there is far less friction than for a normal train on tracks. The ride is
smoother, allowing for much faster speeds.
Class-VIII
THE
SPOT P
LIGHT
In today’s world, all vehicles like cars,
bikes, etc. are designed to have
shapes which reduce fluid friction i.e.,
their bodies are streamlined.
Fig.29 A magnetic train (or maglev train) moves just above the track with very
small friction allowing for much faster speeds and a smoother ride.
Streamlining reduces fluid friction
When objects move through fluids, they have to overcome friction acting
on them. In this process they lose energy. To minimise fluid friction, objects
(a) A shark is streamlined so it can
move through water easily. are given special curved shapes. When an object with flat surfaces moves
through a fluid, it experiences much more fluid friction as compared to
that experienced by an object with curved surfaces.
An object with special curved shape such that the fluid friction on it is
minimum is called a streamlined object.
Where do you think the scientists get hints for the special curved shapes
which offer least friction in fluid?
Explanation
The scientists get hints for these special shapes from nature, of course.
Birds and fishes have to move about in fluids all the time. Their bodies
must have evolved to shapes which would make them not to lose much
energy in overcoming friction (see fig30). If you look carefully at the shape
(b) Bodies of dolphins are streamlined of an aeroplane, you find that its shape is similar to that of a bird.
so they experience less friction while
moving through water.
Fig.30 Building concpets 9
1. It would be more difficult to hold the glass tumbler because the friction
between the hand and the surface of tumbler is very small to balance the
weight of the tumbler.
Physics
2. It is always easier to roll than to slide a body over another because rolling
friction is less than sliding friction. That is why, it is convenient to pull the
luggage fitted with rollers (see fig.31).
3. Powder is sprinkled on the carrom board to reduce friction so that the

striker and carrom coins can move smoothly.
F An aeroplane has a shape that is similar to a bird (see fig.32). Both a bird
and an aeroplane are streamlined objects.
Fig.31 Check your answers 3 (2)

Fig.32 Shapes of an aeroplane and a bird are similar.
14. Increasing friction

Friction is desirable in many real life situations. Thus, efforts are being
made to increase friction for such situations.
Grooving the soles of shoes increases friction
Shoes are designed to increase the friction between your foot and the
ground. Thus, the soles of your shoes are grooved (see fig.33). It is done to
provide the shoes better grip on the floor, so that you can move safely.
Many athletes, including football and soccer players, wear shoes with cleats Fig.33 Grooves on
shoes increase friction
(see fig.34). Cleats are teeth like structures, on the bottom of the shoe
that dig into the ground. Players wearing cleats can apply much greater
force against the ground to help them move and to keep them safe from
slipping.
Treads on tyres increase friction
Friction is also important to anyone driving any vehicle like car, truck or a
motorbike. Tyres of such vehicles are specially designed to maintain friction
on pavement in dry as well as wet conditions. Treaded tyres of cars, trucks,
etc. provide better grip with the ground. Tyre treads have grooves that
allow space for water to be channeled away where the tyre touches the Fig.34 Cleated shoes used by athletes
road if the road surface is wet (see fig.35). This allows good contact between
the rubber and the road surface.
THE
Grooves
SPOT P
LIGHT
Water
Kabaddi players rub their hands
with soil for a better grip of their
opponents. Gymnasts apply some
coarse substance on their hands to
Road
increase friction for better grip.
Fig.35 Grooved tyre treads allow space for water to be channeled away
from the road-tyre contact point, allowing for more friction in wet conditions.
Class-VIII

1. Fill in the blanks 6. Explain why sportsmen use shoes with spikes.
(a) Friction opposes the ................... between the Ans. Sportsmen use shoes with spikes to increase the
surfaces in contact with each other. friction between shoes and surface. The shoes with
(b) Friction depends on the ................... of surfaces. spikes do not slip while they run or play.
(c) Friction produces ................... 7. Eqbal has to push a lighter box and Seema has to
(d) Sprinkling of powder on the carrom board push a similar heavier box on the same floor. Who
................... friction. will have to apply a larger force and why?
(e) Sliding friction is ................... than the static Ans. The heavy object will be pressed hard against the
friction. opposite surface and produces more friction. So
Ans. (a) relative motion (b) nature (c) heat Seema will have to apply a larger force due to more
(d) reduces (e) less. friction.
2. Four children were asked to arrange forces due to 8. Explain why sliding friction is less than static friction.
rolling, static and sliding frictions in a decreasing Ans. The two sliding objects find less time to get
order. Their arrangements are given below. Choose interlocked against each other (objects and
the correct arrangement: irregularities of surface). So they get less friction.
(1) rolling, static, sliding (2) rolling, sliding, static Therefore sliding friction is always less than static
friction.
(3) static, sliding, rolling (4) sliding, static, rolling
9. Give examples to show that friction is both a friend
Ans. (3) Static, sliding, rolling.
and a foe.
3. Alida runs her toy car on dry marble floor, wet
Ans. Examples to show that friction is a friend and a foe:
marble floor, newspaper and towel spread on the
Friction is friend
floor. The force of friction acting on the car on
different surfaces in increasing order will be (i) Friction allows us to grip and catch different
objects.
(1) wet marble floor, dry marble floor, newspaper,
towel. (ii) It helps us to walk comfortably on the surface.
(2) newspaper, towel, dry marble floor, wet marble (iii) It helps to minimise the speed or to stop the
floor. moving objects.
(3) towel, newspaper, dry marble floor, wet marble (iv) It helps us to write on paper or blackboard.
floor. (v) The things do not move from their places due
(4) wet marble floor, dry marble floor, towel, to friction.
newspaper. Friction is foe
Ans. (1) wet marble floor, dry marble floor, newspaper, (i) Friction causes wear and tear in objects.
towel (ii) It causes damage to the parts of machines.
4. Suppose your writing desk is tilted a little, a book (iii) The machine s or too ls r equi re regular
kept on it starts sliding down. Show the direction of maintenance due to which a lot of money is
frictional force acting on it. wasted.
Ans. The book moves downwards. The frictional force is (iv) It reduces the speed of moving objects so more
acting opposite to the movement of book. So it acts force is required.
upwards. (v) It does not allow the free movement of objects.
5. You spill a bucket of soapy water on a marble floor 10. Explain why objects moving in fluids must have
accidently. Would it make it easier or more difficult special shapes.
for you to walk on the floor. Why? Ans. The objects moving in fluids must have a special
Ans. The layer of soap makes floor smooth due to which shape. This type of shape is called streamlined
the friction is reduced and the foot cannot make a shape. The streamlined shape helps to overcome
proper grip on the floor. Therefore it is difficult to the friction between objects and fluids. The objects
walk on a soapy floor and we start to slip on the have pointed fronts with little broader middle portion
floor. which gets tapered at the back.
Physics
EXERCISE # 1
Multiple choice questions 11. The surface of the head of a match stick and sides
1. When one object moves over the surface of another of a match box are deliberately made rough to
object (1) increase friction
(1) Surfaces of both the objects exert force on each
(2) decrease friction
other in the same direction.
(2) Surface of upper object exerts force of (3) increase pressure
friction on the lower object. (4) decrease amount of heat
(3) Surface of lower object exerts force of friction 12. A meteor burns up on entering earth's atmosphere
on the upper object. due to
(4) Surfaces of both the objects exert force in a
(1) atmospheric pressure (2) heat of the earth
direction opposite to each other.
2. Frictional force is exerted by (3) solar radiation (4) excessive friction
(1) only hard surface 13. Which of the following is correct?
(2) only liquids (1) Static friction < Rolling friction < Sliding friction
(3) only gases (2) Rolling friction < Static friction < Sliding friction
(4) all of the above
3. The surface of a table is smoother as compared to (3) Static friction > Sliding friction > Rolling friction
that of a road. This is due to (4) Sliding friction < Static friction < Rolling friction
(1) more irregularities on the surface of table 14. The frictional force exerted by liquids is called
(2) less irregularities on the surface of table (1) static friction (2) viscous friction
(3) less irregularites on the surface of road (3) rolling friction (4) dynamic friction
(4) all of the above 15. In a stream or river, water flowing over stones
4. Which of the following material is likely to have least causes the stone to be rounded and smooth due to
friction? (1) rolling friction (2) sliding friction
(1) Wood (2) Plastic (3) Glass (4) Paper (3) air friction (4) viscous friction
5. In which of the following cases more friction is 16. Fluid friction depends upon
desirable? (1) speed of the object in the fluid
(1) Movement of piston in a cylinder (2) shape of the object moving in the fluid
(2) Braking of a vehicle (3) nature of fluids in which object is moving
(3) Running on a track (4) all of the above
(4) All of the above
17. Friction reduces efficiency of machines due to
6. If we press two surfaces hard together then frictional
force (1) production of heat
(1) decreases (2) increases (2) wearing out of moving parts
(3) remain same (4) none of these
(3) increase in energy consumption
7. Limiting friction is
(1) directly proportional to the area of contact (4) all of the above
(2) inversely proportional to the area of contact 18. Friction is minimised by using
(3) independent on the area of contact (1) wheels and ball bearings
(4) all of these (2) more number of tyres in a car
8. The maximum force of friction when the body is just (3) rough surfaces
beginning to move is known as the (4) none of these
(1) limiting friction (2) rolling friction 19. A streamlined body
(3) kinetic friction (4) (1) and (2) both (1) increases friction (2) reduces friction
9. It is difficult to walk on ice because of (3) decreases weight (4) increases weight
(1) absence of friction (2) absence of inertia 20. Spikes are provided in the shoes of athlete
(3) more inertia (4) more friction (1) for decoration
10. Powder is used in carrom board for
(2) to increase friction
(1) increasing friction (2) decreasing friction
(3) decoration (4) fragrance (3) to decrease friction
(4) none of the above
Class-VIII
True or false
2. Column-I Column-II
1. The frictional force is always in a direction opposite
to the direction in which the body tends to move (A) An opposing force (i) Streamlined
relative to the other. (B) Special shape of (ii) Friction
2. The force of friction on a body may be zero even body, in order to
if it is on a rough surface. experience least
friction
3. Sliding friction is another name for static friction. (C) Grooves in tyres (iii) Decrease friction
4. Limiting friction is directly proportional to the (D) Oil and grease (iv) Increase friction
normal reaction.
Fill in the blanks
5. Air resistance is also a form of friction.
1. A frictional force is an example of a ..................
6. The common name for gas and liquid is fluid.
force.
7. Rolling friction is greater than sliding friction, if all 2. When the surfaces of two object in contact are made
other factors are the same. more rough, then the friction force ............ between
8. Friction offered by powder sprinkled on a carrom them.
board reduces friction. 3. Friction arises due to the interlocking of hills and
9. Friction between two surfaces can be increased by .................. present in a body.
polishing the surfaces. 4. .................. is a self adjusting force.
10. Tyres have treads to increase friction. 5. Friction depends upon ................. of surfaces.
6. Sliding friction is .................. than rolling friction.
Match the column
7. The friction that exists between a surface sliding
1. Column-I Column-II over another is called ..................
8. Limiting friction is .................. of the area of
(A) Friction force is (i) Frictional force contact.
(B) Force opposing the (ii) Less than sliding
motion is friction 9. Friction is responsible for .................... of machine
(C) Rolling friction is (iii) Area of contact parts.
(D) Limiting friction is (iv) A n e x a m p l e o f 10. Boats and aeroplanes are .................. so as to
independent of contact force. reduce fluid friction.

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. 4 4 2 3 2 2 3 1 1 2
Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 4 3 2 4 4 4 1 2 2
True or false
1. True 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. True
6. True 7. False 8. True 9. False 10. True
Match the column
1. (A) ® (iv), (B) ® (i), (C) ® (ii), (D) ® (iii) 2. (A) ® (ii), (B) ® (i), (C) ® (iv), (D) ® (iii)
Fill in the blanks
1. Contact 2. Increases 3. Valleys 4. Static Friction
5. Mass and nature of the body 6. Greater 7. Sliding friction
8. Independent 9. Wears 10. Streamlined
Physics
EXERCISE # 2
Very short answers type questions 4. What is fluid friction? Write the factors on which fluid
1. Does force of friction always oppose the relative friction depends.
motion between the two bodies in contact? 5. Explain how friction can be increased and
2. Is friction a self-adjusting force? decreased?
3. What is the cause of friction between two Activity based questions
surfaces? 1. A pushing force acts on the trolley as shown. Which
4. Why does jar of a mixer become hot when it runs arrow shows the frictional force acting on the wheel x?
O
for few minutes? Push
5. Why is the piece of luggage fitted with rollers?
6. It is easier to hold an earthen pot or a glass
tumbler. Why?
7. What is a lubricant? D x
8. What do you understand by the term streamlining? A B
C
9. Why do Kabaddi players rub their hands with (1) A, C (2) B, C (3) B, D (4) None
soil?
2. Observe the figure given below and identify X and
10. Why athletes wear specially designed shoes with
spikes on the soles? Y. X
Pushing force
Short answers type questions Y
1. Take two bricks, one is wrapped in jute while other
is wrapped in polythene. Which will be easy to move
on a surface and why? X Y
2. Why is it easy to move a mat from the floor, but it (1) Motion Weight
is difficult to move the mat when some body is sitting (2) Motion Friction
on it?
(3) Friction Weight
3. What are the main factors on which friction depends?
(4) Weight Motion
4. What happens, if the floor on which we walk, has
3. Anoop and Sohail were studying friction and
less friction?
decided to do an experiment. They placed equal
5. Why we could not write with chalk if there were no
masses of an ice block and sand paper block on
friction?
an elevated plastic tray. They watched the blocks
6. Our hands become warm when we rub them.
Why? moving down the tray. What did they observe?
(1) Ice block reaches the bottom of the tray first.
7. "Friction causes wear and tear". Give an everyday
example in support of above statement. (2) Sand paper block reaches the bottom of the tray
8. What are the two kinds of commonly experienced first.
fluid friction? (3) Both blocks reaches the bottom of the tray at
9. What are ball bearings? How are they useful? the same time.
(4) Both blocks offer same amount of friction.
10. Why is it said that worn out tyres should be discarded?
Long answers type questions
1. With the help of an experiment show that the force Sand paper
of friction always opposes the relative motion Ice block
block
between the bodies.
2. With the help of examples, prove that friction is a Plastic
tray
necessary evil.
3. Illustrate static, sliding and rolling friction with an
example of each.
Class-VIII
4. In which case the frictional force between the car 5. A coin flicked across a table will stop, because of
and the road is less?
1
(1) distance between two bodies

(2) mass of the two bodies
(3) chemical properties of the two bodies
(4) friction between coin and table
Dry road Wet road
(1) Dry road (2) Wet road
(3) Same in both (4) None of these

Que. 1 2 3 4 5
Ans. 3 2 1 2 4
Physics
CHAPTER 3 SOUND
The characteristic sound of any

instrument is referred to as the
quality of that sound.
"A form of energy, produced

by rapidly vibrating objects,
that can be heard by the
human ear is called sound."
1. Introduction
From our earliest years, we become accustomed to a great variety of sounds:
our mother’s voice, a telephone ringing, a kitten purring, a piano being
played, a siren, a jet engine roaring, a rifle shot. Some of these sounds are
pleasant to the ear and some are not. Sounds are a form of energy
produced by rapidly vibrating objects. We hear sounds because this
energy stimulates the auditory nerve in the human ear.
In the 18th century, philosophers and scientists debated the question, “If a
tree falls in the forest and no one is there to hear it, will there be sound?”
“Of course there will be,” said the scientists, “because the crash of the tree
is a vibrating source that sends out sound waves through the ground and the
air.” To them, sound was the motion of the particles in a medium caused by
a vibrating object. “Of course not,” said the philosophers, “because no THE
observer is present.” To them, sound was a personal sensation that existed SPOT P
only in the mind of the observer. This debate could never be resolved because LIGHT
one group was defining sound objectively in terms of its cause, and the Lightning a nd thunder : Light
other was defining it subjectively in terms of its effects on the human ear travels nearly 1 million times faster
and brain. In physics, we study the transmission of sound objectively, leaving than sound in air. Thus, we see lighting
first and then we hear its sound
the subjective interpretation of the effects of sound on the human ear and
(thunder).
brain to the philosophers.
Sound plays an important role in our life. It helps us to communicate with
one another. We hear a variety of sounds in our surroundings. In the music
room of your school you hear the sounds made by musical instruments like
flute, tabla, harmonium, etc.(see fig. 1)
Class-VIII
THE
SPOT P Harmonium
LIGHT
A tuning fork is a two-pronged steel
fork which produces sound when Tabla
struck. A tuning fork makes a sound
as the prongs of the fork vibrate in
the air.
Veena
Flute
Fig.1 Some musical instruments

2. Sound is produced by a vibrating body
We can describe the sounds we hear in many ways. For example, lions
roar, babies cry, birds chirp, corks pop, etc. All these types of sounds
originate from vibrating objects.
But, some vibrations are visible some are not. If you pluck a guitar string
Fig.2 Vibrations of a (see fig.2) or strike a low-frequency tuning fork (see fig.3), you can see the
guitar strings can be visible actual vibrations of the object. Similarly, if you watch the low-frequency
woofer of a loudspeaker system, you can see it vibrating.
There are many vibrations that are not visible, however. When you speak,
for instance, parts of your throat vibrate. When you make a whistling sound
by blowing over an empty pop bottle, the air molecules in the bottle vibrate
to produce sound.
1. Take a frying pan and a pressure cooker (see fig.4). Place the cooker at a
convenient place. Now strike it with the frying pan.
2. You will hear a sound of striking. Now, touch the surface of pressure cooker
gently with your finger. You will feel the vibrations on the surface of the
pressure cooker.
Fig.3 A vibrating tuning fork Fig.4 Active physics 1
Physics
Rubber
band
1. Take a rubber band. Stretch it around the longer side of a pencil box
(see fig.5). Insert two pencils between the box and the stretched rubber.
Now, pluck the rubber band somewhere in the middle.
2. You will hear a sound. You will clearly see the vibrations of the rubber
band.
ox
cil b
1. Take a metal dish. Pour water in it. Strike it at its edge by a spoon Pen
(see fig.6). You will hear a sound. Now, on touch it you will feel the vibrations
in it. Pencil
2. Strike the dish again. Now, look at the surface of water. You will see the
vibrations on the surface of water i.e., you will see waves on the surface of
water.
3. Now hold the dish. On holding the dish, the sound stops quickly. The waves
(or vibrations) on the surface of water also stop. This clearly connects sound
with the vibrations of a body.
Fig.7 An Ektara consists of a single

stretched string which produces
Fig.6 Active physics 3 sound when it is vibrated using a bow.
Table to show some musical instruments and their vibrating parts
S.No. Vibrating part of the instrument

Musical instrument
that produces sound
1. Veena Stretched string
2. Tabla Stretched membrane
3. Flute Air column
4. Violin Stretched string
5. Manjira Metallic body

Fig.8 A violin along with its bow
6. Trumpet Air column
7. Jal tarang China bowl
Class-VIII
Jal tarang
The Jal tarang is one of the most rarely heard instruments today. It is one
of the oldest instrument in the world. It consists of china bowls filled with
water and struck by means of two cane sticks. Earlier, since china clay
bowls weren't available, artists used to play this instrument with metal bowls.
THE
SPOT P Each bowl can be tuned to the desired frequency by varying the quantity of
water in it. These bowls are placed in a semi - circular arrangement around
LIGHT the player and played. Ancient texts mention instruments similar to this.
We see that a vibrating object
Indian and Greek texts described such instruments. The Jal tarang has a
produces sound. In some cases, the pleasant characteristic tone. The player can produce on it, classical Indian
vibrations are easily visible to us. But ragas and light melodies as well. (see fig. 9)
in most cases, their amplitude is so
small that we cannot see them.
However, we can feel them.
Fig.9 An artist playing on Jal tarang.
1. Take 6-8 metal bowls or tumblers. Fill them with water up to different
levels, increasing gradually from one end to the other.
2. Now take a pencil and strike the bowls gently. Strike all of them in succession.
You will hear a pleasant sound. This is your own Jal tarang ( see fig.10).
Amplitude of a vibrating particle
As a particle vibrates, it repeats the same motion in equal time intervals.
The distance in either direction from the mean position (or rest position) to
maximum displacement is called its amplitude.(see fig. 11)
Maximum Mean Maximum
Fig.10 Active physics 4 displacement position displacement
Amplitude Amplitude
Fig.11 Amplitude of a vibrating particle
THE
SPOT P Why do you hear the sound of a water fall?
LIGHT Explanation
Amplitude: It is the distance from When water falls from a certain height in a water fall, the vibrating water
the mean position to maximum droplets produce sound that travels through air. This sound is heard by us
displacement of a vibrating particle. when it reaches our ears.
Physics
F Sound of a water fall is a natural sound. Other natural sounds include

animal sounds, from the chirping of crickets to the vocalisations of mammals,
the sound of rain falling on the ground or on water, a rushing river, waves
lapping on a shoreline, thunder, the crack of large pieces of ice shearing
from a glacier or iceberg, and the crackle of a forest fire. Water and wind
sounds are often heard in combination in nature.
When we pluck the string of an instrument, like the sitar, the sound that we
hear is not only that of the string. The whole instrument is forced to vibrate,
and it is the sound of the vibration of the instrument that we hear. Similarly,
when we strike the membrane of a mridangam (or tabla), the sound that
we hear is not only that of the membrane but of the whole body of the
instrument.
Fig.12 The ghatam, is simply
beaten or struck to produce sound
What do you understand by the term vibration or oscillation? Give some
examples of vibrations you see in your daily life.
Explanation
The vibration (or oscillation) of an object is a cycle or a motion that is
repeated over and over with the same time interval each time. Some
examples of vibrations or oscillations we see in our daily life are :
(1) A child swinging on a swing.
(2) A simple pendulum oscillating about its mean position. THE
(3) An oscillating spring that supports a vehicle. SPOT P
F There are three basic types of vibration. A transverse vibration occurs LIGHT
when an object vibrates perpendicular to its axis at the normal rest position. A wave is the motion of a disturbance
An example of a transverse vibration is a child swinging on a swing. in which particles of medium do not
A longitudinal vibration occurs when an object vibrates parallel to its move from one place to another but
axis at the rest position. An example is an oscillating spring supporting a they transfer the pa ttern of
disturbance from one place to
vehicle. A torsional vibration occurs when an object twists around its
another.
axis at the rest position. An example occurs when a string supporting an
object is twisted, causing the object to vibrate. The three kinds of vibration
are shown in fig.13.
Rest axis
Motion is
Rest axis
parallel to
rest axis Motion twists
THE
P
around rest
axis SPOT
LIGHT
Motion is perpendicular In sound waves, the vibrations of
to rest axis Rest axis particles of the medium through
(a) Transverse vibration (b) Longitudinal vibration (c) Torsional vibration which it travels are parallel to the
direction of travel of the wave. Thus,
Fig.13 Different types of vibrations we can say that sound waves are
longitudinal waves.
Class-VIII
3. Wave motion
Consider what happens to the surface of a pond when you drop a pebble
into the water. The disturbance created by the pebble generates water
THE waves that travel away from the disturbance (see fig.14 on next page). If
SPOT P you examine the motion of a leaf floating near the disturbance, you would
see that the leaf moves up and down and back and forth about its original
LIGHT position. However, the leaf does not undergo any net displacement from
A physical environment through which the motion of the waves. The leaf ’s motion indicates the motion of the
a disturbance (or a wave) can travel particles in the water. The water molecules move locally, like the leaf
is called medium. does, but they do not travel across the pond. That is, the water wave
moves from one place to another, but the water and hence the leaf itself is
not carried away with it.
THE
SPOT P
LIGHT
Waves that require a material
medium are called mechanical
waves. Not all wave propagation
requires a medium. Electromagnetic Fig.14 Ripple waves created on the surface of water
waves, such as visible light, radio Ripple waves in a pond start with a disturbance at some point in the water.
waves, microwaves, and X rays, can
This disturbance causes water on the surface near that point to move,
also travel through a vacuum.
which in turn causes points farther away to move. In this way, the waves
travel outwards in a circular pattern away from the original disturbance. In
this example, the water in the pond is the medium through which the
disturbance travels. Particles in the medium in this case are water molecules
which move in vertical circles as waves pass. Note that the medium does
not actually travel with the waves. After the waves have passed, the water
returns to its original position.
4. Sound needs a medium for propagation
Waves of almost every kind require a material medium in which they travel.
Sound waves, for example, cannot travel through outer space, because
space is very nearly a vacuum. In order for sound waves to travel, they
Power must have a medium such as air or water. This means sound requires a
supply medium to travel in. Some school laboratories have a demonstration where
a bell rings inside a jar. The experimental setup is shown in fig.15. As the
air is pumped out of the jar, the sound gradually disappears. When the air
Bell is returned to the jar, the sound returns. Thus, in order for sound to be
jar transmitted, a medium must be present.
1. Take a metal glass tumbler. Make sure that it is dry. Place a cell phone in
Electric
it. (Remember that the cell phone must not be kept in water otherwise it
bell
may get damaged.) Ask your friend to give a ring on this cell phone from
another cell phone. Listen to the ring carefully.
Vacuum
pump 2. Now, surround the rim of the tumbler with your hands (see fig.16). Put
your mouth on the opening between your hands. Indicate to your friend to
give a ring again. Listen to the ring while sucking air from the tumbler
Fig.15 A bell jar
experiment for sound using your mouth. You will observe that the sound become fainter and
fainter as you suck. Now, remove the tumbler from your mouth. You will
observe that the sound becomes loud again.
Physics

Speed of sound depends on the medium
Sound waves can travel through solids, liquids, and gases. Because waves
consist of particle vibrations, the speed of a wave depends on how quickly
one particle can transfer its motion to another particle. For example, solid
particles respond more rapidly to a disturbance than gas particles do
because the molecules of a solid are closer together than those of a gas. As
a result, sound waves generally travel faster through solids than through
gases.
Speed of sound depends on the temperature of the medium
As temperature rises, the particles of a gas collide more frequently. Thus,
in a gas, the disturbance can spread faster at higher temperatures than at
lower temperatures. In liquids and solids, the particles are close enough
together that the difference due to temperature changes is less noticeable.
Sound waves propagate in three dimensions
Sound waves travel away from a vibrating source in all three dimensions. Fig.18 Active physics 7
When a musician plays a musical instrument in the middle of a room, the
resulting sound can be heard throughout the room because the sound waves
spread out in all directions.
1. Take a bathtub and fill it with clean water. Take a small bell in one hand.
Shake this bell inside the water to produce sound. Make sure that the bell
does not touch the body of the bucket or the tub. Place your ear gently on
the water surface (see fig.17).
2. You hear a feeble sound of the bell. This means that sound can travel
through liquids.
1. Take a metre scale or a long metal rod and hold its one end to your ear.
Ask your friend to gently scratch or tap the other end of the scale
(see fig.18).
2. You can hear the sound of the scratch. Ask your friends around you if they Fig.19 A toy telephone :
were able to hear the same sound? Of course, they are also able to hear Sound can travel through strings.
the sound.
F We find that sound can travel through metal. In fact, sound can travel
through any solid.(see fig. 19)
Class-VIII
Echolocation – dolphins, orca whales, and bats

Dolphins and orca whales rely on the production and reflection of sound to
navigate, communicate, and hunt in dark and murky waters. The location
of an object using reflected sound is called echolocation. Both animals
produce clicks, whistles, and other sounds that vary in intensity, frequency,
and pattern. Lower frequency sounds (0.5 – 50 kHz) probably function
mainly for social communication, while higher frequencies (40–150 kHz)
are probably used for echolocation.
F Most bats use echolocation for navigation in the dark and for finding food.
The bat can identify an object by the echo and can even tell the size,
shape, and texture of a small insect. If the bat detects a prey, it will generally
fly towards the source of the echo, continually emitting high frequency
pulses until it reaches its target and scoops the insect up into its wing
membranes and then into its mouth.
Fig.20 Active physics 8 1. Speak loudly for a while or sing a song. Put your hand on your throat as
shown in fig.20. What do you feel?
2. You will feel vibrations that are taking place in your throat. Thus, in humans,
some vibrating part in the throat creates sound.
5. Sound produced by humans
In humans, the sound is produced by the voice box or the larynx. Put your
fingers on the throat and find a hard bump that seems to move when you
swallow. This part of the body is known as the voice box. It is at the upper
end of the windpipe. Two vocal cords, are stretched across the voice box
or larynx in such a way that it leaves a narrow slit between them for the
passage of air (see fig.21 & fig.22). When the lungs force air through the
slit, the vocal cords vibrate, producing sound. The sound is amplified and
modified by the group of parts collectively called the resonators. They
are the pharynx, mouth and nasal cavity. Muscles attached to the vocal
cords can make the cords tight or loose. When the vocal cords are tight
and thin, the type or quality of voice is different from that when they are
Vocal cords loose and thick. Greater tension in the vocal cords and higher air pressure
create vibrations at higher frequencies.
Fig.21 Voice box in humans
F Your vocal cords are two thin folds of muscle and elastic tissue that relax
when you are not speaking. To speak, your muscles stretch your vocal
cords. Rock singers usually over-tense their vocal cords, which creates a
dramatic sound but can cause vocal injuries such as nodules (small growths
on the vocal cords that must be surgically removed).
THE
SPOT P Nasal cavity
LIGHT Tongue
Pharynx
The vocal cords in men are about
Larynx
20 mm long. In women these are Vocal cord
about 5 mm shorter. Children have Trachea
very short vocal cords. This is the Esophagus
reason why the voices of men, women
and children are different.
Lung
Fig.22 Production of sound by human
Physics
Frequency of a vibrating body

The number of oscillations (or cycles) that are taking place per second is
displacement
displacement
called the frequency (f ) of a vibrating body. The SI unit used to measure
Maximum
Maximum
frequency is the hertz (Hz), named after Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894), a
position
Mean
German scientist who first produced electromagnetic waves in the
laboratory.
20 cm
1. Instruments like drum are struck to make a sound. Is the sound produced
by the top surface (the membrane) only? Fig.23 Check your concepts 1(3)
2. Is the frequency of sound produced by thinner and shorter vocal cord high
or low?
3. Vibration of a body is shown in fig.23. What is the amplitude of vibrating
body?
1. Take two rubber strips of the same size. Place these two pieces one above
the other and stretch them tight. Now blow air through the gap between
them [see fig.24(a)]. As the air blows through the stretched rubber strips, a
sound is produced.
2. You can also take a piece of paper with a narrow slit and hold it between
your fingers as shown in fig.24(b). Now, blow through the slit and listen to (a)
the sound. Our vocal cords produce sound in a similar manner.
6. The human ear
The human ear consists of three sections: the outer ear, the middle ear,
and the inner ear (see fig.25). The outer ear consists of the external ear
(pinna) and the auditory canal. The external ear is shaped to collect sounds,
which then travel down the auditory canal to the eardrum (see fig.25). The
audible hearing range of a healthy young adult is approximately 20 to
20,000 Hz. The middle ear is separated from the outer ear by the eardrum,
a very tough, tightly stretched membrane less than 0.1 mm thick. The (b)
eardrum is forced to vibrate by sound coming down the ear canal. The
vibration of the eardrum has the same frequency as the source of the Fig.24 Active physics 9
sound waves.
Oval
Hammer Stirrup window
Anvil
Eardrum THE
External ear
or pinna
Cochlea
Auditory
nerve
SPOT P
LIGHT
Shorter, thinner vocal cords vibrate
Auditory
at higher frequencies than longer or
canal Eustachian thicker ones. This explains why
tube children, whose vocal cords are still
growing, have thinner voices than
adults. Muscles in the throat can
stretch the vocal cords tighter, letting
Outer Middle Inner people vary their frequency within a
ear ear ear
limited range.
Fig.25 A human ear
Class-VIII
Attached to the inside of the eardrum are three small interlocking bones:
the hammer (malleus), the anvil (incus) and the stirrup (stapes). These bones
transmit the vibrations of the eardrum to the inner ear, mechanically
magnifying the pressure variations by a factor of 18. The stirrup transmits
the eardrum vibrations to the threshold of the inner ear at the oval window.
The vibrations set up pressure waves in the fluid that fills the inner ear’s
cochlea. The cochlea is a snail-shaped organ approximately 3.0 cm long,
divided into two equal sections by a partition for most of its length. Waves
are transmitted down one side of the cochlea, around the end of the
partition, and back almost to the point of origin. As these waves move,
they cause approximately 23,000 microscopic hairs to vibrate. Each hair
is connected to a cell that converts the mechanical motion of the hair into
an electrical signal, which in turn is transmitted to the brain by the auditory
nerve.
(a)
F The cavity containing the middle ear is filled with air and is connected to
the mouth by the Eustachian tube. This tube is normally closed, but it
opens during swallowing or yawning, equalizing the air pressure in the
middle ear. If the Eustachian tube becomes blocked, because of a cold for
example, pressure equalization cannot take place and the result is pressure
in the middle ear, which can be quite painful and can affect hearing.
1. Take a plastic can. Cut its ends. Stretch a piece of rubber balloon across
one end of the can and fasten it with a rubber band. Put four or five grains
of dry cereal on the stretched rubber [see fig.26(a)].
(b) 2. Now speak something loudly say “hurray, hurray” from the open end
Fig.26 Active physics 10 [see fig.26(b)]. You will observe that the grains jump up and down. This is
A plastic can eardrum
due to the vibration of stretched rubber balloon. The eardrum is just like
the a stretched rubber sheet. Sound vibrations make the eardrum vibrate
The eardrum sends vibrations to the inner ear. From there, the signal goes
to the brain. That is how we hear.
1. The whole instrument is forced to vibrate, and it is the sound of the vibration
of the instrument that we hear. That is, when we strike the membrane of a
THE
SPOT P drum, the sound that we hear is not only that of the membrane but of the
whole body of the instrument. The vibrating membrane of a drum (or tabla)
LIGHT is attached to a chamber that amplifies (increases) the sound.
The to and fro motion of an object is 2. Shorter, thinner vocal cords vibrate at higher frequencies than longer or
known as vibration. This motion is also thicker ones. Thus, the frequency of sound produced by thinner and shorter
called oscillatory motion. vocal cord is high.
3. Since, amplitude is the distance from the mean position to maximum
displacement of a vibrating particle this means, it is half the total distance
covered by the vibrating particle between its positions of maximum
displacement. Thus, in the given case is its (1/2) ×(20 cm) = 10 cm.
Physics
THE
Is it correct to say that in every case, without exception, any radio wave
travels faster than any sound wave?
SPOT P
Explanation
LIGHT
For human ear, the range of audible
Yes. This is because any radio wave is an electromagnetic wave like light, frequencies is roughly from
thus it travels with the speed of light. The speed of light or radio wave in air 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
is about 3 × 108 m/s and speed of sound is about 340 m/s which is
approximately one million time smaller than the speed of a radio wave.
Time period of a vibrating particle
The time period (T) of a vibrating particle is the time taken to complete
one cycle or oscillation. It is measured in seconds.
1 1 1
Frequency, f = = or f=
Time period T T
1 1 1
or Time period, T = = or T=
frequency f f
No. of cycles
Frequency = THE
Also,
time taken
SPOT P
LIGHT
1. A mass hung from a spring vibrates 15 times in 12 s. Calculate Some animals can hear sounds of
(a) the frequency frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz.
(b) the period of the vibration. Dogs have this ability. The police use
Solution high frequency whistles which dogs
(a) Given, number of cycles = 15 cycles ; total time = 12 s ; frequency, f =? can hear but humans cannot.
No. of cycles 15
Now, f = = = 1.2 cycles/second = 1.25 Hz
time taken 12
1 1 1
(b) Now, f = or T= = = 0.83 s
T f 1.2
2. The frequency of a wave is 5.0 × 102 Hz. Calculate the time period.
Solution
Given, f = 5.0 × 102 Hz ; T =?
1 1
We know that, T = or T = = 0.002 s
f 5 ´ 102
3. Calculate the period in seconds of each of these motions
THE
(a) a pulse beats 25 times in 15 s
(b) a fan motor turns at 1200 rpm (revolutions per minute)
SPOT P
Solution
LIGHT
Ranges of hearing for some animals
(a) Given, no. of cycles = 25 ; time taken = 15 s (1) Dogs : 15 Hz – 50,000 Hz
No. of cycles 25 (2) Cat : 60 Hz – 65,000 Hz
f= = = 1.67 cycles/second (3) Porpoise : 150 Hz – 150,000 Hz
time taken 15 (4) Bat : 1000 Hz – 120,000 Hz
1 1
f 1.6
Class-VIII
(b) Given, no. of cycles = 1200; time taken = 1 min = 60 sec.

No.of cycles 1200
f= = = 20 cycles/second
Vibrations
time taken 60
1 1
f 20
Fig.27 Building conepts 4 7. Audible and inaudible sounds
The ears of most young people respond to sound frequencies of between
20 Hz and 20,000 Hz.
The sounds of frequencies between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz that can be
detected by the human ear is called audible sounds. The sounds of
frequencies less than about 20 Hz and those higher than 20,000 Hz cannot
be detected by the human ear. Such sounds are called inaudible sounds.
F Frequencies of less than 20 Hz are called infrasonic sounds. Frequencies
that are higher than 20,000 Hz are called ultrasonic sounds.
THE
SPOT P A metallic blade fixed in a wall is made to vibrate at its free end. The
LIGHT vibrations of the blade gradually decrease and finally stop after some time.
The ultrasound equipment, familiar Why?
to us for investigating and tracking Explanation
many medical problems, works at
frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz. The vibrations of the blade gradually decrease after some time due to the
friction offered by the air (air resistance) and they finally get stopped.
(see fig. 27)
8. Characteristics of audible sounds

Pitch
The frequency of an audible sound wave determines how high or low we
perceive the sound to be, which is known as pitch. As the frequency of a
sound wave increases, the pitch rises. The frequency of a wave is an objective
quantity that can be measured, while pitch refers to how different
frequencies are perceived by the human ear.
In other words, the frequency determines the shrillness or pitch of a
THE
SPOT P sound. If the frequency of vibration is lower, we say that the sound has a
lower pitch (see fig. 28(a)). If the frequency of vibration is higher we say
LIGHT that the sound is shrill and has a higher pitch (see fig. 28(b)).
Elephants use infrasonic sound waves
to communicate with one another.
We can say that a thinner voice like a female voice has high pitch while a
Their large ears enable them to thicker (heavy) voice like a male voice has low pitch. Sounds of musical
detect these low-frequency sound instruments like guitar, sitar, violin, veena are high pitch sounds while sounds
waves, which have relatively long
wavelengths.Elephants can effectively
of drum, tabla, dholak are low pitch sounds.
communicate in this way,even when F If you have ever been near a pond on a summer evening, you might have
they are separated by many
heard the crickets chirping and the bullfrogs croaking. You could easily
kilometers.
distinguish between the sounds because cricket sounds have a high pitch
and bullfrog sounds have a low pitch. These sounds are different because
their frequencies are different.
Physics
THE
P
Low frequency
High frequency
SPOT
LIGHT
Loudness of sound is proportional to
Low pitch High pitch the square of the amplitude of the
vibration producing the sound. For
example, if the amplitude becomes
(a) (b) twice, the loudness increases by a
factor of 22 = 4.
Fig.28 Pitch and frequency are related
Loudness
The loudness of the sounds humans perceive relates to the intensity of the
sound. Sound intensity is energy carried by the sound per unit time per unit
area. Sound intensity is usually measured in watt/(meter)2 or (W/m2).
The loudness of a sound depends on the amplitude of vibration. The greater
the amplitude, the higher the volume of the sound. A speaker making a
loud sound moves back and forth more than a speaker making a soft
sound. (see fig. 29)
Unit of loudness :The loudness is expressed in a unit called decibel (dB).
THE
On the decibel scale, 0 dB is called the threshold of hearing.
SPOT P
LIGHT
High amplitude
Low amplitude
Pitch, loudness, and quality are all

subjective characteristics of sound
since they depend on the perception
of the listener.
Soft (or quiet)
Loud
Fig.29 Amplitude and loudness are related
Loudness of sound coming from various sources
S.No. Source of sound Loudness (in dB)
1. Threshold of hearing 0
2. Normal breathing 10 THE
3. Soft whisper (at 5m) 30 SPOT P
4. Normal conversation 60 LIGHT
5. Busy traffic 70 An oscilloscope is an electronic
6. Average factory 80 instrument that displays the form of
7. Threshold of pain 130 electronic signals on a small monitor
similar to a television screen. Sounds
can be 'seen' by using a microphone
F Human ear is sensitive to the sound intensity (loudness) ranging from to convert them into electronic
0 - 180 dB. signals, an amplifier to amplify these
Quality (or timbre) signals,and an oscilloscope to
Quality of a sound is the property by which two sounds of the same pitch display their form.
(or frequency) emitted by two different sources can be distinguished from
each other. It depends on the waveform of the sound produced by a source.
For example, a clarinet sounds different from a violin because of differences
in quality (timbre), even when both instruments are sounding the same note
at the same volume (see fig.30).
Class-VIII
Wave on
screen
Clarinet
Waveform
Oscilloscope
Waveform
Violin
Amplifier Fig.30 A clarinet and a violin produce different
waveforms for the same note (pitch)
9. Noise and music

We hear different types of sounds around us. Some sounds are pleasing
while some sounds cause discomfort to us. Suppose construction work is
Microphone going on in your neighbourhood. The sounds coming from the construction
Fig.31 By using an oscilloscope, site are not pleasing. Similarly, we do not enjoy the sounds produced by
we can “see” sound waves
horns of buses and trucks. Such unpleasant sounds are called noise. In a
classroom, if all the students speak together, the sound produced will be a
noise.
THE
SPOT P Noise originates from a source where the frequencies are constantly
changing in a random manner. Displayed on an oscilloscope, noise does
LIGHT not have a constant waveform [see fig.32(a)].
Healthy vocal cords are smooth and
moist. Laryngitis is an inflammation On the other hand you enjoy sounds from musical instruments. Musical
and swelling of the vocal cords. As a sound is one which is pleasing to the ear. Sound produced by a harmonium
result, the vocal cord vibrates with is a musical sound. The string of a sitar also gives out a musical sound.
low frequency that is, your voice will
sound hoarse or heavy. A musical note originates from a source vibrating in a uniform manner with
one or more constant frequencies. Music is the combination of musical
notes. With an oscilloscope, music is displayed as a constant waveform
[see fig.32(b)].
F If a musical sound becomes too loud, it will not remain melodious. It will
become unpleasant and thus, it will sound like a noise.
1. What are the differences between infrasonic, audible, and ultrasonic sounds?
(a) Noise
2. Explain why the speed of sound depends on the temperature of the medium.
Why is this temperature dependence more noticeable in a gas than in a
solid or a liquid?
3. On what factor does the loudness of a sound depend?
10. Noise pollution
'Noise' is a by-product of industrialisation and modern civilisation. It is the
state of undesirable loud sounds of different kinds producing in the
(b) Music
atmosphere due to the various modern civilisation activities like running of
Fig.32 Sounds traced
vehicles, industrial processes, loud speakers, etc.
Physics
F Presence of excessive or unwanted sounds in the environment is called

noise pollution.
Sources of noise pollution
(1) Industrialisation : Industrialisation is the major source of noise THE
pollution. Industries use machinery that makes loud and irritating SPOT P
sounds of various kinds which produce the noise pollution. LIGHT
(2) Transportation : Another major cause of noise pollution particularly The pitch of the musical note
in cities is transportation such as buses, trucks, cars, scooters, etc. that produced in a stringed instrument like
guita r depends on the length,
creates noise pollution because of their engines and horns.
diameter, and tension of the string.
(3) Electrical devices at home : At home, the major cause of noise If the string is shorter, narrower, or
pollution is the use of electrical devices like mixer-grinder, cooler, fan, tighter, the pitch increases. For
example, the thinner guitar strings
television, tape-recorder, radio, vacuum cleaner, etc. produce a higher pitch than the
(4) Social functions : Loud speakers and musical bands used in the thicker strings.
social functions also cause the noise pollution to some extent in cities.
Effects of noise pollution
(1) Impairment of hearing (deafness) due to the prolonged exposure to
loud noise.
(2) Severe damage to ear drum due to a sudden loud noise.
(3) Lack of sleep
(4) Hypertension (high blood pressure)
(5) Anxiety
(6) Noise pollution may also cause damage to heart, brain, liver and can
result in emotional disturbances.
Measures to limit noise pollution
THE
The following factors should be kept in view for controlling noise pollution: SPOT P
(1) Source of noise pollution LIGHT
(a) Setting industries away from crowded areas. The human ear is most sensitive to
sounds with a frequency between
(b) Using better designed engines.
2000 Hz and 3400 Hz. A 1000 Hz
(c) Lubricating and maintaining machines. sound can be heard at a level of 20
dB, whereas a 100 Hz sound must
(d) Enforcing laws to get rid of noise producing vehicles and to restrict have an intensity of at least 50 dB to
the use of loud speakers and amplifiers. Even at home, television be audible.
and music systems should be run at low volumes.
(e) Use of automobile horns should be minimised.
(2) Path of noise
(a) Planting of trees along the roads
(b) Interrupting the path of sound by materials which absorb the sound.
Acoustic materials wool and mufflers (silencer) can be used.
(3) Receptive organs
Using ear mufflers or cotton plugs.
Class-VIII
1. The sounds of frequencies less than about 20 Hz are called infrasonic

sounds and they cannot be detected by human ear. The sounds of
frequencies between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz that can be detected by the
human ear are called audible sounds. The sound higher than 20,000 Hz
are called ultrasonic sounds and they also cannot be detected by the human
ear.
2. As the temperature of a gas rises, the particles of medium collide more
frequently. Thus, the disturbance can spread faster at higher temperatures
than at lower temperatures. In liquids and solids, the particles are close
enough together that the difference due to temperature changes is less
noticeable.
3. Loudness is proportional to the square of the amplitude i.e., the more the
THE amplitude, more will be the loudness. Also, loudness depends inversely on
SPOT P the square of the distance from the source. This means as the distance
LIGHT increases, the loudness decreases.
Technological devices for the hearing Hearing impairment
impared have made it possible for
The total hearing impairment is rare and it is usually from birth itself.
such persons to improve their quality
of life. Society can do much to improve Partial disability is generally the result of a disease, injury or age. Children
the living environment for the hearing with impaired hearing need special care. By learning sign language, such
impaired and help them live normal
lives. children can communicate effectively. Because speech develops as the
direct result of hearing, a child with a hearing loss may have defective
speech also.
Hearing aid
A hearing aid is an electronic device that amplifies sounds for people with
hearing impairments. Hearing aids have the same basic components as
any home entertainment system, except all the components are miniaturised
and the amplified sound is delivered directly to the ear. The microphone,
amplifier, miniature receiver (speaker), and battery are enclosed in a shell,
which is worn behind or within the ear. A small tube directs the amplified
sound from the receiver into the ear canal.
Physics

1. Choose the correct answer. Sound can travel (c) False. Loudness of a sound is proportional to the
through square of the amplitude of its vibration. When
(a) gases only (b) solids only the amplitude of vibration of a sound is large,
(c) liquids only (d) solids, liquids and gases. the sound is very loud. The sound is feeble for
small amplitude.
Ans. Option (d) is correct, sound can travel through solids,
liquids, and gases. Sound requires a medium to (d) True. Humans cannot hear sounds of all
travel through. Solid, liquid and gas provide the frequencies. Humans can hear a sound whose
medium for sound. Hence, sound can travel through frequency falls in the range of 20 Hz-20,000 Hz.
solids, liquids and gases. The sound having frequency out of this range is
2. Which of the following voices is likely to have inaudible to humans.
minimum frequency?
(e) False. The pitch of a sound is proportional to its
(a) Baby girl (b) Baby boy frequency. As the frequency of vibration
(c) A man (d) A woman increases, the pitch of the sound also increases
Ans. Option (c) is correct i.e., a man. The voice of an adult and vice-versa. A sound is said to be high pitched
man is of lower pitch in comparison to the voices if its frequency of vibration is high, and is low
of a baby boy, a baby girl and a woman. Since
pitched for a small frequency of vibration.
frequency of a sound is directly proportional to its
pitch, man’s voice is of minimum frequency in (f) False. Unwanted or unpleasant sounds are known
comparison to a boy, a girl, or a woman’s voice. as noise. Sounds that are melodious and pleasing
3. In the following statements, tick ‘T’ against those to ear are known as music.
which are true, and ‘F’ against those which are false. (g) True. Unwanted or unpleasant sounds are known
(a) Sound cannot travel in vacuum. (T / F) as noise. If one is subjected to loud unpleasant
(b) The number of oscillations per second of a sound continuously for a long time, then it may
vibrating object is called its time period. (T / F) cause temporary hearing impairment.
(c) If the amplitude of vibration is large, sound is 4. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.
feeble. (T / F)
(a) Time taken by an object to complete one
(d) For human ears, the audible range is 20 Hz to
oscillation is called _________.
20,000 Hz. (T / F)
(b) Loudness is determined by the ________ of
(e) The lower the frequency of vibration, the higher
is the pitch. (T / F) vibration.
(f) Unwanted or unpleasant sound is termed as (c) The unit of frequency is _________.
music. (T / F) (d) Unwanted sound is called _________.
(g) Noise pollution may cause partial hearing (e) Shrillness of a sound is determined by the
impairment. (T/F)
_________ of vibration.
Ans. (a) True. Sound requires a medium to travel
Ans. (a) Time period
through. Since vacuum is devoid of any medium,
sound cannot travel through it. (b) Amplitude
(b) False. The number of oscillations per second of (c) Hertz
a vibrating object is known as its frequency. Time (d) Noise
period is the time required to complete one
oscillation. (e) Frequency
Class-VIII
5. A pendulum oscillates 40 times in 4 seconds. Find (iii) Horns of buses, cars and trucks
its time period and frequency. (iv) Appliances such as mixer, desert cooler, etc.
Ans. Frequency of oscillations is defined as the number used at homes.
of oscillations of a vibrating body per second. It is (v) Heavy industries, thermal power plants, stone
given by, cutting and grinding machines.
No. of cycles 40 10. Explain in what way noise pollution is harmful to
f= = = 10 Hz humans.
time taken 4
Ans. Noise pollution can lead to a number of health
1 1 1 related problems. Some of them are as follows:
Now, f = or T = = = 0.10 s
T f 10 (i) Hearing loss
6. The sound from a mosquito is produced when (ii) Insomnia i.e., inability to sleep
it vibrates its wings at an average rate of (iii) Hypertension i.e., high blood pressure
500 vibrations per second. What is the time period (iv) Severe headache
of the vibration? (v) Stress and emotional disturbance.
11. Your parents are going to buy a house. They have
Ans. Given, frequency, f = 500 vibrations/sec been offered one on the roadside and another three
1 1 lanes away from the roadside. Which house would
Now, Time period, T = = you suggest your parents should buy? Explain your
frequency f
answer
1 1 Ans. There will be more noise in the house which is along
or T = = s = 0.002 s
f 500 the roadside. This is because noise produced by
7. Identify the part which vibrates to produce sound in transportation vehicles may cause trouble to the
the following instruments. residents. The intensity of noise decreases with the
distance between the source and the listener. Hence,
(a) Dholak (b) Sitar (c) Flute
it is better to take the house that has three lanes
Ans. (a) Dholak consists of a stretched membrane called away from the roadside.
its head. When the head is beaten gently, the 12. Sketch larynx and explain its function in your own
stretched membrane sets into vibration. Since words.
sound is produced when an object vibrates, the Ans. Inside the larynx, there are two vocal cords. There
dholak produces a sound. is a small gap between them. This small gap allows
air to pass through. When we speak, air is forced
(b) Sitar is a musical instrument. It consists of into this small gap by the lungs. This prompts vocal
stretched strings. When a string is plucked, it cords to vibrate. Since vibrating objects produce
sets into vibration. Since sound is produced when sound, sound is produced due to the vibration of
an object vibrates, the sitar produces a sound. vocal cords.
(c) Flute is a hollow pipe. When air is blown over its
mouth, the air inside the pipe is set into vibration.
As a result, a pleasant sound is produced.
8. What is the difference between noise and music?
Can music become noise sometimes?
Ans. The sound that is pleasing to the ear is called music.
For example, the sound produced by violins, pianos,
flutes, , etc. The sound that is unpleasing to the ear
Vocal cords
is called noise. Some examples of noise are as
follows : (i) Sound produced by horns of buses and Larynx in humans
tru cks (ii) Sou nd of electrical gen erat ors 13. Lightning and thunder take place in the sky at the
(iii) Sound of a gun shot same time and at the same distance from us.
Yes, music can become noise when played at high Lightning is seen earlier and thunder is heard later.
volumes. Can you explain?
9. List sources of noise pollution in your surroundings
Ans. The speed of sound is quite less as compared to
Ans. Some sources of noise pollution are as follows :
(i) Televisions and radios running at high volumes. the speed of light. Hence, light reaches us before
(ii) Loudspeakers and crackers. the sound during a lightning, which is accompanied
by thunder.
Physics
EXERCISE # 1
Multiple choice questions 6. Sound is a
1. A tuning fork, a violin string and a loud speaker cone (1) transverse wave
are producing sound. This is because they are all
in state of (2) longitudinal wave
(1) Rest (2) Vibration (3) wave in which particles of medium oscillate
perpendicular to its axis at normal rest position.
(3) Rotation (4) Displacement
(4) None of these
2. In which of the following we cannot see vibrations?
7. Sound waves cannot travel through
(1) vibrations in string of guiter.
(2) vibrations in flute. (1) Solids (2) Liquids
(3) low frequency tuning fork. (3) Gases (4) Vacuum
(4) vibrations in a low frequency woofer of 8. Science fiction films often show battles between
loudspeaker. spaceships. Four friends were arguing what would
someone in space hear if an enemy spaceship
3. Which of the following statement is correct?
exploded?
(1) The time taken for one oscillation is the
Rekha said, 'they would hear a big explosion.'
frequency.
Renu said, 'they will not hear anything as there is
(2) The distance covered by a vibrating body while
no medium for sound to travel, but they can see
making one complete oscillation is four times
the explosion.'
the amplitude.
(3) The greater the amplitude of a vibrating body, Ramesh said,' yes, they will not hear anything and
they will not be able to see the explosion.'
the higher will be the pitch of the sound it gives
out. Raghav said, 'the explosion produces sound of
(4) In a string instrument, thin strings are used for frequency above 20,000 Hz hence we cannot hear
low pitch notes. it.' Who is correct?
4. What is a wave? (1) Rekha (2) Renu
(1) Disturbance that travels and carries energy (3) Ramesh (4) Raghav
through the medium. 9. The speed of a sound wave is determined by
(2) There is no net displacement of particles of medium.
(1) its amplitude
(3) A disturbance of medium in which particles of
(2) its intensity
medium oscillate from their mean position.
(4) All of the above (3) its pitch
5. In transverse wave, an object (4) the transmitting medium
(1) vibrates perpendicular to its axis at the normal 10. Arrange the materials in the decreasing order of the
rest position. speed with which sound will travel through them :
metal rod, air, water
(2) vibrates parallel to its axis at the normal rest
position. (1) Metal rod, air, water
(3) so metimes vibrates perpendicular and (2) Air, water, metal rod
sometimes parallel to its axis at the normal rest
(3) Metal rod, water, air
position.
(4) Water, air, metal rod
(4) none of these.
Class-VIII
11. You see lightning before you hear the thunder 19. Rahul is playing the drums. Which of the following
because characteristics of sound would result in an increase
in loudness?
(1) Lightning is much brighter than thunder.
(2) Thunder is heavier than lightning (1) Amplitude (2) Speed
(3) Light can travel through air but sound cannot (3) Pitch (4) Quality
(4) Sound travels slower than light. 20. Sound levels are measured in
12. An object attached to one end of a spring makes (1) Decimeters (2) Decibels
20 vibrations in 10 s. Its frequency is
(3) Decilitres (4) Decigrams
(1) 2 Hz (2) 10 Hz
True or false
(3) 0.05 Hz (4) 0.2 Hz
1. Sound waves are electromagnetic waves like light.
13. The part of the ear that transmits sound vibrations
to the brain is the 2. The medium through which the sound travels fastest
(1) Cochlea (2) Stirrup is empty space.
(3) Eardrum (4) Auditory nerve 3. As air becomes warmer, the speed of sound in air
increases.
14. The magnified pressure variation is transmitted to
inner ear by 4. When tuning a violin, a string is tightened. The
musical note being played on the string becomes
(1) hammer (2) cochlea
higher in pitch.
(3) stirrup (4) auditory canal
5. The part of the ear is damaged most easily by
15. Ultrasound is sound above the human hearing range. continued exposure to loud noise is stirrup.
It can be heard by
6. Three small interlocking bones: the hammer, the
(1) Bats (2) Elephants
anvil, and the stirrup transmit the vibrations of the
(3) Lions (4) Sheep eardrum to the inner ear.
16. Which of the following properties of a sound wave 7. Most students have an audible range of about
determine its 'pitch'? 50 Hz to 50 kHz.
(1) Amplitude 8. A musical tone that is lower in pitch is lower in
(2) Distance from source to detector frequency.
(3) Frequency 9. The pitch of the sound made by a guitar string can
(4) Speed be lowered by replacing the string with a thicker
string.
17. To raise the pitch of a certain piano string, the piano
tuner 10. Trees must be removed from the road sides and
(1) Loosens the string around buildings to reduce the harmful effects of
noise pollution.
(2) Tightens the string
(3) Increases the area of cross-section of the string Match the column
(4) Lengthens the string 1. Column-I Column-II
18. What do you think a tabla player does to increase
(1) Maximum displacement (a) Time period
the pitch of the sound produced?
from mean position
(1) He strikes the tabla skin harder. (2) Time in which a particle (b) Amplitude
completes one vibration
(2) The pitch cannot be changed in a tabla.
(3) Number of vibrations (c) Vibration
(3) He tightens the skin by stretching the string produced in 1 second
around it. (4) A complete to and fro (d) F r e qu e n c y
motion
(4) He gets a bigger tabla.
Physics
2. Column-I Column-II 5. A ......................... wave has oscillations in the
(1) An unpleasant sound (a) Infrasonic sound same direction as its motion.
(2) Production of human (b) Sitar
voice 6. The pitch is determined by the ................... of the
(3) A stringed instrument (c) Noise vibrating body.
(4) Sound with frequency (d) Vocal cords
less than 20 Hz 7. Loudness of sound is determined by its .............. .
Fill in the blanks 8. Unit for measuring the loudness of sound is ......... .
1. To and fro motion in regular time intervals is called
9. If the amplitude of the sound is made 3 times its
.............. motion.
initial value, then its ....................... will becomes
2. A violin is a ......................... musical instrument.
.......... times its initial value.
3. The maximum displacement in a cycle from its rest
position is called .............. . 10. The .............. of sound is that characteristic which
4. The number of cycles an oscillator completes in enables us to distinguish one sound from another
each second is called its ................ . having the same pitch and loudness.

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. 2 2 2 4 1 2 4 2 4 3
Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 1 4 3 1 3 2 3 1 2
True or false
1. False 2. False 3. True 4. True 5. False 6. True 7. False 8. True 9. True 10. False
Match the column
1. (1) ® b ; (2) ® a ; (3) ® d ; (4) ® c 2. (1) ® c ; (2) ® d ; (3) ® b ; (4) ® a

Fill in the blanks
1. Vibratory or oscillatory 2. Stringed 3. Amplitude 4. Frequency 5. Longitudinal
6. Frequency 7. Amplitude 8. Decibel 9. Loudness ; 9
10. Quality or timbre
Class-VIII
EXERCISE # 2
Very short answer type questions 6. You have been hired to invent a whistle to call a
trained pet dog back to its owner. This whistle must
1. Why can't the sound travel through vacuum?
be heard by the dog, but not by humans. Predict
2. Dolphins communicate under water using sound. the range of frequencies you could use for your
What is the name of this sound? whistle. What is the name of sound given for such
3. Rank the following waves from fastest to slowest : frequencies?
7. How is the voice of a 5 years old child different from
sound waves, water waves, light waves
the voice of a 25 years old man? Give reasons.
4. Put your fingers on the throat and you will find a 8. How are the pitch and frequency of a sound related?
hard bump that seems to move when you swallow. Give one example each for a low pitch voice and a
What is this part of the body called? high pitch voice.
9. What do you understand by loudness of audible
5. When sound enters in human ear, it travels down a
sound? Which property of sound is linked with
canal at the end of which a thin membrane is loudness? Show waveforms to show a loud sound
stretched tightly. What is the name of this and a soft sound.
membrane? 10. What is the difference between noise and music?
6. Give the range of frequency of audible vibrations Show their waveforms and give one example for
for the normal human ear? each.
7. Show using figures two sounds of different pitch but 1. Explain in detail how the human ear receives and
same loudness. interprets sound. Make figure.
8. A medical instrument is used for investigating and 2. What is noise pollution? What are its sources?
tracking many medical problems, works at How can it be minimised?
Numerical problems
frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz. What type of
1. A bicycle wheel spins 25 times in 5 seconds.
sound wave is used by this instrument? Calculate the period and frequency of the wheel.
9. Draw a waveform for musical sound. 2. The piston in a petrol engine goes up and down
10. What do you give a name for sound that originates 3000 times per minute. For this engine, calculate
the frequency and period of the piston.
from a source where the frequencies are constantly
3. Calculate the period and frequency for the second
changing in a random manner? hand, minute hand, and hour hand of a clock.
Short answer type questions 4. The time period of a sound wave from a piano is
1. Imagine you are cruising in outer space in a spaceship 1.18 × 10–3 s. Find its frequency.
5. A tuning fork’s tongs vibrate 250 times in 2.0 s. Find
when you notice an asteroid hurtling towards your ship.
(a) the frequency of vibration (b) the period of
You fire a missile and score a direct hit. The asteroid vibration.
explodes into a billion pieces. Would you hear the 6. Frequency range of audible sound for humans is 20
explosion? Explain your answer. Hz to 20000 Hz. Find the corresponding range of
2. Why does the speed of sound differ in different time period for these audible sound.
media? Arrange the speed of sound in solids, liquids 7. Calculate the period and frequency of strobe light
flashing 25 times in 5 seconds.
and gases in the increasing order.
8. Calculate the frequency, in hertz, for the following
3. Why do we see lightning before we hear the thunder cyclical events:
from it? (a) 120 oscillations in 2.0 s
4. What happens when the inner ear is exposed to very (b) 45 revolutions of a turntable in one minute
9. Calculate the frequency, in Hertz, for the following
loud noises? (Some musicians wear earplugs when
cyclical events:
playing in concerts.)
(a) Ten swings of a pendulum in 6.7 s
5. Are all sound audible to us? What is the audible range (b) 33 13 turns of a turntable in one minute.
of frequencies for human beings? What are other 10. Convert the frequency to time period in each case
sounds called, which are beyond this range? for question 9.
Physics
Activity based questions 4. Take a metallic tumbler and a tablespoon. Strike

1. A scientist performed an experiment as shown in the tablespoon gently at the brim of the tumbler
the picture here. (see fig.). Now suspend a small thermocol ball
glass jar
touching the rim of the tumbler and touch it to the
vibrating tumbler. See how far the ball is displaced.
Now, again strike the tablespoon at the brim of the
tumbler but strike it hard this time. Again touch the
ringing
electric
thermocol to the vibrating tumbler and see how far
bell the ball is displaced. Choose the correct option.
to vacuum pump
What happened as air was pumped out of the jar
and he rang the bell?
(1) The sound became louder.
(2) The sound became fainter first and then louder
once all the air was pumped out.
(3) The sound could not be heard anymore.
(4) The sound was the same as before.
2. Which of these pictures correctly show the way
sound vibrations travel?
(1) (2) (1) The thermocol ball is displaced more when the
tumbler is striked hard, as frequency of
vibration is more in this case.
(2) The thermocol ball is displaced less when the
tumbler is striked hard, as frequency of
vibration is less in this case.
(3) The thermocol ball is displaced more when the
tumbler is striked hard, as amplitude of
(3) (4)
vibration is more in this case.
(4) The thermocol ball is displaced more when the
tumbler is striked hard, as amplitude of
3. Which one of these rods of the wind chime produces vibration is less in this case.
the sound of highest pitch? 5. Each of the four bowls below is filled with water up
to different levels. When struck with a wooden rod,
which bowl will produce sound of the lowest pitch?
a a. b.
b
c d
c. d.
(1) c (2) a (3) b (4) d (1) a (2) b (3) c (4) d
Class-VIII
6. In fig.(a), a boy is beating the drum using a stick

and thus, drum produces a sound. In fig.(b), another
boy produces sound using a whistle. Choose the (1)
option which shows the correct waveforms in fig.(a)
and fig.(b) respectively.
(2)
(3)
(4)
7. In question 6, frequency in case of fig.(a) and fig(b)

(a) are respectively,
(1) high frequency ; high frequency
(2) low frequency ; low frequency
(3) low frequency ; high frequency
(4) high frequency ; high frequency
(b)

Numerical problems
1. Time period = 0.2 s ; frequency = 5 Hz 2. Frequency = 50 Hz ; time period = 0.02 s
3. For second hand, period = 1 min = 60 s ; frequency = 0.0166 Hz.
For minute hand, period = 1 hr = 3600 s ; frequency = 2.77 × 10–4 Hz
For hour hand, period = 12 hr = 43200 s ; frequency = 2.3 × 10–5 Hz
4. 847.45 Hz 5. (a) 125 Hz (b) 8 × 10–3 s 6. 0.05 s – 5 × 10–5 s 7. time period = 0.2 s ; frequency = 5 Hz
8. (a) 60 Hz (b) 0.75 Hz 9. (a) 1.492 Hz (b) 0.555 Hz 10. (a) 0.67 s (b) 1.8 s
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ans. 3 3 2 3 4 2 3
Chemistr y
CHAPTER 1 SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS
"Synthetic fibres are the

result of extensive research
by scientists to improve on
naturally occurring animal
and plant fibres. Plastic is
also a synthetic fibre used
to design playground
equipments, because of
their easy moulding
capacity."
1. Introduction
The clothes we wear are made up of fabrics. Fabrics are made from fibres
obtained from natural or artificial resources. Fabrics are made by knitting
of threads called yarns which are made of still thinner threads called fibres.
Apart from covering our body, clothes are required by us for protection
against cold, rain, dust and sunlight.
Fibres are also used for making many household articles like carpets,
toothbrush, curtains, caps, etc.
Definition
A fibre is a thread or filament like material which is so strong and flexible
that we can use it for various purposes.
We can divide fibres in two types on the basis of source from which we obtain
them.
1. Natural fibres 2. Synthetic fibres
1. Natural fibres
Fig.1 Fleece is a thick coat
As the name suggests these are obtained from nature(plants or animals).
of fibres on sheep's body.
For example,
• Cotton : From bolls of cotton flower.
• Wool : From fleece of sheep and goat.
• Linen : From stalk of a plant(flax).
• Silk : From cocoons of silkworm.
• Jute : From stem of jute plant.
2. Synthetic fibres
These fibres are synthetic or man made.
For example, nylon, polyester, acrylic, carbon fibres, etc.
1. What are synthetic fibres?
Synthetic fibres are completely manufactured by people. They are made
from substances such as coal or oil. Synthetic fibres are similar to as beads
or paper clips joined to form long chains. You will observe similar beads
are joined together by common thread to form a necklace. In both the cases
Fig.2 As this necklace is made by
of beads and paper clips, they form a long chain. A similarity of this chain
joining many beads, simila rly,
seems in case of synthetic fibres where there is also a chain of small units polymers also have many units.
joined together. Each small unit is actually a chemical substance. Many such
small units combine to form a large single unit called as polymer.
Class-VIII
All the synthetic fibres are prepared by a number of processes using raw
materials of petroleum origin, called petro chemicals.
All fibres whether natural or synthetic are polymers of small units.
Characteristics of synthetic fibres
1. Strength: Synthetic fibres can withstand a lot of force without breaking
as compared to natural fibres. This is known as tensile strength.
2. Elasticity: Synthetic fibres are highly elastic and can be stretched to
some extent depending on the nature of the fibre. On releasing the
THE pressure, they retain their original shape.
SPOT P 3. Water absorption: Synthetic fibres absorb very little water. Hence the
clothes made out of these fibres dry very fast.
LIGHT 4. Wrinkle resistance: Synthetic fibres maintain a permanent creases
Elastane is a synthetic fibre which is and do not get crumpled easily hence they do not require ironing.
highly elastic and stretchable. This
fibre is great for movement so, it is
used in a lot of sport uniforms.
Aim
To determine relative tensile strength of different fibres of same thickness
and same length.
Materials required
Iron stand, cotton thread, clamp, a pan.
Method
(i) Take an iron stand with a clamp.
(ii) Take a cotton thread of about 60 cm length.
(iii) Tie it to the clamp, so that it hangs freely from it as shown in fig 3.
(iv) At the free end, suspend a pan so that weight can be placed in it. Add
weight one by one till the thread breaks.
(v) Note down the total weight required to break the thread. This weight
indicates the strength of the fibre.
(vi) Now we repeat the same activity with threads of wool, silk
and nylon and tabulate the data. Arrange the threads in order of their
increasing strength.
Fig.4 This synthetic brush with

selected filaments is specially
designed for water colour techniques.
Its hair is extremely soft and it offers Clamp
an excellent alternative to natural
hair. Because of its characteristics, its
filaments perfectly absorb both water Thread Iron stand
and paint. The synthetic fibre gives
long-lasting resistance and elasticity
to the brush. Pan
Weight
Fig.3 Iron stand with suspended pan.
Chemistr y
Observation
Total weight required to
Type of thread / fibre
break the thread
Cotton 10 g
Wool 20 g
Silk 30 g
Nylon 50 g
Conclusion Fig.5 Water absorbing capacity of
Total weight required to break the thread is maximum in nylon so it shows different fibres.
that nylon is strongest among all. You may use a hook or a nail on the wall
for hanging the fibres and a polyethene bag at the other end. In place of
weight you may use marble(or pebbles) of similar size.
Aim
To determine relative water absorbing capacity of different fibres.
Material required
5 g fibres of (i) cotton (ii) silk (iii) wool (iv) rayon (v) nylon, a beaker filled
with water, 5 preweighed plastic dishes, physical balance.
Method
(i) Soak 5 g of each of the fibres in water for 2 minutes.
(ii) Take out the cotton fibres and hold it in hand till the water stops
dropping.
(iii) Place it in the preweighed plastic dish and record the increase in weight
on account of absorption of water.
(iv) Repeat the procedure with silk, wool, rayon and nylon.
(v) Record the increase in weight in each case.
Observation
You will find that the increase in weight is maximum in case of wool followed
by cotton, rayon, silk and is least in case of nylon.
Conclusion
This activity clearly proves that different fibres have different water absorbing
capacities.
Polymers
A polymer is a large molecule formed by combination of many small
molecules, each of which is called a monomer. A Greek meaning of 'poly'
is many and 'mer' meaning part/unit. Among naturally occurring polymers
are proteins, starches, cellulose and latex. For example, cotton is made up
of a polymer called cellulose. Cellulose is made up of a large number of CH2OH
glucose units. Synthetic polymers are produced commercially on a very large O
scale and have a wide range of properties and uses. The materials commonly H H
called plastics are all synthetic polymers. Polymers are formed by chemical H
reactions in which a large number of monomer molecules are joined OH H
sequentially, forming a chain. HO OH
H OH
Fig.6 Structure of glucose
1. Which of the following are natural fabrics?
(C6H12O6).
(a) Polyethene (b) PVC (c) Nylon (d) Cotton (e) Rayon (f) Jute
(g) Polyester (h) Acrylic
Class-VIII
What is polymerisation? What are the types of polymerisation?

Explanation
The process of combining the monomers to form a polymer is called
polymerisation.
Types of polymerisation
(i) Addition polymerisation: When monomer units simply add to each other
to form polymer, it is called addition polymerisation.
For example, PVC, polyethene.
(ii) Condensation polymerisation: During addition of monomer units small
molecules like H 2O, CO 2 are eliminated(removed). It is called
condensation polymerisation.
For example, PET, polyester, nylon.
3. Types of synthetic fibres
(i) Rayon
Rayon is a semi-synthetic fibre, prepared by chemical treatment of wood
pulp(cellulose). It usually has a high lustre quality giving it a bright sheen.
Why rayon is different from synthetic fibre?

Explanation
Rayon is different from synthetic fibre because it is semi synthetic. Raw
material used for preparation of rayon is cellulose which is derived from
plant cell wall.
Fig.7 Some articles Properties
made up of rayon.
(i) Rayon can absorb sweat because of its tendency to absorb moisture.
So, it is preferred over other synthetic fabrics in summer season.
THE (ii) It is shiny and lustrous and resembles to silk.
SPOT P (iii) It can be dyed in a wide variety of colours.
Uses
LIGHT (i) Rayon is mixed with cotton to make bed sheets and mixed with wool
Rayon is produced by reprocessing to make carpets.
of natural fibre cellulose. So, it is
(ii) Shirts, ties and linings are made up of rayon fibre.
neither a truly synthetic fibre nor a
natural fibre. It is semi-synthetic or (iii) It is used to manufacture tyre cords.
artificial. (iv) It is used to make bandages and surgical dressings.
Why rayon is preferred over silk?

Explanation
Rayon has an appearance like silk, but is cheaper than it and can be woven
THE like silk fibres. That is why rayon is also known as artificial silk(art silk). It
SPOT P can also be dyed in a wide variety of colours and can be mixed with cotton
to make bed sheets or mixed with wool to make carpets.
LIGHT (ii) Nylon
Rayon is also known by the names Nylon is the first man made, fully synthetic fibre. It was first made in 1931,
viscose rayon and art silk in the textile
industry.
without using any natural raw material(from plant or animal). It was prepared
from coal, water and air.
So, we can call it a fully synthetic fibre.
Chemistr y
Properties
(i) Nylon has high strength and high elasticity. It does not lose strength even THE
after repeated use. SPOT P
(ii) It may be lustrous, semi-lustrous or dull and easy to wash, so it is suitable LIGHT
for making clothes. Nylon is named so, because it was
(iii) It absorb very little water hence known to have drip-dry property. formed in Newyork(Ny) and London
(iv) It is wrinkle resistant and keeps permanent creases away. (Lon).
\ NYLON = NY + LON
(v) It is moth and mould resistant.
(vi) It is light, fine and durable.
(vii) It melts instead of burning.
Uses
(i) In making socks, sarees, shirts and other garments.
(ii) It is blended with wool to increase the strength and used in making THE
carpets. SPOT P
(iii) Used to make tents, parachutes, umbrellas, fishing nets, climbing ropes, LIGHT
tyre cord and string for sports goods.
A nylon thread is stronger than steel
(iv) Its fibres are used for making tooth brush, car seat belt, sleeping bags wire.
and curtains.
(v) Being a strong and a light weight material, it is used to make machine
parts.
(vi) It dries quickly hence it is used to make swimwears.
(vii) It is a strong and elastic materials hence suitable for tracksuits, combat
uniforms.
Why nylon fibres are so strong that we can make nylon parachutes and
ropes for rock climbing?
Explanation
Nylon or polyamide is made up of a molecule of an acid and a molecule
Fig.8 Some articles are made
of diamine. When they join, they form a special kind of bond, known as
up of nylon.
amide bond, which is very strong. This makes nylon so strong.
1. (d) & (f)

(iii) Polyester or Dacron
Polyester is another synthetic fibre, which is made of repeating units of 'ester'.
Ester are special chemicals which have fruity smell. All fruits and flowers
have specific smell because of specific ester present in them.
Polyester was first prepared in England. 'Terylene' is a popular polyester.
Properties
(i) It absorbs very little water so dries quickly and remains crisp.
(ii) It is strong, light weight, wrinkle resistant and elastic fibre.
(iii) It is not attacked by moths and ordinary chemicals. Fig.9 Toothbrush bristles are
made up of nylon 6,6.
(iv) It can be drawn into very fine fibres that can be woven like any other yarn.
Class-VIII
Uses
(i) Polyester fibres are resistant to stretching and shrinking thus used in
manufacture of textiles like curtains and draperies.
(ii) Terrywool, a blend of terylene and wool, is used for making suits.
Terrycot is used for making skirts, shirts and other dress materials.
(iii) Because it is light weight, unaffected by water and resistance to sea
salts, it is used to make light weight sails, conveyor belts.
(iv) Polyester film, which is known as "mylar", is used for making magnetic
Fig.10 Polycot is used to make recording tapes in audio cassettes, video cassettes and floppy discs.
curtains. (v) Being a light weight material, it is used to make fire hoses, they can
be carried easily and polyester is compact also, the hoses do not occupy
much space.
Can we combine properties of two different types of fibres?

Explanation
Yes, two or more types of fibres can be blended(mixed) to form desired
kind of fibre. Blended fibres are the fibres created by combining two
THE different types of fibres. Generally a synthetic fibre is added to natural fibre.
SPOT P However, two similar fibres for example both natural fibres may also be
blended. Some of the common blended fibres are
LIGHT Polycot ® Polyester + Cotton
Acrylic is also known as polyacrylonitrile Terrycot ® Terylene + Cotton
(PAN) or 'Orlon' or 'Acrilan'.
Polywool ® Polyester + wool
(iv) Acrylic
Acrylic is another synthetic fibre, which resembles wool.
Properties
(i) It is warm, soft, light and flexible fibre.
(ii) It closely resembles to wool in its properties and is cheaper than natural
wool.
(iii) Acrylic yarn can be easily knitted.
(iv) They are available in variety of colours.
(v) It resists shrinking and wrinkles.
(vi) It is resistant to moths and insects.
Uses
(i) Acrylic fibre is used for making sweaters, socks and shawls.
(ii) It is used for making carpets and blankets.
(iii) It can be blended with wool to make material for suits and trousers.
THE Advantages of synthetic fibres
SPOT P Synthetic fibres possess unique properties which make them popular dress
material.
LIGHT (i) Their tensile strength is high and they can bear heavy loads without
Monomer of acrylic fibre is a breaking.
chemical, named as acrylonitrile. (ii) These fibres are generally elastic in nature. They can regain their
original shape after stretching or compressing to some extent.
(iii) These fibres are wrinkle resistant.
(iv) They dry up quickly, are durable, less expensive, readily available and
easy to maintain.
Chemistr y
(v) They are easy to wash and last for a long time.
(vi) They do not shrink on washing.
Disadvantages of synthetic fibres
(i) Synthetic fibres can absorb very little moisture. They become sticky when
body sweats.
(ii) These fibres have low melting points so melt easily, hence these are
dangerous to wear while working in the kitchen.
(iii) They require very careful ironing.
(iv) They get electrically charged in dry weather. Tong
(v) They are not biodegradable and hence cause a lot of pollution.
Aim
To study the effect of flame on different types of fibres.
Material required
30 cm long fibres of cotton, wool, silk, nylon and polyester, match box, a
pair of tongs and china dish. Fig. 11 Action of flame on fibres.
Method
Hold the cotton fibre between the tongs and burn it with a match stick.
When it catches fire, keep the fibre on a china dish to collect the burnt
material.
Repeat this exercise with each sample.
Observation
Behaviour of natural fibres is different from that of synthetic fibres.
Conclusion
Natural fibres burn to form a residue on heating.
Synthetic fibres melt on heating.
Wool and silk burn with smell of burning hair.
Synthetic fibres are more popular than natural fibres. Why?

Explanation
Because of superior qualities, more durability and affordable cost, synthetic
fibres are more popular than natural fibres. THE
SPOT P
1. Name the artificial silk.
LIGHT
Spandex or lycra is another synthetic
2. Name the fibres which make terrycot.
fibre, which is known for its high
Memory map elasticity and used for snug fitting
clothes like swimming costumes.
Are available at Are readily available

affordable prices and easy to maintain
Characteristics of
synthetic fibres
Are durable, so long Easy and quick

lasting to dry
Class-VIII
4. Plastics
It is very difficult to realise how important plastics have become to our
everyday lives. We always seem to have known these materials, and we
tend to take it for granted that they occur every day and all around us,
for example in our clothing, the pen that we write with, the chair that we
sit on or the wrapping of the food that we eat. Any synthetic material which
can be easily moulded into any desired shape on heating is called plastic.
Definition
Plastic is a polymeric substance that can be moulded when soft and then
hardened on cooling to produce a durable article. It is made soft by applying
heat and pressure before moulding.
Types of plastics
On the basis of their reaction to heat, all types of plastics can be classified
into two groups
(i) Thermoplastics (ii) Thermosetting plastics
(i) Thermoplastics
Those plastics which can be melted by heating and moulded into desired
shapes and sizes repeatedly are called thermoplastics. On heating, these
soften and on cooling they become hard. This cyclic process of heating,
moulding and cooling is adopted to get desired shaped article.
For example, polyethene, PVC, terylene, polystyrene, etc.
(ii) Thermosetting plastics
These are harder and stronger than thermoplastics and can retain their
shape and size even at high temperature. These polymers once set in
a given shape on heating, cannot be resoftened or remelted on being
reheated. For example, bakelite, melamine, polyurea, duroplast.
On the basis of arrangement of monomers plastics can be of two types.
Fig.12 Plastics are mouldable (i) Plastics with linear arrangement of monomers
and are available in many shapes. (ii) Plastics with cross linked arrangement of monomers
(i) Plastics with linear arrangement of monomers
These are plastics in which monomers are arranged in a straight line
chain. Such plastics are said to have linear arrangement of monomers.
Fig. 13 Linear arrangement of monomers.

These plastics are generally thermoplastics.
(ii) Plastics with cross-linked arrangement of monomers
In some other plastics the monomers are cross-linked. Such plastics are
said to have cross-linked arrangement and are generally known as
thermosetting plastics.
Fig.15 PVC which is used to make

sanitary pipes, is a thermoplastic.
Fig. 14 Cross-linked arrangement of monomers.
Chemistr y
Aim
To Understand the reaction of heat on different plastics.
Materials required
Hot water, plastic bucket, pressure cooker.
Method
Touch and press the plastic bucket having hot water. What do you feel?
You will feel that the plastic bucket becomes hotter than before. Now touch
and press the handle of pressure cooker while cooking. Now what do you
feel?
Observation
We feel that the handle of pressure cooker has neither become hot nor
soft.
Conclusion
It means the bucket and the handle of cooker both are made up of plastic Fig.16 Uses of bakelite.
yet they show different properties because the molecular or internal structure
of these two plastics are different.
THE
Plastics are considered as materials of choice. Why? SPOT P
Explanation
Plastics are used for endless purposes like, storing food items, water, milk,
LIGHT
pickles, dry food, etc. Teflon(Polytetrafluoroethylene) is a
special plastic on which oil and water
Moreover these are used in cars, aircrafts, spacecrafts and for making articles
do not stick. It is used for non-stick
like slippers, furniture, decoration pieces, etc. coating on cook wares.
The reason for popularity of plastics is their light weight, lower price, good
strength and easy handling.
General properties of plastics
(i) Plastics can be recycled, reused, coloured, melted, rolled into sheets THE
or made into wires.
(ii) Plastics are non-reactive with moisture and air and insoluble in water.
SPOT P
It does not corrode easily. That is why, they are used to store various
LIGHT
The word plastic itself comes from the
kind of chemicals.
Greek word plasticos, which means
(iii) Plastic is light in weight, strong and durable and moulded into different to be shaped or moulded by heat.
shapes and sizes. That is why, you can see plastic in different shapes.
(iv) Plastics are poor conductors of heat and electricity, that is why, electrical
wire coverings, handles of screw drivers and frying pans are made of
plastics.
(v) They may be transparent, translucent or opaque. THE
(vi) They are low in cost. SPOT P
LIGHT
Aim Your mother always buys PET bottles
and PET jars for storing rice and
To show that plastics are poor conductors of electricity.
sugar. What is PET?
Materials required PET is a very familiar form of
Dry cell, a bulb fitted in a holder, connecting wire(copper wire) clips and polyester. It is used for making
a switch, different types of thermoplastics. bottles, jars, etc.
Class-VIII
Method
(i) Set up all apparatus and electric circuit as shown in diagram below.
(ii) Now place the metal wire between clips to test whether the tester is
working or not. If the bulb glows it shows that tester is working properly.
(iii) Now place the plastic sample which is to be tested.
THE
SPOT P Battery
Bulb
LIGHT
Fire proof plastics : Although synthetic
fibres catch fire easily, it is interesting
to know that the uniforms of firemen
have coating of melamine plastic to (•)
make them flame resistant. Switch
Clips
Insert sample
to be tested
Fig. 17 Plastics do not conduct electricity.

Observation and Conclusion
The bulb does not glow this time. It shows that plastics are poor conductors
of electricity.
Uses
(i) PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate) is used for making containers for
micro wave cooking and packaging, plastic film, carbonated beverage
bottles and other food containers.
(ii) PE (PolyEthene) is used for making polybags, grocery bags, bottles for
chemicals and packing of frozen food and bread.
(iii) PP (PolyPropylene), a special plastic used for making battery cover,
synthetic carpets, medicine bottles, drinking straw, etc.
(iv) Melamine, a thermosetting plastic is used to make floor tiles,
kitchenware and fabrics which resist fire.
(v) Bakelite is also a thermosetting plastic, used for making electrical
THE switches and handles of various utensils.
SPOT P
LIGHT Is there any use of plastic in healthcare industry as well?
Polystyrene is the cheapest plastic Explanation
used for making thermocol, CD and
Yes, plastics find extensive use in the healthcare industry. Some examples
cassette boxes, disposable foam
cups.
of their use are the packaging of tablets, thread used for stitching wounds,
syringes, doctor's gloves and a number of medical instruments.
5. Plastics and the environment

When we go to the market for purchasing something shopkeeper gives
the item in a polyethene bag. Due to this, plastic waste keeps getting
collected in our homes.
Ultimately plastic finds its way to the garbage. But the disposal of plastic
garbage is a major problem all over the world. It is because plastic does
not get decomposed by natural processes such as action of bacteria.
A material which gets decomposed by natural processes such as action by
bacteria, is called biodegradable.
Chemistr y
A material which is not easily decomposed by natural processes is termed

as non-biodegradable.
THE
Nature of wastes and their degradation periods SPOT P
Type of waste Nature of waste
Approximate time for LIGHT
degradation Recycling codes are used to identify
Peels of vegetables, fruits Biodegradable 1–2 weeks the material from which an item is
and food left-overs made, to facilitate easier recycling
Paper Biodegradable 10–30 days or other reprocessing.
Cotton cloth Biodegradable 2–5 months
Woollens Biodegradable About one year
Wood Biodegradable 10 to 15 years
Plastics Non-biodegradable Several years depending
upon their kind
Metal cans Non-biodegradable 100 to 500 years
Plastic takes several years to decompose. So, it is not environment friendly.

It causes environmental pollution (air, water and land)
(a) When plastic burns, it releases lots of poisonous gases into atmosphere
causing air pollution.
(b) When plastic wastes are dumped in water they cause water pollution. 01 02 03
(c) Accumulation of plastic waste on road sides and collection of ugly dumps
causes many diseases to humans and animals. PET HDPE PVC
Problems and solutions associated with plastic disposal

04 05
Problems
Environmental and health hazard problems arise with their disposal because LDPE PP
they are non-biodegradable. Accumulation of plastics is a serious problem,
Fig.18 Recycling codes of different
because most of the methods used to dispose them results in some type materials
of pollution to the environment.
(i) Burried plastic materials prevent rain water from seeping into Earth,
so plant growth is affected in those areas.
(ii) Plastic wastes may end up in littering road sides, floating in lakes and
streams and collecting in ugly dumps. These provide homes for many
diseases.
(iii) When cows eat garbage they swallow materials like polyethene bags
and wrappers of food. It chokes the respiratory system of cows and
forms a lining in their stomach and can be the cause of their death.
(iv) The polybags thrown carelessly here and there, which are responsible
for clogging the drains. THE
Solutions SPOT P
(i) Avoid the use of plastics as far as possible. LIGHT
(ii) Use cotton or jute bags instead of plastic bags for shopping. To overcome the problem of plastic
(iii) Biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes should be collected disposal, scientists have made some
separately and disposed off separately. photodegradable(decomposed by
sunlight) polymers.
(iv) Recycle the plastic waste. Take care in collection, sorting and processing
the plastic waste, with this aim it can be used in manufacturing of other
products.
Class-VIII
(v) Knowledge should be given to people about "green bin" and "blue bin"
provided by municipality for separation of biodegradable waste. Such
as food items (biodegradable) in green bin and (non-biodegradable) in
blue bin.
(vi) People should also be advised to follow 4R principle. The "4R" principle
is
(a) Reduce Reduce
Reuse
(b) Reuse 4R's
Recycle
(c) Recycle
Recover
(d) Recover
It will be environment friendly.
Fig.19 Dispose wastes in suitable bin
by keeping 4R principle in mind.
1. Rayon 2. Terylene + cotton
Chemistr y

1. Explain why some fibres are called synthetic. 7. Explain why the following a re made of
Ans. Some fibres are called synthetic because they are thermosetting plastics.
made by human beings. (a) Saucepan handles
2. Mark ( ) the correct answer : (b) Electric plugs/switches/plug boards.
Rayon is different from synthetic fibres because
Ans. Abo ve articles are made up of b akelite
(a) it has a silk like appearance.
(a thermosetting plastic) because it is
(b) it is obtained from wood pulp.
(c) its fibres can also be woven like those of natural (a) poor conductor of electricity.
fibres. (b) heat resistant.
Ans. (b) It is obtained from wood pulp. 8. Categorise the materials of the following products
3. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words into 'can be recycled' and 'cannot be recycled'.
(a) Synthetic fibres are also called _______ or _____
Telephone instruments, plastic toys, cooker handles,
fibres.
carry bags, plastic bowls, plastic covering on
(b) Synthetic fibres are synthesised from raw
electrical wires, plastic chairs, electrical switches.
material called _______.
(c) Like synthetic fibres, plastic is also a ______. Ans. Can be recycled Cannot be recycled
Ans. (a) artificial, man-made.
Toys, carry bags, plastic Telephone instruments,
(b) petrochemicals
bowls, electric wires, cooker handles,
(c) polymer covering, plastic chairs. electrical switches.
4. Give examples which indicate that nylon fibres are
very strong. 9. Rana wants to buy shirts for summer. Should he buy
Ans. Parachutes and ropes for rock climbing. cotton shirts or shirts made from synthetic material?
5. Explain why plastic containers are favoured for Advise Rana, giving your reason.
storing food.
Ans. Synthetic fabric soaks less water than cotton fabric.
Ans. Three main advantages of using plastic containers In summers, we have extensive sweating which must
for storing food are
be soaked up by our clothings thus it helps to
(i) they do not react with food items. evaporate our body sweat and keep our body cool.
(ii) they do not get rusted. Since synthetic fabric is poor in this property, we
(iii) they are light, strong and durable. should prefer cotton clothes in summers.
6. Explain the difference between thermoplastic and
10. Give examples to show that plastics are non-
thermosetting plastics.
corrosive in nature.
Ans. (i) It does not react with the chemical or other items
Ans. Thermoplastic Thermosetting plastic stored in the containers made of it.
(1) Thermoplastic (1) Thermosetting (ii) It does not get rusted when exposed to moisture
can be softened plastic can not be and air.
easily by soften by heating.
heating. (iii) It does not decompose when left in open for a
long period.
(2) It can be bent (2) It cannot be bent
easily. easily. It may 11. Should the handle and bristles of a toothbrush be
break when made of the same material? Explain your answer.
forced to bent. Ans. Handle and bristles of a toothbrush should be made
(3) It can be (3) It cannot be of different materials because they have different
recycled. recycled. uses and require different properties in the material.
(4) It has low (4) It has high melting For example, bristles should be much more soft and
melting point. point. flexible than the handle.
Class-VIII
12. 'Avoid plastics as far as possible.' Comment on this Ans.

A B
advice.
(i) Polyester (d) Fabrics that do not wrinkle
Ans. Since plastic takes several years to decompose, it easily.
is not environment friendly. It causes environmental (ii) Teflon (c) Used to make non-stick
pollution. Besides, when the synthetic material is cookwares.
(iii) Rayon (a) Prepared by using wood pulp.
burnt it takes a long time to get completely burnt.
(iv) Nylon (b) Used for making parachutes
In the process it releases a lot of poisonous fumes
and stockings.
into the atmosphere causing air pollution.
14. 'Manufacturing synthetic fibres is actually helping in
13. Match the terms of Column A correctly with the conservation of forests.' Comment.
phrases given in Column B. Ans. In the manufacturing of synthetic fibres we use no
A B material from natural sources, thus, in turn we
(i) Polyester (a) Prepared by using wood pulp. conserve forests which may otherwise have been
(ii) Teflon (b) Used for making parachutes destroyed. When we use articles made of plastics
and stockings. we also save thousands of trees which otherwise
(iii) Rayon (c) Used to make non-stick have to be cut if we used articles made of wood or
cookwares. natural fibres.
(iv) Nylon (d) Fabrics that do not wrinkle
15. Describe an activity to show that a thermoplastic is
easily.
a poor conductor of electricity.
Ans. Refer text pg 8 Active chemistry 1.5.
Chemistr y
EXERCISE # 1
Multiple choice questions 13. Which is used in making of thermocol?
1. The raw material used in preparation of synthetic (1) Polypropylene
fibres is (2) Polyethylene
(1) petrochemicals (2) petrol (3) Polystyrene
(3) gasoline (4) coaltar (4) High density polyethylene
2. _________ is an example of natural fibre. 14. Which is used to make disposable foam cups?
(1) Nylon (2) Rayon (1) Low density polyethylene
(3) Jute (4) Terylene (2) Polypropylene
3. Which is known as artificial silk? (3) Polystyrene
(1) Rayon (2) Nylon (4) PVC
(3) Dacron (4) Polyester 15. Plastic products are identified by the use of some
4. The fibre obtained from cellulose is _______. special numbers. These numbers represent for
(1) polyester (2) nylon (1) electrical conductivity of plastic product.
(3) acrylic (4) rayon (2) thermal resistance of plastic product.
5. Polycot is made up of which fibre?
(3) durability of plastic product.
(1) Polyester + Cotton (2) Cotton + Orlon
(4) recycling of plastic product.
(3) Cotton + Nylon (4) Cotton + Rayon
16. Why the waste created by plastics is not friendly with
6. Which of the following do not contain polyester
environment?
fabric?
(1) Plastics are non biodegradable.
(1) Terrywool (2) Terrycot
(2) Plastics are biodegradable.
(3) Terylene (4) Orlon
(3) On burning it causes pollution due to evolution
7. Why one should not wear polyester clothes while
of poisonous gases.
working in kitchen?
(4) Both (1) and (3)
(1) It catches fire and sticks on the body.
17. Disposal of plastic is a major problem because
(2) Clothes are costly.
(3) Moisture absorbing capacity is less. (1) it is non biodegradable.
(4) They are uncomfortable. (2) it is biodegradable.
8. Which resembles in properties with wool? (3) it takes several years to decompose.
(1) Acrylic (2) Orlon (4) both (1) and (3)
(3) Acrilan (4) All of these 18. Cotton cloth is.
9. Which of the following is a thermoplastic? (1) biodegradable (2) non-biodegradable
(1) Bakelite (2) Melamine (3) both (1) and (2) (4) none of these
(3) Polyurea (4) PVC 19. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Recover principle is called
10. Which of the following plastic is a thermosetting (1) 4 Reuse (2) 4 R's
plastic? (3) use' R' (4) 4 M's
(1) Polystyrene (2) Polyethylene 20. What is the full form of PET?
(3) PVC (4) Bakelite (1) Polyethylene terephthalate
11. PET bottles and utensils are made from (2) Polyethylene triamine
(1) polyester (2) nylon (3) Polyethylene tribasic
(3) teflon (4) orlon (4) Polyethylene triacidic
12. Which polymer is used in making automobile battery Fill in the blanks
casing? 1. Cotton, silk, linen and wool are ________ fibres.
(1) High density polyethylene 2. Rayon is mixed with _______ to make ________
(2) Polyester and mixed with _________ to make ________.
(3) PVC 3. The fibre developed in Newyork and London,
(4) Poly propylene simultaneously is _________.
Class-VIII
4. The fibre used in parachute making and ropes for 6. Cookware handles are made of PVC.
rope climbing is _________. 7. Polyester is a synthetic fibre which resembles to
5. Like synthetic fibres plastic is also a _________.
natural wool.
6. The name of the fire proof plastic is ________.
7. Melamine is a _________ plastic. 8. Plastic is a polymer like synthetic fibre.
8. Plastic which gets deformed easily on heating and 9. Tensile strength of nylon is more than cotton.
can be bent easily is __________. 10. Plastics and synthetic fibres are environmental
9. Plastics which when moulded once, can not be friendly.
softened by heating is __________.
Match the column
10. Containers which are light weight, lower price, good
1. Match the terms of column-I correctly with the
strength and easy to handle is made up of
________. statement given in column-II.
11. A special plastic on which oil and water do not stick
Column-I Column-II
is ________.
12. A material which gets decomposed through natural (1) Polyester (i) Prepared by using wood pulp
processes is called _________. (2) Acrylic (ii) Used for making parachutes
and stockings
13. Most of the thermoplastics can be __________.
(3) Rayon (iii) Used to make sweaters and
14. _________ material is responsible for the cause of shawls
animal death. (4) Nylon (iv) Fabrics do not wrinkle easily
15. Cellulose is a __________.
2. Match the terms of column-I correctly with the
True or false
statement given in column-II.
1. Teflon is a scratch proof and corrosion resistant
plastic. Column-I Column-II
2. Nylon is also called as an artificial silk.
(1) Polymer (i) Poly tetrafluoroethylene
3. Polyethene is formed by co nden sation (2) Polyethene (ii) Thermosetting plastic
polymerisation. (3) Bakelite (iii) Thermoplastic
4. Melamine is used to make fire proof plastics. (4) Teflon (iv) Biodegradable
5. Polymers are large molecules made by joining (5) Woollen (v) Small units combine to
several monomers. cloth form large single units
Chemistr y

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. 1 3 1 4 1 4 1 4 4 4
Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 4 3 3 4 4 4 1 2 1
Fill in the blanks
1. Natural 2. Cotton, bed sheets, wool, carpets. 3. Nylon
4. Nylon 5. Polymer 6. Melamine
7. Thermosetting 8. Thermoplastic 9. Thermosetting
10. Plastic 11. Teflon 12. Biodegradable
13. Recycled 14. Plastic 15. Natural fibre
True or false
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. True 5. True 6. False
7. False 8. True 9. True 10. False
Match the Column
1. (1) ® (iv) ; (2) ® (iii) ; (3) ® (i) ; (4) ® (ii) 2. (1) ® (v) ; (2) ® (iii) ; (3) ® (ii) ; (4) ® (i) ; (5) ® (iv)
Class-VIII
EXERCISE # 2
Very short answer type questions 6. Give the two differences between thermoplastics
and thermosetting plastic.
1. What are natural fibres? Give two examples.
7. Give two examples each of thermoplastics and
2. Why is rayon called artificial silk?
thermosetting plastic.
3. Why parachutes and ropes are made from nylon?
8. Give two disadvantages of synthetic fibres.
4. What are synthetic fibres? Give two examples.
9. What are fire proof plastics? Give an example.
5. Write four characteristics of synthetic fibres.
10. Give two difference between biodegradable and
6. Write five uses of melamine plastic. non-biodegrabable materials.
7. Write five names of different kinds of plastic Long answer type questions
containers that you use in daily life.
1. Little Sonu wants a ride on parachute. His father
8. Write two uses of plastics in medical industry. checked the rope of parachute and confirmed it is
made of nylon. Why cant we use rayon ropes?
9. Write two names of polymer which are
biodegradable. 2. Why synthetic fibres are more popular than natural
fibres?
10. What is "4R" principle?
3. Give reasons
Short answer type questions
(i) Uniforms of firemen have coating of melamine
1. Why in summer wearing of cotton clothes is
plastic.
preferred in comparison to synthetic clothes?
(ii) Bakelite is used for making electrical switches.
2. Why rayon clothes are generally preferred over
other synthetic fabrics in summer? (iii) Plastic is used in place of metals.
3. Why nylon socks are generally preferred? 4. We use PET bottles. PET jars for storing sugar, salt,
dal etc. What is this PET exactly?
4. Why nylon is blended with wool?
5. Why accumulation of plastic is considered a serious
5. Why plastic is known as polymer?
problem?
Chemistr y
CHAPTER 2 METALS AND NON-METALS
"The word metal comes

from the Greek word
'metallon,' which means to
mine. Metals make ringing
sound when struck, this
property of metals makes
them suitable for drum
making."
1. Introduction
There are a number of different kinds of materials around us. They are
made up of one or more kind of elements.
There are 118 chemical elements known at present. On the basis of their
properties, all these elements can be broadly divided into two main groups:
metals and non-metals.
A majority of the known elements are metals (89). All metals are solid
except mercury, which is a liquid metal. There are 22 non-metals, out of
which10 non metals are solids, one non metal (Bromine) is a liquid and
remaining 11 non-metals are gases. A few elements have properties
common to both metals and non-metals. These are called semi-metals or
metalloids. For example, boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony,
tellurium, polonium. THE
Metals
The elements which are hard, lustrous, ductile, malleable and good
SPOT P
conductors of heat and electricity are called metals.
LIGHT
For example, Gold, silver, copper, aluminium, zinc, etc. Elements are pure substances. Our
Mercury is a liquid metal. body consists of many elements and
oxygen is the element which is
Non-metals
present in the maximum amount in
The elements which are usually brittle and are non-malleable,non-ductile
our body.
and bad conductors of heat and electricity are called non-metals.
For example, Sulphur, phosphorus, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.
Bromine is a liquid non-metal.
Occurrence
Generally, metals and non-metals occurs in nature in free as well as in
combined state (in the form of compounds).
For example,
(i) Sodium, potassium, calcium, aluminium, etc. are found in combined
state only.
(ii) Silver and copper occur in free as well as in combined state.
Class-VIII
(iii) Gold and platinum occur in free state only.

(iv) Non-metals like argon and neon are found in free state whereas oxygen
THE and nitrogen are found in the form of molecules.
SPOT P
LIGHT Why copper and silver metals occur in nature in free as well as in the
combined state while potassium, calcium, etc. are found in combined state?
Aluminium is the most abundant
metal whereas oxygen is the most Explanation
abundant element on earth. Copper and silver metals are less reactive (or noble metals) so they do not
react or react very slowly that is why they are found in free state in nature
but potassium, calcium, etc. are highly reactive so, they react rapidly to
form compounds.
1. Find out metals, non-metals and metalloids from the following.

(a) Gold (b) Mercury (c) Arsenic
(d) Selenium (e) Bismuth (f) Krypton
2. Physical properties of metals and non-metals
The important physical properties of metals and non-metals are given below:
1. Physical state
Most of the metals are solid under normal condition of temperature and
pressure. For example, iron, copper, magnesium and aluminium.
Exception
Mercury (Hg) which exists in liquid state at room temperature.
Non metals can exist in all the three physical states i.e. solid, liquid, and gas.
For example, Carbon, sulphur, phosphorus and iodine are solid non-metals.
Bromine is liquid and oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, fluorine are gaseous non-
metals.
Fig.1 A man carrying chunks
2. Hardness
of elemental sulphur in basket. Most of the metals are hard except sodium and potassium which are
soft metals. The hardness of metals varies from metal to metal. For example,
iron, aluminium, magnesium, copper, etc. differ in their hardness.
Sodium and potassium are very soft metals that we can cut them with a knife.
3. Lustre
Metals have a shine of their own. This shine or gleam is called metallic lustre.
4. Malleability
The property of metal by which they can be beaten with a hammer to form
thin sheets without breaking is called malleability.
Let us discuss malleability with following activity.
Aim
To study the effect of hammer beating on different materials.
Materials required
Iron nail, hard stone, hammer, different metals.
Method
(i) First of all we will take an iron nail about 4 cm long and place it over
flat piece of iron or hard stone.
(ii) By holding the nail from the side of head, hammer it from the pointed
side for 20 times.
(iii) Repeat the activity with aluminium, copper, charcoal and sulphur.
Fig.2 Conversion of non metals into Observation
pieces on hammering, shows their Copper, aluminium or iron got flattened due to hammering but charcoal
brittle nature. and sulphur broke into smaller pieces and formed powder but did not get
flattened.
Chemistr y
Conclusion
THE
Metals are malleable but non metals are brittle.
Metals are generally malleable except sodium, potassium and calcium. SPOT P
Gold and silver are the most malleable metals, aluminium and LIGHT
copper are also highly malleable metals. All of these metals can be beaten
Silver foils used for decorating sweets
with a hammer to form very thin sheets called foils. are made by gently hammering
Non-metals do not show this property due to brittleness, they are broken into small pieces of silver because silver
small pieces. For example, sulphur, coal and phosphorus are brittle non-metals. is a highly malleable metal.
5. Ductility Aluminium foils used for packaging
Ductility is also an important property of metals. The ability of metals to food articles are obtained by passing
be drawn (stretched) into thin wires is called ductility. Generally, wires hot aluminium metal through very
are made up of iron, copper and aluminium. heavy steel roller.
Gold and Silver are the most ductile metals.
Exception
Sodium, potassium and calcium are not ductile while tin and lead are less
ductile.
For example, 1 g of gold can be drawn (stretched) into a very fine thin
wire of about 2 kilometer.
Copper and aluminium are also very ductile, and therefore, these can be
drawn into thin wires which are used in electrical wiring.
Non-metals are not ductile i.e., they can not be drawn into thin wire (due
to brittleness). They are easily snapped on stretching.
For example, Sulphur, phosphorus and coal when stretched, all of these Fig.3 Thin aluminium foils
are broken into small pieces and do not form thin wire. are used for wrapping chocolates.
6. Conductivity
The property of metal by which heat and electric current flows through
them is called conductivity. Metals are good conductors of heat and
electricity, because their atoms contain free electrons which conduct
electric current and heat. For example, silver, copper and aluminium.
Silver is the best conductor of heat and electricity. Copper metal is the
next best conductor of electricity. Since silver metal is expensive, so
copper and aluminium are commonly used for making electric wires.
Non metals are bad conductors of heat and electricity, due to lack of free
electrons in their atoms.
Exception
Graphite is a non-metal but a good conductor of electricity due to the
presence of one free electron in each carbon atom. It is used to make
electrodes of batteries and dry cells.
Diamond is good conductor of heat but bad conductor of electricity.
Fig.4 Copper can be
easily drawn into wires.
Can you hold a hot metallic pan which is without plastic or a wooden handle?
Explanation Stand
Metal wire
No, we cannot hold a hot metallic pan which is without a plastic or wooden Clamp
handle because plastic or wooden handle are poor conductors of heat but Free end
of wire Wax
metal is a good conductor of heat. That is why, if we hold metallic pan
without plastic or wooden handle it will feel hot. Pin
Burner
Aim
To show that metals are good conductors of heat.
Materials required Fig.5 Metals are good
Aluminium wire, clamp, stand, burner/candle. conductors of heat.
Class-VIII
Method
(i) Take a small aluminium wire and clamp it on a stand as shown in
figure below.
(ii) Then fix a pin to the free end of the wire with the help of wax.
Bulb
(iii) Now, heat the aluminium wire with a candle or burner near its
Battery
clamped end.
Observation
Switch After some time the other end also becomes hot, wax melts and the pin
Clips falls down.
A B
Insert sample Conclusion
to be tested
This shows that metals are good conductor of heat. This experiment
Fig.6 Metals are good
also shows that metals have high melting point (on over heating, the
conductor of electricity.
aluminium wire does not melt).
We can repeat this activity with copper or iron metal also and results will be
the same.
Aim
To show that metals are good conductors of electricity.
Materials required
Dry cell, bulb, holder, connecting wire.
Method
(i) Take a dry cell, a bulb fitted in a holder, connecting wire which consists
of copper wire, crocodile clips and a switch.
(ii) Set up all apparatus and electric circuit as shown in figure 6.
Observation
The bulb glows at once when switch is on.
Conclusion
The above activity shows that metals are good conductor of electricity.
7. Sonorous (Sonority/ Sonorousness)
The property in which metals produce a ringing sound when hit with an
object is called sonorous. Metals are sonorous but non-metals are non
sonorous i.e., when struck with a hammer they do not produce ringing sound.
Aim
THE To show that metals are sonorous.
SPOT P Materials required
Coin, piece of chalk.
LIGHT Method
Aluminium oxide(Al 2 O 3 ), zinc Take a one-rupee coin and a piece of chalk and drop them one by one
oxide(ZnO), SnO(tin oxide) and on hard cemented floor. Notice the kind of sound produced by them on
PbO(lead oxide) show basic as well hitting the floor.
as acidic behavior and are known Observation
as amphoteric oxides. We will observe that in case of one-rupee coin a ringing sound is produced.
However, in case of chalk the ringing sound is not produced.
Conclusion
So, we can say that metals are sonorous.
Chemistr y
1. Metals - (a), (b) and (e), Non-metals - d and f, Metalloid - c

3. Chemical properties of metals and non-metals
The important chemical properties of metals and non-metals are discussed
below.
1. Reaction with oxygen
All the metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides which are basic in
THE
P
nature and some of them react with water to form alkaline solutions, which
turn red litmus paper blue. SPOT
For example, Sodium metal reacts with oxygen of air to form basic oxide
called sodium oxide. LIGHT
4Na + O2 ¾® 2Na2O Since sodium and potassium metals
Sodium oxide are highly reactive, they react
(Basic) vigorously with the oxygen (or air).
It reacts with water to give an alkali called sodium hydroxide. It turns red They catch fire and start burning when
litmus paper blue. kept open in the air. So, they are
Na2O + H2O ¾® 2NaOH stored in kerosene to prevent their
Sodium hydroxide reaction with oxygen, moisture and
CO2 of air.
Similarly, potassium also reacts with O2 of air and forms basic oxide called
potassium oxide.
4K + O2 ¾® 2K2O
Potassium oxide
K2O + H2O ¾® 2KOH
Potassium hydroxide
Even rusting of iron in moist air and burning of magnesium ribbon also result
in the formation of their oxides. Magnesium ribbon burns with white flame.
2Mg + O2 ¾® 2MgO
Basic nature of metal oxides can be illustrated by following activity.
Aim
To show the nature of rust(iron oxide).
Materials required
Rust, water, red litmus paper.
Method
(i) Take a spoonful of rust and dissolve it in a very little amount of water
and shake it well.
(ii) Test the solution with red and blue litmus papers. Rust
Observation suspension
The red litmus paper becomes blue but blue litmus does not get affected.
Reaction involved
Iron + Oxygen ¾® Iron oxide (Rust) Red litmus
4Fe + 3O2 ¾® 2Fe2 O3.xH2O paper
Conclusion
This activity shows that rust is basic in nature.
Reaction of copper with oxygen
When copper metal reacts with oxygen of air (at about 300°C) cupric
oxide or copper (II) oxide is formed which gets deposited on the surface of Rust
the copper metal.
300° C
2Cu + O2 ¾¾¾ ® 2CuO
Cupric oxide
Fig.7 Nature of rust.
At 1000°C, Cu changes into cuprous oxide or copper (I) oxide.
1000° C
4Cu + O2 ¾¾¾® 2Cu2O
Cuprous oxide
Class-VIII
When a copper metal is exposed to moist air for long time, it acquires a
dull green coating (malachite green) which is a mixture of copper hydroxide
[Cu(OH)2] and copper carbonate(CuCO3).
The equation of this reaction is as follows:
2Cu + H2O + CO2 + O2 ¾¾¾
® Cu(OH)2 + CuCO3
slow
1442443 1442443
moisture Basic copper carbonate
What do you understand by the term corrosion? How can we prevent it?
Explanation
The process of oxidation of metals under the influence of atmospheric
conditions is known as corrosion.
or
Any chemical or electrochemical reaction on the surface of a metal is
known as corrosion.
Prevention of corrosion
Corrosion can be prevented by following methods
(i) Paint (ii) Oiling and greasing
Fig.8 Galvanised iron is (iii) Galvanization (iv) Tinning
used for making this home. (v) Electroplating (vi) Anodizing
(vii) Alloying (viii) Sacrificial protection
Nature of oxides
Non metals react with oxygen to form acidic or neutral oxides.
Acidic oxides
The oxides of carbon, sulphur and phosphorus are acidic, which dissolve
in water to form acid and they turn blue litmus paper red.
For Example, Carbon reacts with oxygen of air to form carbon dioxide
gas which dissolves in water to form an acid which is called carbonic acid.
C(s) + O2(g) ¾¾® CO2(g)
CO2(g) + H2O(l) ¾¾® H2CO3(aq)
Carbonic acid
Now we will discuss how non metals react with oxygen.
Aim
To show the nature of non-metal oxide.
Materials required
Sulphur, spoon, burner, gas jar, water.
Method
(i) Take a small amount of sulphur, powdered in a deflagrating spoon
and heat it on a burner flame, till it catches fire.
(ii) Then introduce the spoon into a gas jar.
(iii) After burning add some water to the gas jar and shake it well.
Improvised Observation
deflagrating
Test the solution with both (blue and red) litmus papers. The blue litmus
spoon
paper becomes red and red litmus does not get affected.
S(s) + O2(g) ® SO2(g)
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ® 2SO3(g)
SO3(g) + H2O(l) ® H2SO4(aq)
H2SO4(aq) + Blue litmus ® Red
Conclusion
Fig.9 Burning of sulphur powder.
This shows that aqueous solution of SO2 is acidic in nature.
Chemistr y
Table : 2.1 Metals and non-metals in acids and bases

Name of the bases Metals Name of the acids Non-metals
Calcium hydroxide Calcium Sulphuric acid Sulphur
Sodium hydroxide Sodium Hydrochloric acid Chlorine
Magnesium hydroxide Magnesium Nitric acid Nitrogen
Aluminium hydroxide Aluminium Acetic acid Carbon
Iron hydroxide Iron Formic acid Carbon
2. Reaction with water
The reaction of a metal with water depends on the chemical reactivity of
metal. Some metals react with cold water, some react with hot water.
Some react only with steam whereas others do not react.
(i) Sodium reacts with water vigorously along with evolution of H2 gas and heat.
2Na + 2H2O ¾® 2NaOH + H2
Cold water Sodium hydroxide
(ii) Magnesium reacts very slowly with cold water but reacts rapidly with
boiling water. With boiling water, magnesium hydroxide[Mg(OH)2]is
formed but with steam magnesium oxide(MgO) is formed.
Mg + 2H2O ¾® Mg(OH)2 + H2
Boiling water Magnesium hydroxide
This shows that magnesium is less reactive than sodium.
(iii) Zinc reacts rapidly only with steam.
Zn + H2O ¾® ZnO + H2
Steam Zinc oxide
This reaction shows zinc is less reactive than magnesium.
(iv) When steam is passed over red hot iron, iron oxide is formed and
hydrogen gas [H2(g)] is evolved (i.e. iron is less reactive metal).
3Fe + 4H2O ¾® Fe3O4 + 4H2
Red hot iron Steam Iron oxide
Aim
Fig.10 Reaction o f sodium with
To show the reaction of sodium with water. water and air is vigorous in nature.
Materials required
A small piece of sodium stored in kerosene, cotton, beaker, filter paper,
tongs, water.
Method
(i) Take 250 ml beaker and fill half of it with water.
(ii) Now take sodium piece stored in kerosene with the help of tongs
and dry it using filter paper and wrap it in a small piece of cotton.
(iii) Now put the sodium wrapped in cotton into the beaker.
Observation
It is noticed that sodium metal reacts vigorously with oxygen and water
and burst into flames. A lot of heat is generated in the reaction and solution
formed in beaker turns red litmus blue.
Conclusion
It shows that sodium is very reactive towards water.
Generally, non-metals do not react with water though they may be very
reactive in air. Such non-metals are stored in water.
For example, phosphorus is a very reactive non-metal. It catches fire if
exposed to air. To prevent the contact of phosphorus with atmospheric
oxygen, it is stored in water.
Class-VIII
3. Reaction with acids

Non-metals do not react with acids but highly reactive metals react with
acids and produce hydrogen gas that burns with a 'pop' sound. Only less
reactive metals such as copper, silver, gold etc. do not liberate hydrogen
gas from dilute hydrochloric acid(HCl) and dilute sulphuric acid(H2SO4).
For example,
(i) Sodium is highly reactive metal which react violently with dilute HCl
acid to form sodium chloride and hydrogen gas.
2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) ¾¾® 2NaCl(s) + H2(g)
Sodium chloride
Similarly,
2Na(s) + H2SO4(aq) ¾¾® Na2SO4(aq) + H2(g)
Sodium sulphate
Aim
Fig.11 Iron is used about nine times To study the reactivity of metals and non metals towards different acids at
more than all the other metals put room temperature and on warming.
together.
Materials required
Samples of metals, dil. HCl, test tubes, dropper, burner, matchstick, dil.
sulphuric acid.
Method
(i) Take samples of metals, non metals listed in following table in separate
test tubes and label them as A, B, C, D, E and F.
(ii) With the help of a dropper add 5 drops of dil HCl to each test tube
and observe the reaction carefully.
(iii) If no reaction occurs in the cold solution, warm the test tube gently.
(iv) Bring a burning matchstick near the mouth of each test tube.
(v) Repeat the same activity using dilute sulphuric acid instead of the dilute
hydrochloric acid. Record observations.
Observation
Reaction of metals and non-metals with acids
Reaction with Dilute Reaction with Dilute

Test
Metal /Non Hydrochloric Acid Sulphuric Acid
tube
Metal Room Warm Room Warm
Label
Temperature Temperature
A Magnesium React vigorously More Vigorously More
(ribbon) vigorously vigorously
B Aluminium React vigorously More Vigorously More
(foil) vigorously vigorously
THE C Iron (filings) React slowly Increases slowly Rate

SPOT P D Copper No reaction No No reaction
increases
No
LIGHT (peeled reaction reaction
Reactivity order of some metals with flexible wire)
dilute acid is
Na > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Cu. E Charcoal No reaction No No reaction No
(powder) reaction reaction
F Sulphur No reaction No No reaction No
(powder) reaction reaction
Chemistr y
Conclusion
(i) When metals and non metals reacts with acids, there is difference in
reactivity. Magnesium is more reactive than aluminium and aluminium is
more reactive than iron. Copper does not react with dilute H2SO4 and
HCl even on heating. Copper reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid.
(ii) The reactivity order is Mg > Al > Fe > Cu.
(iii) On heating, rate of reaction increases.
(iv) When acids react with metal, hydrogen gas is evolved.
(v) Non metals generally do not react with acids.
1. Name two metals which are stored in kerosene. Fig. 12 Sunshine,

2. Name a non metal which is a good conductor of electricity. thanks to hydrogen !
3. Name the hardest natural substance.
4. Reaction with bases
Some metals react with alkalis such as sodium hydroxide(NaOH) to produce
hydrogen gas.
Aim
To show that metals produces H2(g).
Materials required
Test tube, sodium hydroxide, water, aluminium foil, match sticks.
Method
(i) Take a clean test tube and prepare a fresh solution of sodium hydroxide
by dissolving 3–4 pellets of it in 5 ml of water.
(ii) Then, drop a piece of aluminium foil into the test tube.
(iii) Now, bring a burning match stick near the mouth of the test tube.
Observation
Pop sound is produced which indicates the presence of hydrogen gas.
Conclusion
This activity shows that hydrogen gas is evolved, when metals react with
alkali (soluble bases).
The equation of this reaction is given below
2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O ¾¾® 2NaAlO2 + 3H2
Aluminium Sodium Sodium meta Hydrogen gas
hydroxide aluminate
5. Displacement reaction
It has been found that a metal which is more reactive in the metal activity
series, displaces another metal less reactive in the metal reactivity series,
from its salt solution. Such a chemical reaction is called displacement Fig.13 Light and strong metals such
reaction. as aluminium and titanium are used
in the International Space Stations.
Definition
When a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its aqueous
salt solution, the reaction which takes place is called chemical displacement.
Reactivity series of metals
The vertical arrangement of metals in order of decreasing reactivities is
called reactivity series or activity series of metals.
Class-VIII
Reactivity series of metals

THE
SPOT P Potassium
Sodium
K
Na
Most reactive metal
LIGHT Calcium Ca
Reactivity Decreases
Reactivity Increases
Magnesium Mg
Iron is the constituent of haemoglobin
Aluminium Al
and magnesium is the constituent of
chlorophyll.
Metal more Zinc Zn
reactive than Iron Fe
hydrogen Lead Pb
Hydrogen H
Copper Cu
Metal less Mercury Hg
reactive than Silver Ag hydrogen
Gold Au
Platinum Pt Least reactive metal
Aim
To show displacement reaction.
Materials required
Beakers, solutions of copper sulphate, iron sulphate, zinc sulphate.
Method
Take five beakers labelled A, B, C, D and E, containing freshly prepared
solutions of copper sulphate, iron sulphate and zinc sulphate as shown in fig.
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
Fig.14 Silica gel used as a desiccant,

is made up of silicon and oxygen.
Copper Copper Iron Iron Zinc

sulphate sulphate sulphate sulphate sulphate
solution solution solution solution solution
Fig.15 Experiment to show chemical activity of metals.

(i) In the beaker A, drop a small piece of clean iron or an iron nail.
(ii) In the beaker B, drop a small piece of clean zinc metal.
(iii) In the beaker C, drop a piece of clean zinc metal.
(iv) In the beaker D, drop a piece of clean copper metal.
(v) In the beaker E, drop a piece of clean iron metal.
Iron Zinc Zinc Copper Iron
Copper Copper Iron No No

is is is reaction reaction
Fig.16 Different metals and non deposited deposited deposited
metals are used for fireworks.
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
Fig.17 Displacement of elements.

Wait for 10 minutes and record your observations.
Chemistr y
Observation
THE
Beaker A
The blue colour of copper sulphate solution changes to light green colour SPOT P
and reddish deposit of copper is formed on the surface of iron. LIGHT
The chemical reaction can be represented as :
Nitinol is an amazing material that
CuSO4 (aq) + Fe(s) ¾® FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s) remembers its shape, it is an alloy of
Copper sulphate Iron Iron sulphate Copper nickel and titanium. Magic metal can
The above reaction is a chemical displacement reaction in which a more be given a particular shape and then
reactive metal(iron) displaces less reactive metal(copper) from its salt twisted out of shape on heating it
solution(copper sulphate). snaps back into its first shape. The
metal resists corrosion and can be
The green colour of the solution is due to the formation of ferrous sulphate
used for surgical implants in medical
(iron sulphate). patients.
Beaker B
The blue colour of copper sulphate solution changes to colourless and a
reddish deposit of copper is formed on the surface of zinc. The chemical
reaction can be represented as:
CuSO4 (aq) + Zn(s) ¾® ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Copper sulphate Zinc Zinc sulphate Copper
solution
The above reaction is a chemical displacement reaction in which more
reactive metal(zinc) displaces a less reactive metal(copper) from its salt
solution(copper sulphate).
The solution becomes colourless because zinc sulphate solution forms a
colourless solution.
Beaker C
The light green colour of iron sulphate solution changes to colourless solution Fig.18 Liquid nitrogen is used in
and a grey deposit of iron is formed on the surface of zinc. The chemical medical research to keep tissue
reaction can be represented as : samples frozen.
FeSO4 (aq) + Zn(s) ¾® ZnSO4(aq) + Fe(s)
Iron sulphate Zinc Zinc sulphate Iron
solution
The above reaction is a chemical displacement reaction in which a more
active metal (zinc) displaces less active metal (iron) from its salt solution
(iron sulphate solution). The solution becomes colourless because zinc
sulphate solution forms a colourless solution.
Beaker D
No change in colour of iron sulphate takes place. No deposit is formed
on the piece of copper. It is because copper is less reactive than iron in
iron sulphate, and hence, no chemical displacement takes place.
THE
From the above observation it implies that no chemical reaction takes place.
Beaker E SPOT P
No change in colour of zinc sulphate takes place and no deposit is formed LIGHT
on the piece of iron. Iodine is a dark violet non-metallic
From this, it implies that no chemical reaction takes place. It is because element. Iodine is required as a trace
iron is less active than zinc in zinc sulphate, and hence, no chemical element in living organisms as a
displacement takes place. constituent of thyroid gland. Iodine
Conclusion dissolved in ethanol as tincture of
iodine is used in medicine as mild
Furthermore, from the above reactions, it is clear that zinc is the most
antiseptic.
reactive metal, followed by iron and copper. It is because it can displace
both iron and copper from their respective salt solutions.
Class-VIII
4. Uses of metals and non-metals

THE Uses of common metals
SPOT P (1) Gold, silver and platinum are used in making jewellery.
(2) Zinc is used for galvanization of iron to protect it from rusting.
LIGHT (3) Iron is used in making machines. Iron in the form of steel is used for
The process of adding very small making utensils.
amounts of fluorine salts to drinking (4) Copper is used in making electrical wires.
water to prevent tooth decay is called (5) Aluminium is used in cooking utensils, wrapping material, aeroplanes,
fluoridation.
ships, cars, overhead cables and in welding railway tracks.
(6) Metals such as titanium, chromium, manganese, zirconium, etc. play
an important role in the country's economy and defence. So, these
metals are known as strategic metals. These metals and their alloys
are used in atomic energy, space science projects, jet engines, high
grade steels and defence equipment.
(7) Some metals play an important role in the functioning of living systems
in animals and human beings. Iron is a constituent of haemoglobin in
blood which carries oxygen. Magnesium is present in chlorophyll of
green leaves.
(8) Tin is used for soldering, for preparing foils, for metal coatings to
prevent chemical action and corrosion and to form panel lighting, etc.
(9) Lead is used in making water pipes, in pigments, batteries, in alloys,
etc.
(10) Mercury is used in thermometers.
(11) Nickel and chromium are used for electroplating.
Some important uses of non-metals
(1) Non-metal such as oxygen plays very important role in our daily life.
(2) Sulphur is used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, matchboxes, gun
powder, antiseptic skin ointments and in the rubber industry (for the
vulcanization of rubber which makes rubber hard enough to be used
Fig.19 Lustrous appearance of in tyres).
metals make them perfect for making (3) Graphite is used as a dry lubricant.
jewellery. (4) Phosphorus is used in fertilizers to enhance the growth of plants and
it is also used in crackers.
(5) Chlorine tablet and bleaching powder are used in water purification
process.
(6) Hydrogen and oxygen can be used for cutting and welding metals as
oxy-hydrogen flame.
(7) Iodine(purple coloured solution) is used to prevent thyroid problems
and is applied on wounds as antiseptic.
(8) Hydrogen is used for making ammonia gas which is used to manufacture
fertilisers, also used to convert vegetable oil into vegetable ghee. Liquid
hydrogen is also used as a rocket fuel.
(9) Carbon is used as a reducing agent in metallurgy.
(10) Nitrogen is used in the manufacture of ammonia and fertilisers. It is
also used as preservative due to its inert nature. Compounds of
nitrogen are used as explosives.
(11)Silicon is used to make computer chips, silica gel is used to absorb
the moisture.
Fig.20 Like us, fish can't

live without oxygen. 1. Na and K
2. Carbon in the form of graphite
3. Diamond
Chemistr y
Distinction between Metals and Non-metals

Chemical Properties Metals Non-metals
Action with Metals generally react Non-metals do not displace
mineral acids with dilute mineral acids hydrogen on reaction with
to liberate H2 gas. dilute minerals acids.
Nature of oxides They form basic oxides. Non-metals form acidic or
For example, Na 2O, neutral oxides. For example,
MgO, etc. SO2, CO2, P2O5, etc. are
acidic whereas CO, N 2O, etc.
are neutral.
Combination with Metals generally do not Non-metals combine with
hydrogen combine with hydrogen. hydrogen to form stable
Fig.21 Gallium metal has such a low
hydrides.
melting point (30°C) that it melts with
Electrochemical Metals are electropositive Non-metals are electronegative the heat of a hand.
behaviour in character. They form in character. They form anions
cations in solution and are in solution and are liberated at
deposited on the cathode the anode when their salt
when electricity is passed solutions are subjected to
through their solution. electrolysis. Hydrogen is an
exception. It usually forms
positive ions and is liberated at
cathode.
Oxidising or Metals behave as reducing Non-metals generally behave as
reducing agents. This is because of oxidising agents since they
behaviour their tendency to lose have the tendency to gain
electrons. electrons.
+ – – –
Na ® Na + e 1/2 Cl2 + e ® Cl
Distinction between Metals and Non-metals

Physical
Metals Non-metals
Properties
Metals are solids at ordinary Non-metals exist in all the three
State temperature. Exception. Mercury states, that is, solid, liquid and
is a liquid. gas.
They possess no lustre.

Lustre They possess lustre or shine.
Exceptions : Iodine and graphite.
Malleability Metals are generally malleable and Non-metal are neither malleable
and Ductility ductile. nor ductile. Fig.22 In our personal environment:
Non-metal possess varying Exposure to trace elements in water,
Metals are generally hard. Alkali hardness. food, and air also affects our health.
Hardness metals are exceptions. For Diamond is an exception. It is the For exa mple, baking goods a nd
example, Na and K. hardest substance known to occur cheese in aluminium utensils is a
in nature. concern to scientists.
They have high densities. Na and K They generally possess low
Density
have low density densities.
Non-metals are poor conductors

Metals are good conductors of heat of heat and electricity. The only
Conductivity
and electricity. exception is graphite which is a
good conductor of electricity.
Their melting and boiling points

Melting and They usually have high melting and
are usually low. The only
boiling points boiling points. Fig.23 Spherical droplets of
exception is carbon.
mercury, a very dense liquid.
Class-VIII

1. Which of the following can be beaten into thin 6. Give reasons for the following:
sheets? (i) Aluminium foils are used to wrap food items.
(1) Zinc (2) Phosphorus (3) Sulphur (4) Oxygen (ii) Immersion rods for heating liquids are made up
Ans. (1) Zinc of metallic substances.
2. Which of the following statements is correct? (iii) Copper cannot displace zinc from its salt
(1) All metals are ductile solution.
(2) All non-metals are ductile. (iv) Sodium and potassium are stored in kerosene.
(3) Generally, metals are ductile. Ans. (i) Aluminium is highly malleable metal and it is very
(4) Some non-metals are ductile. easy to make aluminium foil in comparision to
Ans. (3) Generally, metals are ductile.
other metals.
3. Fill in the blanks.
(ii) Immersion rods are made up of metallic
(i) Phosphorus is a very ________ non-metal.
substances because metals are good conductors
(ii) Metals are _________ conductors of heat and
_________. of heat and electricity.
(iii) Iron is _________ reactive than copper. (iii) Copper cannot displace zinc from its solution
(iv) Metals react with acids to produce _______ gas. because zinc is more reactive than copper(i.e.,
Ans. (i) reactive (ii) good, electricity copper is less reactive than zinc.)
(iii) more (iv) hydrogen (iv) Sodium and potassium metals are very reactive
4. Mark 'T' if the statement is true and 'F' if it is false. as they react with oxygen and water easily.
(i) Generally, non-metals react with acids. A lot of heat is produced in the reaction so sodium
(ii) Sodium is a very reactive metal. and potassium are always stored in kerosene.
(iii) Copper displaces zinc from zinc sulphate solution 7. Can you store lemon pickle in an aluminium utensil?
(iv) Coal can be drawn into wires. Explain.
Ans. (i) F (ii) T (iii) F (iv) F Ans. No, this is because acids react with aluminium.
5. Some properties are listed in the following table. 8. Match the substances given in Column-A with their
Distinguish between metals and non-metals on the uses given in Column-B.
basis of these properties.
S.No. Properties Metals Non-metals S.No. A B
1 Appearance 1 Gold Thermometers
2 Hardness 2 Iron Electric wire
3 Malleability 3 Aluminium Wrapping food
4 Ductility 4 Carbon Jewellery
5 Heat conduction 5 Copper Machinery
6 Conduction of Electricity 6 Mercury Fuel
S.No. Properties Metals Non-metals
Have metallic Non-metals are
1 Appearance
lustre dull Ans. S.No. A B
2 Hardness Hard Soft 1 Gold Jewellery
3 Malleability Malleable Non-malleable

2 Iron Machinery
3 Aluminium Wrapping food
Ans. 4 Ductility Ductile Non-ductile
4 Carbon Fuel
Heat Good
5 Bad conductors 5 Copper Electric wire
conduction conductors
Conduction of Good Bad conductors/ 6 Mercury Thermometers
6
Electricity conductors insulators
Chemistr y
9. What happens when Ans. (i) She will bring a wet litmus paper in contact with
(i) Dilute sulphuric acid is poured on a copper the gas. If the gas turns wet blue litmus paper
plate? into red, the gas will be acidic.
(ii) Iron nails are placed in copper sulphate solution? (ii) (a) Carbon + Oxygen ¾® Carbon dioxide.
Write word equations of the reactions involved.
(b) Carbon dioxide + Water ¾® Carbonic acid.
Ans. (i) No reaction
(from wet litmus)
(ii) Brown coating is deposited on the iron nails. This
11. One day Reeta went to a jeweller's shop with her
is because of the displacement of copper from
copper sulphate solution by iron. mother. Her mother gave an old gold jewellery to
the goldsmith to polish. Next day when they brought
Iron + Copper Sulphate (solution) ¾® Iron sulphate
(solution) + Copper the jewellery back, they found that there was slight
Blue coloured CuSO4 solution fades to greenish loss in its weight. Can you suggest a reason for the
colour as a layer of Cu is deposited on surface of iron. loss in weight?
10. Saloni took a piece of burning charcoal and collected Ans. The jeweller must have dipped the jewellery in the
the gas evolved in a test tube. solution of acid, which reacts with the outer covering
(i) How will she find the nature of the gas? of metals. Thus, there is a net loss of weight in the
(ii) Write down word equations of all the reactions metal of the ornament.
taking place in this process.
Class-VIII
EXERCISE # 1
Multiple choice questions 11. The non-metal which is liquid at room temperature
1. Malleability is the characteristic property of is
(1) chlorine (2) fluorine
(1) silver (2) mercury
(3) bromine (4) iodine
(3) plastic (4) potassium
12. The non-metal which is used for the manufacture
2. The metal which is soft and can be cut with a knife of fertilizers is
is
(1) chlorine (2) sulphur
(1) zinc (2) copper
(3) phosphorus (4) none of these
(3) sodium (4) magnesium
13. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is
3. Which metal is found in the liquid state at room
(1) acidic oxide
temperature?
(2) basic oxide
(1) Zinc (2) Magnesium
(3) neutral oxide
(3) Calcium (4) Mercury
4. Which of the following is best conductor of heat and (4) none of these
electricity? 14. Carbon monoxide is a/an
(1) Silver (2) Copper (1) acidic oxide
(3) Aluminium (4) Iron (2) basic oxide
5. Which of the following can be beaten into thin sheet? (3) amphoteric oxide
(1) Coal (2) Phosphorus (4) neutral oxide
(3) Aluminium (4) Sulphur 15. Which among the following elements is a metalloid?
6. The metal which does not react with air is (1) Beryllium (2) Barium
(1) sodium (2) calcium (3) Silicon (4) Bismuth
(3) gold (4) aluminium 16. The metal that reacts with cold water is
7. Which is the most reactive metal of the following?
(1) mercury (2) sodium
(1) Copper (2) Sodium
(3) zinc (4) tungsten
(3) Calcium (4) Iron
17. Beakers A, B and C contain zinc sulphate, silver
8. The metal which can replace copper from its salt
sulphate and iron (II) sulphate solutions respectively.
solution is Copper pieces are added to each beaker. Blue
(1) silver (2) mercury colour will appear in case of
(3) zinc (4) gold (1) Beaker A (2) Beaker B
9. Which of the following is a property of non-metals? (3) Beaker C (4) All the beakers
(1) Low melting point 18. Cu + HCl ®
(2) Poor conductor of electricity
(1) react vigorously (2) no reaction
(3) Low densities
(3) react moderately (4) react slowly
(4) All of these
19. When a metal is added to dilute HCl solution, there
10. The non-metal having shining surface is
is no evolution of gas. Metal is -
(1) carbon (2) sulphur
(1) K (2) Na
(3) iodine (4) phosphorus
(3) Ag (4) Zn

Chemistr y
20. Which of the following pairs will give displacement Fill in the blanks
reactions ? 1. Iron is _________ reactive than copper.
(1) ZnSO4 solution and aluminium metal 2. Metals react with acids to produce _________ gas.
(2) MgCl2 solution and aluminium metal 3. Copper does not react with __________ acid.
(3) FeSO4 solution and silver metal 4. __________ is used in crackers.
(4) MgSO4 solution and copper metal 5. Phosphorus is stored in ___________.
True or false 6. __________ is a non-metal which catches fire if
1. All non-metal oxides are neutral in nature. exposed to air.
2. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. 7. Sulphurous acid turns ________ litmus paper to
3. All non-metals are ductile. __________.
4. Aluminium foils are used to wrap food items. 8. When a copper vessel is exposed to moist air for
5. Metals produce a ringing sound. long time. It acquires __________ coating.
6. The coal, pencil lead and plastic show the property 9. The iron nail and the aluminium wire _________
of malleability. on beating.
7. The oxides of non-metals are basic. 10. Metals are __________ conductors of heat and
__________.
8. The oxide of magnesium is acidic in nature.
Match the column
9. Metals can gain electrons to form negative ions.
1. Match the substances given in column I with their
10. Coal can be drawn into thin wire.
uses given in column II.
11. Some metals react with sodium hydroxide to
produce hydrogen gas.
Column-I Column-II
12. Generally, non-metals react with acid.
(1) Gold (i) Antiseptic
13. Hydrogen is a gas that burns with a 'pop' sound.
14. The zinc metal replaces the iron metal from its salt (2) Silver (ii) Dry lubricant
solution. (3) Aluminium (iii) Jewellery

15. Phosphorus is a very reactive non-metal. (4) Carbon (iv) Decorating sweets
16. Phosphorus catches fire, when exposed to air. (5) Mercury (v) Wrapping food
17. Calcium is stored in kerosene. (6) Copper (vi) Fuel
18. Platinum is not affected by air and water.
(7) Zinc (vii) Electric wire
19. Some non-metals are used in water purification.
(8) Silicon (viii) Thermometers
20. Gallium melts from the heat of our hand.
(9) Graphite (ix) Semi-conductors
(10) Sulphur (x) Galvanisation

Class-VIII
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A ns. 1 3 4 1 3 3 2 3 4 3
Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A ns. 3 3 1 4 3 2 2 2 3 1
True or false
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. True 6. False 7. False 8. False
9. False 10. False 11. True 12. False 13. True 14. True 15. True 16. True
17. False 18. True 19. True 20. True
Fill in the blanks
1. more 2. H2 3. dil. HCl/H2SO4 4. Phosphorus 5. water 6. Phosphorus

7. blue, red 8. dull green 9. change their shape 10. good, electricity
Match the column
1. (1) ® (iii) ; (2) ® (iv) ; (3) ® (v) ; (4) ® (vi) ; (5) ® (viii) ; (6) ® (vii) ; (7) ® (x) ; (8) ® (ix) ; (9) ® (ii) ; (10) ® (i)

Chemistr y
EXERCISE # 2
Very short answer type questions 4. Explain reactions of sodium, magnesium and iron
with water.
1. Which property of metals makes them suitable for
use in jewellery? 5. What is malleability? Name two most malleable
metals.
2. Name two non-metals whose oxides are acidic in
nature. Long answer type questions
3. Name two oxides which are neutral in nature. 1. (a) What happens when iron nails are placed in
copper sulphate solution? Write word equations
4. Name one non-metal which is liquid at room
of the reactions involved.
temperature.
(b) What happens when dilute sulphuric acid is
5. Name the metal that burns in air with a brilliant white
poured on a copper plate?
flame.
(c) What is the nature of Na2O? What happens
6. What are the elements which show properties of
when it is dissolved in water? Write equation.
both metals and non-metals called?
2. Give a balanced chemical equation for the following
7. What is galvanisation?
reactions :
8. What is rust chemically known as?
(i) Sulphur + Oxygen ® Sulphur trioxide
9. Arrange Ca, Zn, Fe, Au, Ag and Cu in order of
(ii) Phosphrous + Oxygen ® Phosphorus pentoxide
decreasing reactivity.
(iii) Carbon + Oxygen ® Carbon monoxide
10. In what respect does graphite resemble a metal?
(iv) Zinc + Oxygen ® Zinc oxide
Short answer type question
(v) Sodium + Oxygen ® Sodium oxide
1. Give reason for the following
3. Which of the following reactions cannot take place?
(a) Electrical wires cannot be made out of sulphur.
Justify your answer.
Why?
(i) Iron + Zinc sulphate ® Iron sulphate + Zinc
(b) Copper cannot displace zinc from its salt
solution. Why? (ii) Copper + Silver nitrate ® Copper nitrate + Silver
(c) Phosphorus is stored in water. Why? (iii) Zinc + Ferrous sulphate ® Zinc sulphate + Iron
(d) What happens, when metals react with alkali? (iv) Iron + Copper sulphate ® Iron sulphate + Copper
(e) What happens when CO2 is dissolved in water? 4. State five reasons for believing that sodium is a
metal.
(f) Metals are electropositive in nature. Why?
5. Differentiate between metals and non-metals.
(g) Complete the following equation :
6. Write a short note on the physical properties of
Na2O + H2O ¾® non-metals.
(h) Which is more metallic : Potassium or aluminium? 7. What is the action of water on
Give reason. (i) Magnesium (ii) Sodium (iii) Iron
2. A silver spoon is kept immersed in an aqueous 8. Give uses of metals and non-metals.
solution of copper sulphate. What change will take
9. Explain the term corrosion. What are the methods
place?
to prevent it?
3. What happens when samples of metals and
10. How can you show that metals are good conductors
non-metals are mixed with acids? of heat?

Class-VIII
Important Notes

Biology
CHAPTER 1 CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
"Agriculture is an applied
biological science which
deals with the production of
p la n ts ( agron o my ) an d
raising of live stock (animal
husbandry) for human use."
THE
SPOT P
LIGHT
1. Introduction The introduction of high-yielding
varieties of seeds after 1965 &
All living organisms require food for their growth and survival. Food is the increased use of fertilizers &
combination of various organic and inorganic substances which are capable irrigation are known collectively as
of providing energy for the various metabolic activities. The food supplies green revolution. It helped in
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals required by our body. increasing the production needed to
The two major sources of food are the plants and animals which are obtained make India self - sufficient in food
from agriculture and animal husbandry. In present time due to the grains. Father of green revolution in
tremendous increase of human population, demand of food and shelter India is M.S. Swaminathan.
has also increased.
Higher grain output can be achieved by bringing more land under
cultivation. The other possibility is to increase production efficieny of both
plants and animals. Increase in production can be brought about by the
development and use of improved varieties with high yield and better
managerial practices (both pre and post harvest).
It is important that food production should be increased without degrading
our environment and disturbing natural balance. This is possible through
genetic improvement of crop plants (a second green revolution) and
domesticated animals and adopting sustainable agriculture.
2. Crops
Plants of same kind which are grown and cultivated at one place on a large
THE
scale are known as crops.
Different types of crops require different climatic conditions like
temperature, humidity and rainfall.
SPOT P
Crops are divided into two main groups on the basis of growing season. LIGHT
Kharif crops : These crops are sown in the month of June/July and harvested Horticulture is the science & art of
in September/October every year. growing fruits, flowers, vegetables
and any other cultivar.
e.g. Paddy, maize, sugarcane, sorghum (Jowar), pearl millet (Bajra).
Rabi crops : These crops are sown in the months of October/November and
harvested in March/April every year.
e.g. Wheat, oat, barley and pea.

Class-VIII
Kharif crops Rabi crops

These are autumn or monsoon The sowing starts in winter season.
crops. The sowing starts in rainy
season.
They are sown in June-July. They are sown in October-
November.
THE
SPOT P They are harvested in September- They are harvested in March-April.
October.
LIGHT They require warm and wet They require dry and cold weather.
weather.
Zayed crops : These crops are sown They need a lot of water. They do not need lot of water.
in March/April and harvested before
rainy season e.g. vegetables and fruits e.g. Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Jowar, e.g. Wheat, Barley, Gram, Pea,
like cucurbits, gourd, bitter gourd Groundnut, Maize, Mango, Mustard, Linseed, Potato, Orange,
(Karela), melons and moong (pulse). Spinach, Soyabean etc. Apple etc.
Zayed crops do not include any grain
Cereal crops are rich in carbohydrate and thus provide energy.
crop.
e.g. Rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, barley, millets.
Pulses are rich in protein and thus helpful for body building.
e.g. Gram, moong, pea, lentil (masoor), urad, pigeon pea (arhar).
Oil seed crops are rich in oil and fatty acids and thus provide energy.
e.g. Groundnut, sunflower, soyabean, mustard, sesame (til).
Vegetable crops provide vitamins and minerals along with small quantities
of carbohydrate, protein and oils.
e.g.Spinach, Cabbage, Potatoes and Carrot.
Fodder crops provide green fodder to the cattle.
e.g. Berseem, sorghum, maize, oat, sudan grass, alfalfa.
3. Agriculture practices
Activities which are carried out by the farmer to ensure good crop yield,
in particular sequence, till the crop mature at harvest are known as
agriculture practices.
THE (1) Soil preparation : (a) Ploughing (b) Levelling
SPOT P (2) Sowing (3) Manuring (4) Irrigation
LIGHT (5) Weeding (6) Harvesting (7) Threshing
Soil contains minerals, water, air (8) Winnowing (9) Storage.
some living organisms (microbes) 1. Soil preparation
earthworms, dead plants and Various processes are included in it.
animals. Various nutrients present in
the dead organisms are released (a) Ploughing or tilling : Process of loosening and turning of the soil is
back into the soil by microbes through called ploughing or tilling.
decomposition. Earthworms loosen Advantages of ploughing
the soil and add humus to it.
(i) It allows mixing of manure and fertilizer more uniformly.
(ii) Seeds are also able to germinate more easily.
(iii) It allows good root penetration so that the plant is held firmly to the soil.
(iv) Roots are able to breathe more easily.
(v) Loosened soil promotes growth of worms and microbes which help to
maintain the fertility of soil.
Agriculture implements : The tools required for carrying out the activities
involved in the cultivation of plants are known as agriculture implements.

Biology
Plough : It contains triangular iron strip called ploughshare and main part
of the plough is a long log of wood called ploughshaft. One end of the
shaft is handle and other end is attached to a beam which is placed on the
bulls necks. (fig.1)
One pair of bulls and a man can easily operate the plough. THE
SPOT P
Beam
LIGHT
Sometimes manure is added to the
soil before tilling. This helps in proper
mixing of manure with soil. The soil is
Ploughshaft moistened before sowing.
Ploughshare
Fig.1 A plough
Hoe : This is used for removing weeds and for loosening the soil. It has a
long rod of wood or iron. A strong, broad and bent plate of iron is fixed to
one of its ends which works like a blade. It is pulled by animals. (Fig.2)
grip beam
handle
bent plate
rod
Fig.2 A hoe
Cultivator : Ploughing can also be done by tractor driven cultivator. The
use of cultivator saves labour and time. (Fig.3)
Fig.3 Cultivator driven by a tractor
Why does the soil need to be turned and loosened?

Explanation
Since only a few centimetres of the top layer of soil supports plant growth,
turning and loosening of soil brings the nutrient rich soil to the top so that
THE
plant can use these nutrients. Thus turning and loosening of soil is very
important for cultivation of crops. SPOT P
(b) Levelling : Tilled soil may have big blocks of soil (crumbs). Crumbs are LIGHT
broken down and the soil is levelled with wooden planks or iron leveller, Green manure is a type of manure
the process called levelling. Levelling is done for better sowing and irrigation. which is produced by the sowing and
(Fig.4) back ploughing of fast growing crops.
e.g. Mustard, alfalfa.
A plank used to level the soil An iron leveller
Fig.4 Soil levellers

Class-VIII
Advantages of levelling
(i) It helps in uniform distribution of water and manure.
(ii) It prevents the loose soil from being eroded by water or air.
2. Sowing : The process of putting the seeds in the soil is known as sowing.
Before sowing, good quality seeds are selected.
Selection of seeds : Healthy seeds sink and weak or insect eaten seeds
float on water. Healthy seeds are separated and dried before sowing.
THE Sowing can be done by
SPOT P (i) Broadcasting : Seeds are sown by hand or manually.
(ii) Traditional tool : The tool used traditionally for sowing seeds has
LIGHT shape like a funnel. The seeds are filled into the funnel, passed down
Compost is a type of manure which through two or three pipes having sharp ends. These ends pierce into
is produced from the plant and the soil and place seeds there. (Fig.5)
animal wastes by the action of
microbes.
Fig.5 Traditional method of sowing

(iii) Seed drill : Seeds are sown by the seed drill with the help of a tractor.
It saves time and labour. This tool sows the seeds uniformly at proper
distance and depth.
Precautions during sowing seeds
(i) Use good quality, healthy and disease free seeds.
(ii) The seeds should be sown at a particular depth under the soil. Seeds
left on the surface of the soil may be carried or destroyed by the
insects and the birds. Seeds placed deep into the soil may either fail
to germinate or may fail to come out into the air on germination.
(iii) Distance should be proper to avoid overcrowding.
(iv) Enough water should be there in the soil.
THE
SPOT P Transplantation : Firstly seeds are sown in nursery and then the seedlings are
shifted to the main field. This process is known as transplantation. It enables
the farmers to select the healthier seedlings.
LIGHT e.g.Rice, Onion, Tomato, Brinjal and Chilli.
Vermicompost is the type of manure
which is produced by the
degradation of organic wastes
through consumption by the Give two reasons why seeds should be sown at correct distance?
earthworms. This process is known Explanation
as vermicomposting.
Seeds should be sown at correct distance to avoid overcrowding.
(i) If the seeds are too close they will not get enough water, sunlight and
nutrients.
(ii) If the seeds are too far apart, there is wastage of field space.

Biology
3. Manuring : Farmers have to add manure to the field to replenish the

soil with nutrients, this process is known as manuring.
Manure : These are organic substances, obtained from the decomposition THE
of plant and animal wastes. SPOT P
Advantages of manure LIGHT
Roots of leguminous plants bear root
(i) It increases the number of friendly microbes. nodules. Root nodules houses
Rhizobium, a nitrogen fixing bacteria.
(ii) It improves the texture of soil by adding organic matter (humus).
Nitrogen fixed by the bacterium is
supplied as additional nitrogenous
(iii) It increases soil fertility, water holding capacity and aeration.
nutrition to the leguminous plant
(iv) It reduces soil erosion. (host). In turn, the host plant provides
shelter and food to the bacterium.
(v) It is cheap.
Disadvantages of manure
(i) They have less amount of nutrients as compared to fertilizers or not

nutrient specific.
(ii) Manures are bulky and not easy to store and transport.
Fertilizers : These are commercially manufactured inorganic salts

containing one or more essential plant nutrients like NPK, which are used
to increase soil fertility.
Types of fertilizers
Nitrogenous : Sodium nitrate, Urea
Phosphatic : Ammonium phosphate
Potassium : Potassium sulphate
Mixed : NPK, CAN (Calcium ammonium nitrate)
Advantages of fertilizers
(i) They are nutrient specific and required in small amounts.
(ii) They are water soluble and absorbed by the plant easily.
THE
(iii) They are easy to store and transport.
SPOT P
Disadvantages of fertilizers LIGHT
(i) Fertilizers can change the soil structure by killing the soil microbes. Clay soil retains a lot of water and
hence need less irrigation, while
(ii) Excessive use of fertilizers has made the soil less fertile. sandy soil needs more water for
irrigation.
(iii) Accumulation of fertilizers in water bodies causes eutrophication.
The excessive growth of plants on the surface of water bodies due to
excessive use of fertilizers in the field which flows into the water bodies
with rain water is called eutrophication.

Class-VIII
Aim
To study the effect of manures and fertilizers on growth of plants.
Method
THE
SPOT P Take moong or gram seeds and germinate them. Select three equal sized
seedlings. Take three empty glasses or similar vessels. Mark them A, B
LIGHT and C. To glass A add little amount of soil mixed with a little cow dung
Organic farming is a kind of farming manure. In glass B put the same amount of soil mixed with a little urea.
system in which the harmful Take the same amount of soil in glass C without adding anything. Now
chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides)
are not used. In place of chemicals
pour the same amount of water in each glass and plant the seedlings in
the use of organic manures, them. Keep them in a safe place and water them daily. After 7 to 10 days
biofertilizers and biopesticides are observe their growth.
recommended.
Growing seedlings with manure and fertiliser

Observation
We will observe that seedlings in glass B in which urea was added showed
better and faster growth of plants than those in glass A and glass C. After
that it was glass A in which manure was added, showed better growth than
glass C.
Conclusion
THE
SPOT P Thus fertilizers are rich in nutrients and help in faster growth of plants but
we should remember that excessive use of fertilizers should be avoided as
LIGHT it makes soil less fertile.
Fertigation is a method of applying
fertilizers through drip irrigation. The Methods for maintaining soil fertility without use of fertilizers
situation of standing water in field
due to excessive irrigation is called (i) Field fallow : The practice of leaving the field uncultivated for a
water logging. As a result of it, the season is called field fallow.
roots fail to breathe and salinisation
occurs. (ii) Crop rotation : The practice of growing different crops alternately
in the same field is called crop rotation. e.g. farmers use to grow
legume as fodder in one season and wheat in the next season. This
helps in the replenishment of the soil with nitrogen.
(iii) Biofertilizers : Organisms which enrich the soil nutrients due to their
biological activities are called biofertilizers. e.g. Rhizobium (bacteria),
Nostoc and Anabaena (BGA-Blue Green Algae).

Biology
Differences between manures and fertilizers

Manures Fertilizers
These are organic substances obtained by These are artificial inorganic salts.
the decomposition of p lant and animal
wastes.
They are rich in organic nutrients, not rich They are rich in Nitrogen, Phosphorus
in (NPK). and Potassium (N PK).
They are not nutrient specific. They are nutrient specific.
They are not soluble in water so absorbed They are soluble in water and absorbed
slowly by plants. quickly.
They are not harmful to the environment. They are harmful to the environment.
They have nutrients in small quantity so They have higher amount of nutrients
needed in large quantity. so required in very small quantity.
They are bulky substances so difficult to They are in concentrated form and easy Fig.6 Sprinkler system
store and transport. to transport and store.
They are prepared in field. They are prepared in factories.
4. Irrigation : The process of artificial supplying of water to the crop at

different intervals is called irrigation. The time and frequency of irrigation
varies from crop to crop, soil to soil and season to season.
Sources of irrigation : Well, tube well, ponds, lakes, river, canal and
dams.
Methods of irrigation
(a) Traditional methods of irrigation
Surface irrigation : In this type of irrigation water is lifted from lake, well
and canal by using following traditional ways like moat (pulley system), chain
pump, dhekli, rahat (lever system). Pumps are commonly used for lifting
water. Diesel, biogas, solar energy and electricity is used to run these
pumps. The lifted water is allowed to run over the field. These methods
are cheaper.
Disadvantages of traditional ways of irrigation
(i) They require more human labour and human efforts.
(ii) They are less efficient so water is wasted in large quantity.
(iii) They are not useful for poor water regions.
(b) Modern methods of irrigation
The following modern ways of irrigation are used which help to conserve
water.
Sprinkler system
(i) In this system, the perpendicular pipes having rotating nozzles on top,
are joined to main pipe line at regular intervals. When water is allowed
to flow through main pipeline under pressure with the help of a pump,
it escapes from the rotating nozzle. (Fig.6)
(ii) It spreads water uniformly over crop plants and field.
(iii) This method is useful for sandy soil and uneven land, where sufficient
water is not available.
(iv) It is an efficient system in the canal irrigated area of Haryana and Rajasthan.
Drip system or trickle irrigation Fig.7 Drip System
(i) It involves the use of pipes fitted with small tubes called emitters. The
pipes are laid over or under the soil and emitters release water drop
by drop around the roots of the plants. (Fig.7)
(ii) In this method water is not wasted at all.
(iii) This method is a boon in poor water regions.
(iv) This is the best irrigation technique for fruit crops, garden and trees.

Class-VIII
Advantages of irrigation
Plants contain 90% water. It is important for proper growth and
development of flowers, fruits and seeds of plants.
(i) It maintains the moisture of soil.
(ii) It helps in germination of seeds.
(iii) It helps in supply of essential nutrients.
(iv) Nutrients dissolved in water get transported to each part of plant.
(v) Water also protects the crop from both frost and hot air currents.
Other irrigation systems in India
(i) Canal system : Canals receive water from the rivers. The main canals
THE
SPOT P are divided into branches which are further divided into distributaries
to cover maximum areas for irrigation.
LIGHT (ii) Tanks : Tanks are water storage reservoirs which store the run off
Spraying of weedicide effect the
water of small catchment area.
health of farmers. So, they should use Dug well – Water is lifted up by bullock.
these chemicals very carefully. They
(iii) Wells
Tube well – Water is pumped up by using diesel or
should cover their nose and mouth
with a piece of cloth during spraying
electric run pumps.
of weedicides.
(iv) River valley system : Due to heavy rainfall, many river valley are
found in the Western Ghats and Karnataka. This results in higher run
off and discharge flows in the rivers. To prevent this coffee, rubber
and coconut are cultivated on the slopes of these valleys and single
rice crop is grown at the bottom.
(v) River lift system : Water is directly drawn from the river using pumps.
Why should watering be increased during summer?

Explanation
The frequency of watering is higher in summer due to the increased rate
of evaporation of water from the soil and the leaves.
5. Weeding
Removal of weeds or undesirable plants is called weeding. It can be done
by khurpa (trowel) and harrow.
Weed : They are unwanted plants which grow along with a cultivated crop
in a field. They can severely reduce crop yields by competing for light,
water and nutrients. Some weeds interfere in harvesting and may be
poisonous for animals and human beings.
Some common weeds : Parthenium (Gajar grass), Convolvulus, Amaranthus
(Chaulai), Chenopodium (Bathua), Xanthium (Gokhroo) and Dandelions. (Fig.8)
Fig. 9 Spraying weedicide
Fig.8 Some common weeds

Biology
Methods of weed control

(i) Mechanical control : It can be done by ploughing, burning before THE
sowing of seed and cutting of weeds before they produce flowers and
seeds. Khurpi and seed drill is also used in uprooting of weeds. SPOT P
(ii) Chemical control : It can be done by spraying weedicides or herbicides LIGHT
(chemical which are used to kill the weeds). They do not damage the A pest is a plant or animal
crops. The weedicides are diluted with water to the extent required and detrimental to crops like aphids,
sprayed in the fields with sprayer. (Fig.9) mites, locusts, crickets, rodents, birds,
etc.
e.g. 2, 4-D (2,4–dichlorophenoxyacetic acid),
2, 4, 5-T (2,4,5–trichlorophenoxyacetic acid),
MCPA (methyl, chlorophenoxyacetic acid), Butachlor & Atrazine.
(iii) Biological control : In this living organisms are used to destroy weeds.
e.g. Cassia plant prevents the growth of Parthenium weed, Herbivorous
fish (Carps) feeds on aquatic weeds (Hydrilla).
Pesticides or biocides : These are chemical substances used to kill,
control or repel pests.
Types of pesticides
Affected
Pesticides Example
organisms
THE
Insecticides Insects DDT (Dichloro diphenyl trichloro
ethane), Aldrin, Malathion
SPOT P
Fungicides Fungal Bordeaux mixture, Burgandy LIGHT
pathogens mixture, HgCl2 (Mercuric chloride) Summer ploughing is ploughing of
field all around during hot summer
with specialised tools. It helps to kill
Advantages of using pesticides
weeds, hibernating insects and
disease causing organisms by
(i) They kill pests quickly.
exposing them to the summer heat.
(ii) Increase food production
(iii) They are easy to store.
Disadvantages of using pesticides
(i) They cause soil and water pollution.
(ii) Residue left on the fruits & seeds is harmful for human consumption.
(iii) They destroy even the useful insects.
Preventive measures avoiding use of pesticides
(i) Crop rotation, multiple cropping and field fallow.
(ii) Sowing healthy seeds and summer ploughing.
(iii) Use of pest and disease resistant hybrid varieties of crop plant.
(iv) Field also need to be protected from grazing animals by raising wire
fences and boundary wall.
(v) Birds are scared away by raising scarecrows and beating of drums. Fig.10 Sickle

Class-VIII
Do weedicides have any effect on the person handling the weedicide sprayer?
Explanation
Yes, spraying of weedicide may affect the health of farmer, because
THE weedicides are chemical substances which are harmful to farmer, so farmer
SPOT P should cover their nose and mouth with a piece of cloth during spraying
LIGHT of these chemicals.
Combine : A combine machine can 6. Harvesting : The cutting and gathering of crops after its maturation is
harvest and thresh at the same time. called harvesting. It can be done manually by sickle or by a machine called
Chaff : Chaff is the material consisting harvester. (Fig.10)
of seed covering and small pieces of
(i) Many festivals are associated with harvesting season such as Baisakhi,
stem & leaves.
Bihu, Onam, Pongal, Holi and Diwali.
(ii) Many crops require special harvesting machines e.g., Cotton strippers (for
cotton), corn pickers or huskers (for corn).
(iii) Fruits and vegetables are generally hand-picked when ripe.
7. Threshing : In the harvested crop, the grain seeds need to be separated
from the chaff. This process of beating out the grain from the crop is called
threshing. It can be done by threshers. (Fig.11 a and b)
(a) (b)
Fig.11 (a) Combine (b) Thresher
8. Winnowing : In this process, the grain-chaff mixture is gradually dropped

on the ground from a height. The heavier seeds fall vertically down, while
the lighter chaff is blown away by wind. (Fig.12)
THE
SPOT P
LIGHT
Buffer stock : Surplus stock of grains
which is preserved for emergencies Fig.12 Winnowing
like drought and floods is called
buffer stock. Food grains are stored
in large godowns by agencies like
Food Corporation of India (FCI) and 1. Why should weeds be removed?
state ware housing corporations.
2. Why crop rotation is useful for farmers?
3. Why should excessive supply of water be avoided?

Biology
9. Storage : Proper storage is necessary to get seasonal food regularly

throughout the year. Freshly harvested grains have more moisture. If freshly
harvested grains are stored without drying, then they may get spoil and
loose their germination capacity.
Precautions taking while storing grains THE
(i) Grains should be moisture free and safe from insects, rats, and SPOT P
microorganisms. LIGHT
Livestock : All domestic useful
(ii) Grains must be properly dried in the sun to reduce the moisture in it.
animals.
This prevents the attack by insects, pests, bacteria and fungi. Milch animals : Milk giving animals.
Draught animals : Animals used for
(iii) Grains must be stored in jute bags or metallic bins. work and labour.
(iv) Store grains in silos, granaries and godowns with chemical treatment
to protect them from pests like rat and insects.
(v) Dried neem leaves can be used for storing food grains at home.
Factors affecting stored food
(i) Biotic factors : e.g. insects, micro-organisms, mites, birds, rodents and
other animals.
(ii) Abiotic factors : e.g.moisture, humidity and temperature. THE
4. Animal husbandry SPOT P
The branch of agriculture that deals with the feeding, caring and breeding LIGHT
of domestic animals is called animal husbandry. Fishing trawlers : Fishes are captured
by using mechanised boats called
Animals reared at homes or in farms, have to be provided with proper fishing trawlers.
food, shelter and care. When this is done on large scale, it is known as Fries : Small fish is called fries.
animal husbandry.
The main elements of animal husbandry are :
(i) Proper feeding (ii) Providing good shelter
(iii) Proper health (iv) Proper breeding
(1) Cattle Farming
Cattle husbandry is done for two purposes, milk production and draught
labour for agricultural work like tilling and irrigation.
THE
Cattle feed consists of two components : SPOT P
(i) Roughage : It contains large amount of fibre which includes, fodder LIGHT
and legumes. Honey : It contains water, sugar,
(ii) Concentrate : It is a mixture of cereals like maize, oat, barley, jowar, minerals and enzymes. It is used in
medicines and as a food item.
grams, rice polish, cotton seeds, gram bran, molasses and oilseed
cake moistened in water. These are rich in proteins, highly palatable
and easily digestible.
(2) Poultry
The rearing and caring of birds for obtaining eggs and meat for the
commercial purpose is known as poultry farming.

Class-VIII
(i) It includes chickens (fowls), ducks, geese, turkeys, guinea-fowls,

peafowls, pigeons and quails.
(ii) The egg laying poultry birds are called egger or layer, while the one
reared for obtaining meat is called chicken or broiler.
(3) Fisheries
The rearing of fish on a large scale is called pisciculture.
(i) The fish eggs are introduced into small ponds called hatcheries.
(ii) Fish is a rich source of proteins and oils. These are a good source
of vitamin A and vitamin D.
(iii) Fresh water fishes : Catla, Rohu and Mrigal.
(iv) Marine fishes : Tuna, Cod and Pomfret.
In hatcheries, fries hatch out of eggs which are transferred to a larger
culture pond where they get proper food, light and oxygen. The fishes
are harvested when they attain the required size.
(4) Apiculture
THE
SPOT P The rearing of honey bees for a large scale production of honey and bee
wax, is known as apiculture.
LIGHT Bees are reared in wooden boxes for commercial production of honey
White revolution : This is related to called apiaries.
increased milk production. Father of Honey bee colony and social organization
white revolution is Dr. V. Kurien. In a colony, there are three types of bees which are structurally and
Silver revolution : This is related to functionally different from one another, so polymorphism is associated
increased egg production.
Blue revolution : This is related to
with division of labour. These types are :
increased fish production. (i) Queen bee : Queen bee lays eggs which hatch into larvae, which
grows into pupae.
(ii) Drone bee : Drones are smaller in size than the queen, and their
function is to fertilize the queen.
(iii) Worker bee : Worker bees look after young ones, collect nectar
and pollen from flowers and make honey.
Animal diseases
Disease Causal organism Organisms affected
Foot and mouth disease Virus Cattle
Anthrax Bacteria Cattle, Humans
Ranikhet Virus Poultry birds
Fowl cholera and Bacteria Poultry birds
fowl typhoid
1. Weed compete with the crop plants for water, nutrient, space and sunlight
and this affect the growth of crops. So, they should be removed.
2. Crop rotation prevents the soil from being deficient in one specific nutrient.
For example leguminous crops use nitrogen of the air to make nitrates
which replenishes the soil with usable nitrogen, the soil is then ready for
the next wheat or rice crop.
3. Roots get damaged and the plants die because of excessive supply of
water.

Biology

1. Select the correct word from the following list and (c) Weeding : The process of removing weeds from
fill in the blanks. a field is called weeding. Weeding can be done
float, water, crop, nutrients, preparation manually by pulling the weeds out by hand or by
(a) The same kind of plants grown on a large scale at using a harrow to uproot them. Weeding can also
a place is called ...................... be done by spraying special chemicals called
weedicides.
(b) The first step before growing crops is ...................
of the soil. (d) Threshing : The process of separating the grains
from the cut crop is known as threshing. Threshing
(c) Damaged seeds would ...................... on top of
water. can be done manually by making oxen or buffaloes
trample over the cut crop or by using a machine
(d) For growing a crop, sufficient sunlight, ................
called thresher.
and.................... from the soil are essential.
4. If wheat is sown in the Kharif season, what would
Ans. (a) crop (b) preparation
happen? Discuss.
(c) float (d) nutrients, water
Ans. The farmer will not get a good crop because wheat
2. Match items in column 'I' with those in column 'II'
should be sown in winter season.
Column-I Column-II
5. How soil gets affected by the continuous plantation
(a) Kharif crops (i) Food for cattle
of crops in a field?
(b) Rabi crops (ii) Urea and super
phosphate Ans. When the crops are planted continuously in a field,
the soil becomes deficient in nutrients.
(c) Chemical (iii) Animal excreta,
fertilisers cow dung, urine 6. What is irrigation? Describe two methods of
and plant waste irrigation which conserve water.
(d) Organic manure (iv) Wheat, gram, pea Ans. Supply of water to crops at appropriate intervals
(v) Paddy and maize is called irrigation.
Ans. (a) – (v), (b) – (iv), (c) – (ii), (d) – (iii) Two methods of irrigation are :
3. Write a paragraph in your own words on each of (i) Sprinkler system – Where it sprinkles on the
the following : crops as if it is raining.
(a) Preparation of soil (b) Sowing (ii) Drip system – In this system, the water falls drop
(c) Weeding (d) Threshing by drop just at the position of the roots.
Ans. (a) Preparation of soil : Preparation of the soil 7. Complete the following crossword puzzle with the
involves loosening and turning of the soil. This help of clues given below :
process is known as ploughing, is done by using a
Across
wooden or iron plough. It is then levelled by using
3. A machine used for cutting the matured crops(9)
a wooden or iron leveller. After that manuring is
4. A rabi crop that is also one of the pulses. (4)
done.
6. A process of separating the grain from chaff.(9)
(b) Sowing : Seeds are sown after preparation of
Down
the soil. Seeds can be sown manually (broadcasting)
1. Providing water to the crops. (10)
or by seed drills. Seeds should be sown at the correct
2. Keeping crop grain for a long time under proper
depth and at correct distance.
conditions. (7)

Class-VIII
5. Certain plants of the same kind grown on a Ans. Across

large scale. (4) (3) Harvester
1 2 (4) Gram
I S
3
H (6) Winnowing
Down
(1) Irrigation
(2) Storage
4
G (5) Crop
5
C
6
W

Biology
EXERCISE # 1
Multiple choice questions 12. Which of the following machines would you use to
1. The science of improving crop varieties is called harvest a crop as well as to beat out the grains
(1) Plant breeding (2) Hybridization from the chaff?
(3) Selection (4) Introduction (1) Mechanical harvester
2. Paddy can be grown in (2) Combine
(1) summer (2) autumn (3) Thresher
(3) rainy season (4) winter (4) Harrow
3. Wheat can be grown in
13. Rearing and breeding of fish in pond and tank is
(1) winter (2) rainy season
called
(3) spring (4) summer
4. Which one of the following is not true about (1) aquaculture (2) fishing
ploughing? (3) pisciculture (4) apiculture
(1) Loosens the soil 14. Ranikhet is a disease that affects
(2) Aerates the soil (1) fish (2) poultry
(3) Makes the soil hard (3) cattle (4) sheep
(4) Allows easy penetration of roots into the soil 15. The techniques of fish breeding, hatching and
5. Plants get their nitrogen from the soil as growing resulted in _____ revolution.
(1) nitrates (2) nitrogen dioxide (1) green (2) silver
(3) nitrogen oxide (4) nitric acid
(3) blue (4) white
6. Chemical substances rich in specific nutrients are
True or false
called
(1) manures (2) fertilisers 1. Fertilizers are nutrient specific.
(3) pesticides (4) weedicides 2. Rice is a leguminous plant.
7. Which one of the following is not a method to 3. Sowing of seeds by sprinkling them by hand is called
maintain the fertility of soil? broadcasting.
(1) Crop rotation 4. Earthworms are a big menace to farmers.
(2) Biofertilizers 5. Excessive use of fertilizers may lead to eutrophication.
(3) Field fallow method 6. Cattle do not suffer from bacterial diseases.
(4) Successive cropping
7. Milch animals require roughage in their diet.
8. Sowing the seeds manually is known as
8. Feed of poultry includes proteinaceous diet.
(1) ploughing (2) broadcasting
9. In India, many festivals are associated with harvesting
(3) tilling (4) transplantation
season.
9. The unwanted wild plants growing along with the
10. Rearing of fish on large scale is called pisciculture.
crop plants are called
Fill in the blanks
(1) seedlings (2) weeds
1. The practice of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers
(3) minor crops (4) grasses
and ornamental plants is called ................
10. Chemicals which kill weeds are known as
2. ................crops require lot of water.
(1) fertilisers (2) pesticides
3. ................ crops are harvested in March-April.
(3) weedicides (4) none of these
4. ................is a process to loosen soil.
11. Chemical substances which are used to kill insects
are called 5. ................prevents the loose soil from being eroded
by water or air.
(1) fungicide (2) insecticide
6. The process of scattering the seeds in the soil is
(3) weedicide (4) all of these
called.....................

Class-VIII
7. Shifting of tiny saplings from the nursery to a field Match the column
is called..................... 1. Column-I Column-II
8. ....................are chemical substances rich in
(1) Plough (a) Sowing of seeds
nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium. (2) Hoe (b) An irrigation system
(3) Cultivator (c) Manual harvesting
9. A combine machine can ............and .............at
the same time. (4) Seed drill (d) Loosening and
turning of soil
10. Grains are separated from the chaff and hay by a
(5) Moat (e) Used for spraying
method called................
weedicide
11. Cattle may suffer from a viral disease called (6) Sickle (f) Removing weeds
.....................
(7) Sprayer (g) Combined harvester
12. Hen, .................... and .................... are reared and thresher
in poultry farms. (8) Combine (h) Tractor driven tilling
13. Rearing, breeding and management of fish on a device.
large scale is called.....................
14. ....................is a marine fish, while ....................
is a fresh water fish.
15. In a beehive, only .................... lays eggs.

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 1 3 1 3 1 2 4 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 3
True or false
1. True 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. True 6. False 7. True 8. True 9. True 10. True
Fill in the blanks
1. horticulture 2. Kharif 3. Rabi 4. Ploughing/Tilling
5. Levelling 6. broadcasting 7. transplantation 8. Fertilizers
9. harvest, thresh 10. winnowing 11. Foot and mouth disease 12. ducks, turkeys
13. pisciculture 14. Tuna, Catla 15. Queen bee
Match the column
1. (1) ® d ; (2) ® f ; (3) ® h ; (4) ® a ; (5) ® b ; (6) ® c ; (7) ® e ; (8) ® g

Biology
EXERCISE # 2
Very short answer type questions 7. What is a seed drill?

1. What are crops and on what basis they are 8. Why are earthworms known as nature's
classified ? ploughmen?
2. What are kharif crops? Define with examples. 9. What are the advantages of sprinkler system of
3. What are rabi crops? Name them. irrigation?
4. What is meant by agricultural practices? 10. Give the advantages of using the drip system of
5. What name is given to loosening and turning of soil? irrigation.
6. Name the tool used for tilling of soil. Long answer type questions
7. What are crumbs? How are they broken? 1. What are the differences between rabi and kharif
8. What is organic farming? crops? Give one example each from rabi and kharif
9. What is meant by crop rotation? crops.
10. Why should weeds be removed? 2. Why does farmer rotate crops in the field?
11. What are pesticides? 3. Give the advantages and disadvantages of using
manure.
12. What is threshing?
13. What is meant by winnowing? 4. What will happen if the field is not ploughed before
sowing the seeds? Give any two disadvantages.
14. Why should grains be dried before storage?
5. Define irrigation. Discuss its importance and the
15. What is meant by animal husbandry?
various ways in which water is supplied to the fields.
6. Write a paragraph in your own words on each of
1. What are the three steps involved in the preparation
the following:
of soil?
(a) Hoe (b) Crumbs
2. Give two advantages of ploughing the field before
sowing. (c) Manure (d) Harvesting
3. Name three natural methods of replenishing the 7. (a) How are crops protected from pests?
nutrients of the soil. Are these natural methods (b) What precautions should be observed while
sufficient to maintain the fertility of the soil? spraying pesticides in the field?
4. What is meant by "field fallow"? A farmer never 8. Why proper storage of food grains is important?
leaves his field fallow. Will he get a good crop? How is it done?
5. (a) What is broadcasting in agricultural practices? 9. What do you mean by pisciculture? Explain with
(b) Enumerate two methods by which harvesting examples the types of fishes found.
of crops can be done. 10. What is apiculture? How many types of honey bees
6. How is transplantation useful to the farmer? are there?

Class-VIII
Important Notes

Biology
CHAPTER 2 MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE
"Algae by weight represent

60% of the biomass of all life
on Earth. They produce
more than half of all the
oxygen we breathe."
1. Introduction
A microorganism are living organism that are very small. It can only be
seen with the aid of a microscope. Consider that the largest human cells
are about the diameter of human hair. Bacteria cells are one- hundredth
the size of a human cell and viruses are much, smaller again. A bacterium
next to a human cell is like a tiny boat next to a big ship.
Occurrence of microorganisms
(i) Microorganisms are present every where in air, soil, water, foodstuffs,
sewage waste as well as inside animal bodies.
(ii) They can survive in all types of environment even in extremely harsh
environmental conditions like hot springs, desert soil, saline water, ice-
cold water and marshy lands.
(iii) They are also present in dead and decaying organic matter.
(iv) Some can live alone while others like bacteria and fungi may live in
colonies.
(v) Some microbes live as parasites either outside or inside the body of
other organisms and cause diseases.
2. Major groups of microorganisms THE
There are five major groups of microorganisms i.e. bacteria, virus,
protozoan, algae and fungus.
SPOT P
1. Bacteria LIGHT
These are single celled organisms, found in wide range of habitats ranging Microbiology is the branch of biology
from glaciers to deserts and hot springs. They are generally heterotroph but that deals with study of micro
some bacteria also show autotrophic nutrition. (Fig.1) e.g. Lactobacillus (curd organisms. Father of microbiology is
bacteria) Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek.
Rod shape Spherical shape Spiral shape Comma shape

Fig.1 Various types of bacteria on the basis of shape

Class-VIII
2. Fungi
These are multicellular, heterotrophic organisms, lack chlorophyll and are
generally found in colonies. Yeast is the only exception which is unicellular
in nature. e.g. Penicillium, Aspergillus. (Fig.2)
3. Protozoa
These are unicellular, heterotrophic microorganisms. Usually found in moist
& aquatic habitats.
e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium (Fig.3)
(a) Aspergillus (b) Penicillium

Fig.2 Various forms of fungi Contractile vacuole
Cilia
Nucleus
Food vacuole
Nucleus
Mouth Pseudopodia
Paramecium Amoeba
4. Algae
These are unicellular or multicellular eukaryotic autotrophic organisms,
contain chlorophyll pigment and carry out photosynthesis. Cell wall of
algae is mainly made up of cellulose. e.g. Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra,
Chlorella. (Fig.4)
Nostoc Volvox Chlamydomonas
THE
SPOT P (a) Fucus– a brown alga
LIGHT
Euglena shows mixotrophic nutrition
i.e. it is both autotrophic and hetero-
-trophic in nature. Spirogyra Oscillatoria
Fucus
Fig.4 Various types of Algae
5. Viruses
Viruses are acellular structures because they are not built up of cells. They
are much smaller than cells. These are ultramicroscopic organisms, which
require cells of host organisms to reproduce. e.g. Influenza virus, polio virus,

Biology
AIDS etc. Structure of virus consist of nucleic acid and a protein coat.
Nucleic acid can either be DNA or RNA. (Fig.5)
THE
Paramyxo virus
(mumps)
Herpes virus Influenza virus
SPOT P
LIGHT
Virus is considered as connecting link
between living and non living.
Tobacco mosaic Bacteriophage

virus
Fig.5 Various types of Viruses
Microbes-friend and foe
It is almost impossible to think of any place without microorganisms. Most
microorganisms are beneficial, for example, there are micoorganisms in
our large intestine that synthesize vitamins. However, a tiny minority are
pathogens (disease causing agents). These pathogens, often called germs,
are a threat to all life forms.
3. Microorganisms - as friends
Microorganisms are used for a number of purposes such as:
(1) Preparation of curd, bread, cake, idli, dosa and cheese.
(2) In industry – to produce alcohol, wine and vinegar.
(3) In agriculture – to increase soil fertility.
(4) In medicines – to produce antibiotics and vaccines.
(5) Cleaning the environment.
1. Preparation of curd, bread, cake, idli, dosa and cheese
(i) Formation of curd (dahi) : Making of curd is a process in which the
lactose (milk sugar) of the milk is converted into lactic acid by the action
of certain bacteria (mainly Lactobacillus).
THE
This curd is further used in the preparation of idli-dosas and bhaturas.
SPOT P
LIGHT
The process of conversion of sugar
How does the addition of small amount of curd to milk converts the whole
into alcohol is called fermentation.
milk into curd? Lauis Pasteur discovered fermentation
Explanation in 1857.
Curd contains several microbes. Out of these, Lactobacillus, promotes the
formation of curd. When the curd is added to lukewarm milk, the bacteria,
multiplies faster and results in conversion of whole milk into curd.

Class-VIII
Aim
To study Lactobacillus bacteria in curd
Method
Take some curd in a test tube and add water to it. Shake it thoroughly.
Place one drop of this solution on a clean glass slide and examine under a
microscope.
Observation
THE
SPOT P You will see small rod-shaped bacteria floating in it. Study these bacteria
and draw a neat diagram. This activity shows that curd contains Lactobacillus
LIGHT bacteria.
Alcoholic beverages are major
fermented foods in the diet of humans. (ii) In bread making: Yeast is added to the uncooked dough to make the
The yeast also enrich the beverages dough "rise". The dough rises due to the production of carbon dioxide
with B-vitamins. (because of respiration of yeast) in the dough. The bread is then baked.
Heat of baking drives off the carbon dioxide, making the bread porous
and light.
Aim
To show fermentation of dough.
Method
Prepare some dough by mixing wheat flour, water, sugar and yeast. Keep
it in a vessel and mark its upper level. Put a lid on the vessel and keep it in
a warm place for 2 to 3 hours.
Observation
You will find increase in volume of the dough. The increase in volume is because
of release of carbon dioxide gas in the dough which helps it in its expansion.
Note the level in the vessel to ensure increase in volume.
(iii) Add flavour : Some fungi (Aspergillus and Penicillium) are added to
cheese to give a special flavour.
2. Commercial use of microorganisms : In industry
The wine and beer (brewery) industries are important industries which make
THE
SPOT P use of the fungus yeast. Yeast is grown on natural sugars present in fruit
juices and grains like barley and rice. Yeast brings about conversion of
LIGHT sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
The microbes used to increase soil 3. Agricultural use of microorganisms
fertility are referred as bio-fertilizers.
Soil microorganisms are one of the most All plants and animals need nitrogen, the gas that makes up 78% of the
important elements of a healthy soil. air. Some bacteria and Blue green algae are the only organisms that can
e.g. Nostoc, Anabaena
take nitrogen directly from air. These microbes convert atmospheric
nitrogen into compounds of nitrogen and so called as biological nitrogen
fixers. Thus, they are very useful to agriculture, as they enrich the soil with
nitrogen.
Nitrogen Fixation : Refers to the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen gas
(N2) into a form usable by plants and other organisms.

Biology
It is conducted by a variety of bacteria, both as free living organisms and in

symbiotic association with plants. e.g. The roots of leguminous plants like
beans and pea, bear certain swollen structures called root nodules. The
bacterium Rhizobium lives in the root nodules. Bacteria fix nitrogen for the
plants, while the plants give food and shelter to the bacteria. This type of
relationship is called as symbiotic association.
Legume
Aim root
To demonstrate that Rhizobium bacteria are present in root nodules of pea

plant.
Method Root
nodules
Pull out a pea plant along with the roots from a field. Wash the roots with
clean water and observe the roots. You will find many small outgrowths on
the roots. These are called nodules. These nodules contain nitrogen fixing
bacteria called Rhizobium. With the help of a blade, cut these nodules into
very thin slices. Put one slice on a slide and observe under a microscope.
Observation
You will see small bacteria. These are Rhizobium bacteria which fix nitrogen
in the soil. (Fig.6) Fig.6 Root Nodules
Nitrogen cycle : Nitrogen is an essential element for all living organisms

because it is a principle component of proteins and nucleic acids. The
circulation of nitrogen through the living and non-living components of the
biosphere (air, soil, water, plants and animals) is called nitrogen cycle. (Fig.8)
Atmospheric Nitrogen Nitrogen fixation
Denitrification Nitrification Ammonification
Steps involved in Nitrogen cycle

Steps involved in nitrogen cycle
(1) Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed into nitrogen compounds by Rhizobium
bacteria, Blue green algae. This is called as nitrogen fixation.
THE
(2) The plants absorb nitrogen compounds from the soil and convert them
into plant proteins.
SPOT P
LIGHT
(3) The plants are eaten up by animals and thus plant proteins are used Nitrogen cycle maintain the
for making animal proteins. percentage of nitrogen in the
atmosphere more or less at a constant.
(4) When the plants and animals die, putrefying bacteria and fungi present
in the soil decompose the proteins of dead plants and animals into
ammonia. This process is called ammonification.
(5) Ammonia thus formed is converted first into nitrites and then to nitrates
by the action of Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter bacteria respectively.
The process is called nitrification. These nitrates are absorbed by plants.

Class-VIII
(6) The soil contains denitrifying bacteria called Pseudomonas which convert
nitrate form of nitrogen into free nitrogen which goes back into the
atmosphere. The process is called denitrification.
Atmospheric
Nitrogen
Lightening
THE
P
fixes nitrogen
Some bacteria Plants take Animals
SPOT & blue green algae nitrogen eat Bacteria release
nitrogen from
LIGHT fix atmospheric
nitrogen
from the soil plants
compounds of
nitrogen into the
The first antibiotic to be isolated was atmosphere
Nitrogenous
Penicillin from Penicillium notatum by waste from
Alexander Fleming in 1929. excretion
Bacteria convert and death
atmospheric nitrogen
into nitrogenous Compounds of
compounds nitrogen in
the soil
Fig.8 Nitrogen cycle in nature

4. Medicinal use of microorganisms
Microbes are being employed for the production of both antibiotics and
vaccines.
Antibiotics : Antibiotics are produced by a number of microorganisms
and inhibit the growth of other microorganisms even at very low
concentrations.
Fungi and bacteria are important microbes producing a variety of antibiotics.
Antibiotics obtained from bacteria : Streptomycin, aureomycin and
chloromycetin.
Antibiotics obtained from fungi : Penicillin and Griseofulvin.
These antibiotics are used to cure a variety of diseases in humans, plants
and animals.
Precautions to be taken while using antibiotics
1. It should be taken only on the advice of a qualified doctor.
THE 2. Patient must complete the entire course as prescribed by the doctor.
SPOT P 3. Excess dose must not be taken.
LIGHT 4. If you take antibiotics when not needed or in wrong doses, it may make
Antibiotics are not effective against the drug less effective when you might need it in future. Also antibiotic
cold and flu as these are caused by taken unnecessarily may kill the beneficial bacteria in the body.
viruses.
Vaccines : A vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity
to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles
a disease-causing microorganism, and is often made from weakened or
killed forms of the microbe or its toxins. At present, vaccines against several
diseases have been produced such as diphtheria, measles, mumps, rubella
and polio. Polio drops given to the children under pulse polio program is
actually a vaccine. Edward Jenner discovered the first vaccine against small
pox (1798).

Biology
Why are children/infants given vaccination?

Explanation
Vaccination is given to children/infants to strengthen or activate the defence
mechanism of the body against a disease and to protect the body from THE
the disease causing microbes, because the immunity of an infant is low
and so is more susceptible to any infection.
SPOT P
5. Cleaning in the environment
LIGHT
The conversion of dead organic matter
(i) Microbes, like bacteria and fungi, bring about the decay of dead plants into useful organic substance by the
and animals, both on land and in water. decomposing activity of microorganisms
is known as composting.
(ii) They act on dead plants and animals and convert various complex
organic compounds into simple inorganic substances. Thus, microbes
also help in recycling of nutrients.
(iii) They also help in sewage disposal by putrefaction (incomplete
decomposition of dead organic matter).
4. Microorganisms - as foe
Microorganisms can cause harm in many ways. Many microbes are the
causative agents of various diseases that affect plants and animals. While
others causes are damage of clothes, leather and spoilage of food.
(1) Disease causing microorganisms
(a) In human : The micro-organisms that cause diseases in living organisms
are known as pathogens. Pathogens enter our body through various
sources like air, water, food and infected person.
The microbial diseases that can spread from an infected person to a healthy
person through air, water, food, insects and physical contact are known as
Communicable/Infectious diseases. e.g. Cholera, Common cold, Chicken
pox.
Sneezing can cause infection to a healthy person. Explain? THE

Explanation SPOT P
When a person suffering from common cold sneezes, fine droplets of
LIGHT
moisture carrying thousands of viruses are spread in the air. The virus may Houseflies are one of the most common
enter the body of healthy person while breathing. among all disease carriers. They
carry germs of diseases from the
Carriers/Vectors : Those organisms which help the microbes in the infected person's excreta or the
garbage to the food and drinking
transmission of disease, are known as carriers or vectors e.g. houseflies,
water of a healthy person.
mosquitoes, cockroaches, rats.
Cholera and typhoid are spread through houseflies.
Another example of a carrier is mosquito, Female anopheles mosquito,
which is the carrier of the parasite (Plasmodium), that is the causative agent
of malaria.
Similarly, Female Aedes mosquito is the carrier of dengue virus which causes
dengue fever.

Class-VIII
Control measures of houseflies and mosquitoes

(i) Food must be kept covered.
(ii) Proper sanitation.
(iii) Garbage should be disposed properly.
THE (iv) Mosquitoes breed in water. So water must not be allowed to collect
SPOT P anywhere.
LIGHT (v) Spraying of kerosene on the surface of water to form a thin film (this
Robert Koch, Father of Bacteriology, blocks oxygen and kills larvae of mosquitoes).
discovered the bacterium Bacillus
anthracis which causes anthrax Modes of Transmission of some human diseases caused by microbes
disease in cattles. Causative Mode of
Human Preventive Measures
Micro- Trans-
Disease (General)
organism mission
Tuber- Bacteria Air Keep the patient in
culosis complete isolation.
Measles Virus Air Keep the personal
belongings of the
Chicken Virus Air/ patient away from those
Pox Contact of the others.
Vaccination to be given
Polio Virus Air/Water
at suitable age.
Cholera Bacteria Water/ Maintain personal
Food hygiene and good
sanitary habits.
Typhoid Bacteria Water Consume properly
cooked food and boiled
drinking water.
Vaccination.
Hepatitis Virus Water Drink boiled drinking
A water. Vaccination.
Malaria Protozoa Mosquito Use mosquito net and
repellents. Spray
insecticides and control
breeding of mosquitoes
by not allowing water to
collect in the
THE
SPOT P surroundings.
(b) In animals : Microbes not only cause disease in humans but also in
LIGHT animals. The following table shows the list of microorganisms affecting
The species of bacteria that causes various animals.
food poisoning are Clostridium Common animal diseases
botulinum,Salmonella,Staphylococcus
aureus and Bacillus cereus. Microorganism Name of animal diseases
Virus Foot and mouth disease of cattle, Ranikhet of birds
Bacteria Anthrax disease of cattle
Protozoa Sleeping sickness (in cattle, pigs and horses)

Biology
(c) In plants : There are several microbes causing diseases in plants. The
list of microoorganisms affecting plants is shown below in the table.
Common plant diseases
Plant Micro- Mode of
Diseases organism Transmission
Citrus canker Bacteria Air
Rust of wheat Fungi Air, seeds
Yellow vein Virus Insect
mosaic of
bhindi (Okra)
The diseases in plants result in decrease in crop yield. Therefore, the plants
have to be treated by chemicals to protect them from disease causing
microorganisms.
1. How are viruses different from other microbes?

2. Why do we use nitrogen fixing bacteria as a fertilizer?
3. Name any two diseases caused by bacteria in humans.
(2) Microbes Causing food spoilage
THE
The contamination of food by microorganisms results into food spoilage.
The consumption of this spoiled food by humans or animals result into food SPOT P
poisoning. LIGHT
Microorganisms like bacteria and fungi are responsible for food poisoning. Adding vinegar to pickles reduces
These microbes when grow on food substances produce toxin. These make the pH i.e. makes the environment
the food poisonous causing vomiting, serious illness and even death. acidic which inhibits the growth of
microorganisms.
Therefore, there is a need to preserve food from being spoiled.
5. Food preservation
The food that we eat is either in raw or cooked form. All types of food can
be targets of microbes which result into food spoilage.
Methods of Food Preservation
The process of treating and handling food with an aim to stop or slow
down its spoilage while maintaining its nutritional value, texture, and flavour.
(i) Heat and cold treatment : Boiling of milk and liquid food products
kills many microorganisms. Similarly low temperature inhibit the growth
of microbes.
Pasteurisation : This method was developed by scientist Louis Pasteur.
It is used to store milk and liquid food products. In this the food is heated
up to 60°C for 30 minutes or 70°C for 15 to 30 seconds and then is
suddenly chilled and stored.
Low temperature Storage : Microorganisms present in food products
cannot be destroyed by low temperature but their metabolic activities
can be arrested. So that they can't act on food products at
–10°C to –18°C temperature. Fruits, eggs and meat can be stored for
long time.
Refrigeration : Fresh fruits, vegetables, fish, meat, eggs, etc. can be
stored by keeping the temperature below 5°C.

Class-VIII
Why does the milk that comes in packet does not require boiling?
Explanation
The milk that comes in packet is pasteurized milk, so it can be consumed
without boiling as it is free from harmful microbes.
(ii) Chemical Method : Chemicals which are used to check the growth
of microbes are called preservatives. The commonly used preservatives
are sodium benzoate, sodium metabisulphite and potassium
metabisulphite. This method is employed in the preservation of fruit
juices, jams, squashes, fruits, etc.
(iii) Preservation by common salt : Common salt has been used to
preserve meat and fish for ages. Concentrated solutions of common
salt can kill microorganisms due to dehydration. Salting is also used to
preserve amla (Indian gooseberry) and raw mangoes.
(iv) Preservation by sugar : Sugar reduces the moisture content which
inhibits the growth of bacteria. Jams, jellies and squashes are preserved
by sugar.
THE (v) Preservation by oil and vinegar : Use of oil and vinegar prevents
SPOT P spoilage of pickle because bacteria cannot live in this environment.
Vegetables, fruits, fish and meat are often preserved by this method.
LIGHT (vi) Preservation by radiation : In this method air tight packed food substances,
Anti-oxidants are also used to are passed through a radiation beam, microorganisms present in food
preserve food. They prevent the substances get destroyed due to radiation. This method is new and cheaper.
reaction of food with oxygen. eg. (vii) Storage and Packing : Dry fruits and vegetables are sold in sealed
chilli and pepper.
air tight packet to prevent the attack of microbes.
Mango gets spoiled at room temperature within few days but the mango
pickle remains as such for a long time. Explain.
Explanation
In pickles we add some preservatives such as salt or acids that do not allow
microbes to grow in such environment. Therefore, mango pickle can
remain fresh and preserved for a long time.
Advantages of food preservation
(i) This prevents the food from being spoiled by the action of
microorganisms.
(ii) It increases the storage period of food materials.
(iii) It helps in obtaining the off-season food materials.
(iv) It makes the transportation of food materials easier.
1. Viruses are different as they do not have any cellular organisation, so they
cannot be classified as living. But when they enter into the body of a living
organism they become living and cause disease.
2. Nitrogen fixing bacteria helps in fixing atmospheric nitrogen into
compounds of nitrogen, thereby enrich the soil with nitrogen. Therefore,
they are used as fertilizers.
3. Typhoid and Tuberculosis.

Biology

1. Fill in the blanks (f) The process of conversion of sugar into alcohol
is called
(i) Microorganisms can be seen with the help of a
______. (i) Nitrogen fixation
(ii) Moulding
(ii) Blue green algae fix______directly from air to
enhance fertility of soil. (iii) Fermentation
(iv) Infection
(iii) Alcohol is produced with the help of _______.
Ans. (a) ii (b) ii (c) i (d) ii (e) iii (f) iii
(iv) Cholera is caused by __________.
3. Match the organisms in column-I with their actions
Ans. (i) Microscope
in column-II
(ii) Atmospheric nitrogen
Column-I Column-II
(iii) Yeast (1) Bacteria (a) Nitrogen fixation
(iv) Bacteria (2) Rhizobium (b) Setting of curd
2. Tick the correct answer (3) Lactobacillus (c) Baking of bread
(4) Yeast (d) Causes Malaria
(a) Yeast is used in the production of
(5) A Protozoan (e) Causing Cholera
(i) Sugar (6) A virus (f) Causing AIDS
(ii) Alcohol (g) Producing antibodies
(iii) Hydrochloric acid Ans. (1) e (2) a (3) b (4) c (5) d (6) f.
(iv) Oxygen 4. Can microorganisms be seen with the naked eye?
(b) The following is an antibiotic If not, how can they be seen?
(i) Sodium bicarbonate Ans. No, microorganisms cannot be seen with naked eyes.
They are so small that they cannot be seen with
(ii) Streptomycin naked eyes. A microscope is required to see these
(iii) Alcohol organisms.
(iv) Yeast 5. What are the major groups of microorganisms?
(c) Carrier of malaria causing protozoan is Ans. Microorganisms are mainly divided into five groups :
Bacteria, Fungi, Protozoa, Algae and Virus.
(i) Female Anopheles mosquito
6. Name the microorganisms which can fix atmospheric
(ii) Cockroach nitrogen in the soil.
(iii) Housefly Ans. Certain type of bacteria and blue green algae fix
(iv) Butterfly atmospheric nitrogen. For example Bacteria like
Rhizobium, Azotobacter and blue green algae like-
(d) The most common carrier of communicable Anabaena, Nostoc.
diseases is 7. Write ten lines on the usefulness of microorganisms
(i) Ant in our lives.
(ii) Housefly Ans. Microorganisms are very useful to us. Some of their
usefulness is as follows:
(iii) Dragonfly
(i) They are used in the preparation of curd, bread
(iv) Spider and cake. Lactobacillus promotes the formation
(e) The bread or idli dough rises because of of curd and Yeast is used in the baking industry.
(i) Heat (ii) Yeast is used for commercial production of
alcohol and wine while Acetobacter bacteria
(ii) Grinding cause conversion of alcohol to vinegar.
(iii) Growth of yeast cells (iii) In medical industry antibiotics are made from
(iv) Kneading microorganisms like - some fungi and bacteria.

Class-VIII
(iv) Microorganisms are also used to prepare Consumption of such food causes food poisoning.
vaccines for various diseases.
Microbes also spoil clothes and leather products.
(v) Microorganisms (bacteria) help us in cleaning of
our environment as they decompose the dead Microorganisms cause diseases of plants like - blights
bodies of plants and animals and other organic in potatoes, sugarcanes, oranges, rust of wheat
wastes.
citrus canker etc. They also reduce the crop yield.
(vi) In agriculture, microorganisms are used to
increase soil fertility by fixing nitrogen. Some 9. What are antibiotics? What precautions must be
bacteria like - Rhizobium and some blue green
taken while taking antibiotics?
algae are able to fix nitrogen from the
atmosphere to enrich soil and thus increase its Ans. Medicines taken to kill or stop the growth of harmful
fertility. or disease causing microbes in human body are
(vii) It is due to the activities of microorganisms
because of which we are able to prepare called antibiotics. Antibiotics are very useful as only
manure by decomposing organic wastes and antibiotics can save us from many microbial infections
dead bodies of plants and animals. and diseases. They are made from fungi and
(viii) In food industry, they are used as preservatives
for food items. Further, some fungi are eaten bacteria. Alexander Fleming discovered the first
raw as food such as, Mushrooms. antibiotic called Penicillin in 1929. Now-a-days a
8. Write a short paragraph on the harms caused by number of antibiotics are used to cure a variety of
microorganisms. human, animal and plant diseases. Streptomycin,
Ans. Microorganisms can be very harmful to us, as they Erythromycin, Tetracycline etc are some commonly
cause a number of human and animal diseases. used antibiotics.
Diseases in humans like common cold, tuberculosis,
Precautions for taking antibiotics : Antibiotics should
measles, chicken pox, polio, cholera, typhoid,
only be taken when advised by a qualified physician.
he patitis- B, malaria etc. are caused by
Moreover it should only be taken when needed
microorganisms. Some serious diseases like Anthrax
is a dangerous human and cattle disease caused by otherwise; they became less effective for future use.
a bacterium. Microbes grow on food products and Also antibiotics taken unnecessarily may kill the
render them unfit for consumption. beneficial bacteria in the body.

Biology
EXERCISE # 1
Multiple choice questions 7. The fixation of free nitrogen by bacteria in the soil
is done by
1. Bacteria differ from other plants in that they do
(1) Azotobacter (2) Nitrosomonas
not have
(3) Nitrobacter (4) Thiobacillus
(1) DNA (2) RNA
8. Nitrifying bacteria convert the
(3) cell wall (4) a well defined nucleus (1) Nitrates into nitrites
2. The bacterial genome is called (2) Ammonium salts into nitrates

(3) Ammonium salts into amino acids.
(1) nucleus (2) nucleolus
(4) All of the above
(3) nucleoid (4) none of these 9. Nitrates are converted into nitrogen by
3. Fungal cell wall is composed of (1) Denitrifying bacteria
(2) Nitrifying bacteria
(1) chitin
(3) Ammonifying bacteria
(2) hemicellulose
(4) Nitrogen fixing bacteria
(3) cellulose 10. Antibiotics are mostly obtained from
(4) none of these (1) Bacteria (2) Fungi
(3) Viruses (4) Both (1) and (2)
4. Yeast are economically important because they
11. Which of the following is an antibiotic that is obtained
(1) spread plant diseases from fungi?
(2) spread animal diseases (1) Chloromycetin
(2) Penicillin
(3) are used in tea and tobacco industry
(3) Streptomycin
(4) are used in wine and baking industry
(4) Aureomycin
5. Carrier of malaria-causing protozoan is 12. Who discovered vaccination against small pox?
(1) Female Anopheles mosquito (1) Edward Jenner (2) Louis Pasteur
(3) Lister (4) Mayer
(2) Cockroach
13. BCG stands for
(3) Housefly (1) Bacillus carol gram
(4) Butterfly (2) Bacillus Calmette Guerin
(3) Bacteria Calmette Guerin
6. Virus possess
(4) None of the above
(1) DNA only
14. The carrier of dengue fever is
(2) Nucleic acid, DNA or RNA
(1) Ant (2) Aedes mosquito
(3) Protein only
(3) Dragonfly (4) Spider
(4) Nucleic acid and protein

Class-VIII
15. Fleming discovered Penicillin from True or false

(1) Penicillium notatum
1. Euglena can perform photosynthesis.
(2) Penicillium roqueforti
2. Virus contains both type of nucleic acids i.e., DNA
(3) Penicillium camemberti
and RNA.
(4) Penicillium chrysogenum
3. Mushroom is a type of virus.
16. Pasteurization means
4. Viruses are useful for making breads.
(1) vaccination for a baby against smallpox.
(2) sterilization in steam cooker at 100° C. 5. Protozoa are plant-like organisms.
(3) heating milk or other liquids to 60°C to 70°C 6. Moulds are a type of fungi.
for short duration.
7. Microbes enhances soil fertility.
(4) a technique of curing people bitten by mad dogs.
8. Bacteria cause foot and mouth disease.
17. Bacterial infection of food can be prevented by
(1) covering the food 9. Food can be preserved by exposing them under
(2) keeping the food very cold radiations.
(3) heating the food upto 70°C 10. Milk is preserved by pasteurization.
(4) all of these
Fill in the blanks
18. Food spoilage can be prevented by
(1) heating of food 1. Micro-organisms can be seen with the help of a

________
(2) using chemicals
2. Spirogyra is an ___________
(3) canning
3. The fungus that grows on bread is known
(4) all of these
as________
19. Which of the following are examples of prokaryotes? 4. Viruses are ________ in size than bacteria.
(1) Protozoa (2) Bacteria 5. Algae can prepare their own food because they
possess ________
(3) Algae (4) Fungi
6. ________is used in the preparation of beverages
20. Which of them is a connecting link between living by fermentation of barley.
and non-living?
7. Alcohol is produced with the help of ________
(1) Bacilli
8. Blue green algae fix _______ directly from air to
(2) Yeast enhance fertility of soil.
(3) Bacteriophage 9. Cholera is caused by _______
(4) Chlamydomonas
10. __________ is a bacterial disease of cattle.

Biology
Match the column

Column I Column II
(1) Cholera (a) Plasmodium
(2) Bacteria (b) A disease caused
by bacteria
(3) Malaria (c) Jam, jelly, etc.
causing preservation
(4) Sodium (d) Curd making
metabisulphite
(5) Rabies (e) Fermentation of
molasses
(6) Ethyl alcohol (f) Viral disease

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 4 3 1 4 1 4 1 2 1 4 2 1 2 2 1
Que. 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 4 4 2 3
True or false
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. False 5. False 6. True 7. True
8. False 9. True 10. True
Fill in the blanks
1. magnifying glass or microscope 2. algae 3. bread mould (Rhizopus)
4. smaller 5. chlorophyll 6. Yeast 7. Saccharomyces cervisiae
8. nitrogen 9. a bacterium 10. Anthrax
Match the column
(1) ® b ; (2) ® d ; (3) ® a ; (4) ® c ; (5) ® f ; (6) ® e

Class-VIII
EXERCISE # 2
Very short answer type questions 5. Many fungi are of great use to us. Mention any two
1. Name the device which has made the study of uses of fungi.
microorganisms successful.
6. Which organism shows a symbiotic relationship with
2. What helps us to make curd? its partners?
3. Give one example of the process of fermentation 7. What is biological nitrogen fixation?
as applied in our day-to-day life.
8. What are vectors? Give example.
4. Name the microorganisms that are useful in
nitrogen cycle.
9. Give some measures which can be adopted to
5. Name some biofertilizers. control houseflies and mosquitoes.
6. Who discovered the first antibiotic?

10. Explain how pasteurization works.
7. Name the protozoan responsible for causing
malaria. Long answer type questions
8. Who is considered as the Father of Bacteriology?

1. Describe nitrogen cycle in nature.
9. Which bacteria grow in canned food?
2. What is the economic importance of microbes in
10. What is sodium benzoate?
agriculture?
3. What are the differences between vaccines and
1. What are protozoans?
antibiotics?
2. In what respect are fungi different from algae?
4. Name some harmful bacteria and the harms due
3. Why does milk curdle? Explain how one can set to them.
curd at home.
5. How do we preserve food, and by what specific
4. What happens when yeast is added to dough?
methods?

Biology
CONSERVATION OF PLANTS
CHAPTER 3 AND ANIMALS
"Biodiversity boosts eco-

system productivity where
each species, no matter how
small, all have an important
role to play."
THE
SPOT P
LIGHT
Rainforest cover less than 6% of the
1. Introduction earth's total land surface, but are
homes for up to almost three fourth of
Forest is one of the most useful renewable resource. They are our national
all known species of plants and
wealth. They are the home of several kinds of plants, animals and
animals.
microorganisms. The number and types of plants and animals found in forest
depends on soil and climatic conditions.
The variety and variability of all animals, plants and microorganisms found
on the earth is called biodiversity.
Forest is an important natural resource, and forest are under great threat.
The trees are being cut to meet various human needs.
2. Deforestation and its causes
THE
The cutting of trees (clearing of forest) and using the cleared land for other
purposes is called deforestation. SPOT P
Some natural causes of deforestation are : LIGHT
(i) Forest fire (ii) Severe drought Horticulture is the science & art of
Various purposes for which trees are cut : growing fruits, flowers, vegetables
1. Procuring land for agriculture use. and any other cultivar.
2. Procuring timbers for building houses, roads, railway tracks, dams etc.
3. Procuring land for setting up industries and mining.
4. Using wood as fuel and for making furniture.
5. To obtain forest products like food, rubber, honey, resins etc.
How does deforestation affect animal life?

Explanation
Deforestation is the cutting down of trees and clearing of forests. The forests
are home to a varieties of animals and birds. If forests are cut down, these
animals lose their habitats and because of deforestation, these animals
become extinct slowly due to loss of habitat.

Class-VIII
Consequences of deforestation
The consequence of deforestation is very serious. Some of the harmful
effects are given below.
(1) Increases the temperature and pollution level
Level of CO2 in the atmosphere would go up as more trees are cut
indiscriminately as less CO2 would be used up in photosynthesis. When large
area is deforested, there are changes in the climate of that area.
THE
SPOT P The addition of certain gases like carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
ozone and CFC's increases the temperature of the earth. These gases remain
LIGHT close to the surface of earth, forming an insulating layer. The surface
becomes hot due to the solar radiations. These radiations are normally
The total forest area in India is
reflected back into the space. However, due to the presence of the insulating
24.16% of total geographical area
but according to national forest layer the heat remains with in the earth's atmosphere and increases its
policy it should be 33%. temperature. This is called global warming.
Global warming results in the melting of polar ice caps which contributes
to the rise in the level of water in the oceans. It is also called the greenhouse
effect. Greenhouses are the covered areas where the temperature is
artificially kept higher than the surrounding cold environment for the growth
of plants. The gases that contribute to global warming are also called the
greenhouse gases.
(2) Floods
Trees check the flow of rain water. When mountain slopes and uplands are
deforested, the water rushes down and cause river to overflow and flood
in lower lands. The silt carried by water from denuded slope chokes rivers
and aggravates the problem of flooding.
(3) Drought
Deforestation can lead to droughts as well, when trees are cut down, the
water rushes down very fast and upland are deprived of water soon after
the rain.
Increased temperature on earth would disturb the water cycle and may
reduce rainfall due to which drought may occur.
(4) Reducing water table
In the absence of tree cover, rainfall cannot infilterate into the ground to
charge the ground water. It leads to the lowering of ground water level in
the absence of replenishment.
THE
SPOT P 1.
2.
Define species.
What is meant by desertification?
LIGHT 3. What is meant by habitat?
Biosphere is that part of earth in which
living organisms exist or which (5) Deforestation is the major cause which leads to the change in
supports life. soil properties.
Land is also a precious resource. It is needed for agriculture and occupation.
Land is under pressure due to increasing population. Land for agriculture
has to be fertile in order to support a good crop. The fertility of land lies
in the quality of the soil.
The removal of vegetation exposes the topsoil to water and wind. Water
and wind cause the topsoil to be removed.

Biology
Soil Erosion
Soil is formed as a result of weathering of rocks. There are also many living
organisms in the soil. Soil is, in fact a product of the interaction of living
organisms with rocks. Soil has many layers. The removal of topsoil is called
soil erosion.
THE
Effect of soil erosion
Soil erosion results in the loss of soil fertility and makes the land barren.
SPOT P
LIGHT
Soil erosion also leads to desertification. Desertification refers to increase
The world wide fund for
of desert areas. nature(WWF) is one of the many
Causes of soil erosion international organisations that aim
at conservation of nature.
The main cause of soil erosion is the removal of vegetation. Vegetation
removal takes place due to removal of forest covers. Unscientific farming
has also led to barren lands.
How does deforestation reduce rainfall on the one hand and lead to flood
on the other?
Explanation
Global deforestation could lead to a series of consequences, and one of
them is the changing water cycle which results in less rainfall.
They also reduce the intensity of floods. If trees are not present, rain hits
the ground directly and may flood the area around. Forest acts as a natural
absorber of rainwater and allows it to seep down in the soil through the
roots.
3. Conservation of forest and wildlife

Biodiversity is the totality of all living organisms to be found in an ecosystem.
Biodiversity differs from place to place but some times some species are
found similar in two areas.
Conservation means to save, protect or conserve our natural resources.
It is necessary to conserve biodiversity.
Biodiversity conservation is the scientific study of the phenomena that refers
to the maintenance, loss and restoration of biological diversity.
The term conservation refers to the management mainly for economical
THE
purposes of natural resources such as mineral, fish, timber, topsoil and also
to the preservation of forest and wildlife. In 1970's many national, SPOT P
international and governmental agencies became more active in the LIGHT
conservation of biodiversity. In 1971 the UNESCO began the Man
4. Wildlife and Biosphere programme to
establish at least one biosphere
Wildlife refer to all plants, animals and other microorganisms that are non reserve in each of the earth's 193 bio-
domesticated i.e. any living organism found in its natural habitat. The term -geographical zones.
refers to animals and plants that are undisturbed by human beings.
Wildlife can be found in all ecosystems. Desert, rainforest, plains and other
areas including the most developed urban areas all have distinct form of
wildlife.

Class-VIII
Wildlife conservation mostly involves the protection of wildlife habitats. Large

scale killing of animals by man causes a serious threat to wildlife, both plants
and animals. This may affect the food chain of that ecosystem in which these
plants and animals occur.
5. Protected areas
In order to conserve wildlife, some remedial measure or strategies can be
adapted. One such measure is to develop protected areas. These are the
areas developed to protect and maintain biodiversity. The lands are allotted
by government through legal processes. They include
THE
SPOT P (1) Biosphere reserves.
(2) Sanctuaries
LIGHT (3) National parks
Some of the threatened wild animals
like black buck, white eyed duck,
elephant, golden cat, pinkheaded 1. Species is a group of population which are capable of interbreeding.
duck, gharials, marsh crocodile, 2. The process of formation of desert from less fertile/infertile land is called
python, rhinoceros etc are protected desertification.
in wildlife sanctuaries. 3. Habitat is defined as dwelling place of an organism.
(1) Biosphere Reserve
A biosphere reserve is a protected area, part of the animals larger natural
habitat and often include one or more national parks along with expanded
areas that are open to some economic uses. Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve
(M.P.) consists of one national park named Satpura National Park and
wildlife sanctuary named Bori and Pachmarhi sanctuary.
Major objectives of establishing Biosphere reserves are
(i) To conserve diversity,
(ii) To promote ecological conservation efforts and
(iii) To educate people i.e. to create awareness about environmental aspect.
Biosphere reserve consists of 3 Zones : (Fig.1)
(i) Core zone – No human activity is permitted.
(ii) Buffer zone – Limited human activity is permitted like research,
Biosphere reserve has
environmental education and tourism.
3 zones.
(iii) Transition zone – Large number of human activities are permitted like
settelment of tribals and cultivation of crops.
(1) Core zone Some biosphere reserves are
(2) Buffer zone (i) Nilgiri biosphere reserve (Tamil Nadu)
(3) Transition (ii) Nanda Devi biosphere reserve (Uttaranchal)
zone (iii) Sundarbans biosphere reserve (West Bengal)
(iv) Gulf of Mannar biosphere reserve (Tamil Nadu)
Fig.1 Zones of Biosphere Reserve (v) Great Nicobar biosphere reserve (Andaman and Nicobar)
(vi) Manas biosphere reserve (Assam)
(vii) Similipal biosphere reserve (Odisha)
Flora and fauna
Plants of all the species found in a particular habitat or region are collectively
referred to as 'flora' similarly the term 'fauna' refers to animals. We depend
greatly on the flora and fauna of a natural habitat, as they constitute an
important natural resource.
Evergreen forest have different ecosystem sheltering unique forms of plants
and animals. The diversity of India’s climate and topography is reflected
in its rich flora and fauna.
Sal, teak, mango, jamun, silver ferns, arjun, etc., are the flora and chinkara,
bluebull, barking deer, cheetal, leopard, wild dog, wolf, etc. are examples
of the fauna of the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve.

Biology
Endemic species
Endemic species are those species of plants and animals which are found
exclusively in a particular area. They are not found any where else.
A particular type of animal or plant may be endemic to a zone, a state
or a country. e.g. Nilgiri langur, Lion tailed macaque (south India), Nepenthes
THE
khasiana (Pitcher plant), Spider lily are some of the endemic species of India.
Sal and wild mango are the endemic flora whereas Bison, Indian giant
SPOT P
squirrel and flying squirrel are the endemic fauna of Pachmarhi Biosphere LIGHT
Reserve. The Great Indian Bustard endemic to
India and possibly Pakistan has
been classified as endangered
because of its declining population.
Why some of the endemic species may vanish?
The existence of this bird has been
Explanation threatened mainly due to poaching
Because of destruction of natural habitat, indiscriminate hunting and and destruction of habitat.
introduction of exotic species of interest, such species compete with the
native species for food and space. This results in the disappearance of
some endemic species.
Destruction of endemic species
(i) Deforestation : It has been the first act of man which has destroyed many
life forms. Many organisms are supported by forests. Forests being cut and
destroyed forever are causing the disappearance of many plant and animal
species from the face of the earth.
(ii) Growth in human population : Human population has tremendously
affected the wildlife on the earth. There has been great reduction in forest
cover, grassland and pastures which were supporting many of the wild lives.
Exploitation of natural resources for human use has directly resulted in the
disappearance of wild varieties of organisms.
(iii) Introduction of new species
Replacing indigenous varieties of plants and animals with new breeds and
with new varieties are resulting in the loss of certain indigenous varieties.
(2) Wildlife Sanctuary
A sanctuary is a protected environment where wild animals are brought
to live and enjoy protection for the rest of their lives. Wildlife sanctuaries
provide protection and suitable living conditions to wild animals. Indian
sanctuaries have unique landscapes, broad level forests, mountain forests
and bush land in deltas of big river.
(i) The sanctuaries aim at preserving animal life in their natural habitat. THE
(ii) They are allowed to breed and multiply with the basic aim of increasing
their number.
SPOT P
(iii) Cutting down trees and hunting animals in these areas are strictly
LIGHT
prohibited. The Tibetan antelope, also known as
Chiru is mainly killed for its fine fleece,
It is pity that even sanctuaries are not safe because some people living in which is popularly known as
neighborhood still hunt and kill animals, sometimes for fun, money and for shahtoosh. Shahtoosh shawls are
selling the body parts of the killed animals. very expensive, and considered a
Some wildlife sanctuary in India are fashion statement by many people.
(i) Bharatpur bird sanctuary. To check the population of the Tibetan
antelope, a ban has been declared
(ii) Sanjay Gandhi wildlife sanctuary. in India on the sale and usage of
(iii) Bori wildlife sanctuary. Shahtoosh shawls.
(iv) Sultanpur lake bird sanctuary.

Class-VIII
(3) National Park

A National park is a reserve of land, declared and owned by a national
government, it is protected from most human development and pollution.
A National park is an area which is strictly reserved for the protection of
wildlife. National parks preserve flora, fauna, landscape and historic objects
THE
SPOT P of an area. Activities like grazing and cultivation are not allowed in national
park.
LIGHT Satpura National Park is the Reserve forest of India. The finest Indian teak
Main tiger reserves in India is found in this forest. Rock shelters and rock paintings are found in this
1. Jim Corbett National Park park. A total of 55 rock has been identified in this reserve. Figures of animals
(Uttaranchal)
hunting, playing and man with musical instruments and paintings are also
2. Periyar National Park (Kerala)
3. Ranthambore National Park depicted in the reserve.
(Rajasthan) Zoological parks refers to any park, building, cage enclosure or a premise
4. Kanha National Park (Madhya in which animals are kept for public exhibition. These are the places where
Pradesh)
animals receive protection.
5. Sariska National Park (Rajasthan)
6. Sunderbans National Park (West Botanical garden is a garden dedicated to the collection, cultivation and
Bengal) display of a wide range of plants labelled with their botanical names. These
can be called as the zoo of plants where rare and threatened species of
plants are reared and conserved.
What is the purpose of making national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and

biosphere reserves?
Explanation
The main purpose is to protect our flora and fauna and their natural
habitat. Plantation, cultivation, grazing, falling trees, hunting and poaching
are prohibited here.
6. Project Tiger
Project Tiger is one of the successful operation launched by Government of
India to protect tiger in the country. The objective of the project was to ensure
THE the survival and maintenance of the tiger population in the country.
SPOT P There were about 40,000 Bengal Tigers in 1910. There was a sharp decline
LIGHT in their numbers to 1827 in 1972. The main reasons for the extinction
There are 50 tiger reserves in India of tiger were hunting, deforestation and taming of rivers for human needs.
at present which are governed by Realising this decline, a project named "Project Tiger" was initiated on 1
'Project Tiger'. April 1973 by the government of India during Prime minister Indira Gandhi's
tenure. The project was funded by WWF.
Satpura Tiger Reserve is unique in the sense that it has shown a significant
increase in the population of tiger. Animals like lions, elephant, wild buffalo
and barasingha were also found in this reserve.
Hunting has very bad effect on environment, because animals are considered
as an asset in biodiversity chain. If animals decline in number, it disturbs
the food chain and cause ecological imbalance. Many such animals are
shrinking in number day by day and environmentalists fear that they are
endangered.

Biology
Even a disappearance of small animal disturbs the whole ecosystem, due

to which the food chain and food web is disturbed.
An ecosystem is made of all the plants, animals and microorganisms in an
area along with the non-living components such as climate, soil, river deltas
etc.
7. Red Data Book
THE
It is a source book which gives a list of all the endangered plants and animals.
There are different, Red Data Book for plants, animals and other species.
SPOT P
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural resource
LIGHT
Categories in the IUCN Red List
(IUCN) Red list of threatened species also called the IUCN Red List or Red · Extinct
Data Book was created in 1963. It is considered the world's most · Extinct in
comprehensive inventory status of plants and animal species. The head office the Wild
· Critically
of IUCN is in Morges (Switzerland). Endangered
This book is designed to determine the relative risk of extinction, the main · Endangered
· Vulnerable
purpose of the IUCN Red list is to catalogue and highlight those species · Least Threatened
that are listed as critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable. It also · Least Concern
includes information of species that are categorized as Extinct. · Data Deficient
· Not Evaluated
(i) Endangered species : An endangered species is a population of plants
and animals that are in danger of becoming extinct as it is either few
in number or its population has reached a critical level because its habitat
has been drastically changed. e.g. Tiger, Blue whale, Asiatic lion.
(ii) Extinct species : Many species die and disappear from the earth if
they are not able to reproduce and adapt to climate changes. Such
species which cannot be found in the areas where they once lived, or
any other habitat are called extinct species. Sometimes the extinction
of species is natural, and sometimes it is due to human activities that
have led to the destruction of its habitat or killing the animal for various
THE
body parts and flesh. e.g. Passenger pigeon, Dodo, Woolly mammoth.
(iii) Vulnerable species : A vulnerable species is one which has been SPOT P
categorised by IUCN as likely to become endangered unless the LIGHT
circumstances that are threatening its survival and reproduction improve.
The Arctic Tern is a seabird. It breeds
e.g. African elephant, Nilgiri langur, Giant panda. abundantly in the arctic and the
(iv) Rare species : Rare species is a group of organisms that are very subarctic regions of Europe, Asia,
uncommon, scarce or infrequently encountered. e.g. Himalayan brown and North America. Known to be
bear, Fennec fox, Hornbill. strongly migratory, this bird spends
its winter in the Antarctic (a journey
8. Migration of a whooping 19,000 km!).
Migration refers to regular and systematic movement of a group of organism
in search of suitable temporary shelter till a better one is found.
It is more clearly referred as regular periodic movement of population of
animals in large numbers away from their native place to another and back
to their place of origin. e.g. Humming birds, Tuna (Fish), African elephant.
The Siberian Crane is endemic to Siberia. They travel large distance and
come to India in groups during winters to escape the cold, unfavourable
conditions of Siberia. An interesting aspect of this bird's migratory behavior
is that because of the distance it travels, this bird sees more daylight than
any other creature on the planet.

Class-VIII
Migration often provides the migrating species

(i) Favourable conditions of temperature, food or water.
(ii) It provides suitable place for reproduction, which may not be available
THE
SPOT P in their native place.
LIGHT 1. What is meant by extinction?

The modern Chipko Movement was
2. When was Project Tiger Scheme launched?
launched in 1973 by Chandi Prasad
Bhatt and and Sunderlal Bahuguna 3. Write two endemic flora species of Pachmarhi biosphere reserve.
as a major afforestation drive, in 4. What is the difference between Red list and Red Data Book?
Gharwal Himalayas of Uttrakhand. 9. Recycling of paper
Paper is a part of everyday life. Paper takes up over 40% of our waste
stream, making it the top material that we throw away. 17 full grown trees
are used to make one tonne of paper. If we could recycle one morning
newspaper everyday, we could save 41,000 trees from being cut down.
Paper recycling is the process of using old paper products and turning them
into new reusable paper products.
There are so many other products that can be made with recycled paper
and the best thing about paper recycling is that it uses less chemicals and
bleaches, which is safer for the environment. Recycling old paper products
uses 60 % less energy than manufacturing it from new material.
10. Reforestation
Reforestation is the restocking of existing forest and wood lands which have
been depleted, on effects of deforestation. If the forest is replaced with only
one species of trees and all other vegetation is prevented from growing
back, a monoculture forest similar to agriculture crops would be the result.
We should plant at least as many trees as we cut. Reforestation can take
place naturally once the forests get deforested so it is naturally regenerated
by wide variety of plant and animal species, in this there is no role of human
beings.
Tremendous damage to our forest disturb the wildlife habitat. It is necessary
to retain our green wealth for future generation. Plantation of more trees
Fig.2 Three R's - Reduce, is the only option.
Recycle and Reuse
In India, we have the following acts that aim at preservation and conservation
of forest.
(i) Forest (Conservation) Act - 1980
(ii) Wild (Protection) Act - 1972 (amended in 1991)
The government of India passed the Wildlife (Protection) Act. in 1972 under
which protected areas like national parks and wildlife sanctuaries have been
THE
SPOT P created.
LIGHT 1. The species of organisms which have completely disappeared from face
Afforestation and reforestation both of the earth.
refers to the establishment of trees on
land without trees. Reforestation
2. The Project Tiger was launched in India in 1972-73.
refers to the establishment of forest 3. (i) Wild mango
on land that had recent tree cover (ii) Sal
whereas afforestation refers to land
4. A red list is a compilation of endangered wildlife species, where as the
that has been without forest from much
longer. Red Data Book provides data of all the endangered animals and plants
which are included in the Red list.

Biology

1. Fill in the blanks: Ans. (b)
(a) A place where animals are protected in their Wildlife
Zoo
natural habitat is called a.................... sanctuary
(1) In a Zoo, the wild In a wildlife
(b) Species found only in a particular area are
known as...................... animals and birds live sanctuary, the wild
in artificial settings animals and birds
(c) Migratory birds fly to far away places because such as caves and live in their natural
of....................changes. enclosures. habitat in the
Ans. (a) A place where animals are protected in their forest.
natural habitat is called a sanctuary. (2) It contains wild It contains wild
animals and birds animals and birds
(h) Species found only in a particular area are brought from the found locally or
known as endemic. different parts of the may have some
(c) Migratory birds fly to far away places because country and from migratory
of climatic changes. various other organisms.
countries of the
2. Differentiate between the following
world.
(a) Wildlife sanctuary and biosphere reserve (3) A Zoo is open to A wildlife
public for a fixed sanctuary is not
(b) Zoo and wildlife sanctuary
time everyday. open to public
(c) Endangered and extinct species freely like a Zoo.
Ans. (c)
(d) Flora and fauna
Endangered species Extinct species
Ans. (a) It is a population of It is a population of
Wildlife Sanctuary Biosphere Reserve species that is on the species that no longer
(1) A wildlife sanctuary A biosphere reserve is verge of becoming extinct. exists. Hence, it is extinct.
occupies a spread over a very Blue whale, tiger, leopard, Dodo, passenger pigeon,
comparatively large area of land. etc. are examples of etc. are examples of
smaller areas of land. endangered species. extinct species
Ans. (d)
(2) A wildlife sanctuary is A biosphere reserve is
mainly for the for the conservation of Fauna Flora
protection of wild biodiversity of the area The community of The plant life of
animals in a specific particular area.
animals of the area in as well as the economic
region or habitat.
their natural habitat. development of the
area 3. What will happen if:
(a) we go on cutting trees.
(3) Local people do not Local people (tribals) (b) the habitat of an animal is disturbed.
form an integeral form an integral part (c) the top layer of soil is exposed.
part of a wildlife of a Biosphere Reserve Ans. (a) If we go on cutting trees, the natural habitat of
many animals will get completely destroyed.
sanctuary.
As a result, the biodiversity of many areas will
(4) The human activities The human activities be severely affected. Also, there will be an
such as cultivation of such as cultivation of increase in the temperature of the Earth as a
land and building of land and building of result of global warming, which can disturb the
settlements (house) settlements (house) are natural water cycle. As a result, there will be
are not allowed in a allowed in the a change in the rainfall pattern. This could lead
to floods or droughts. This will also increase the
wildlife sanctuary. outermost zone of a
risk of soil erosion, desertification, and natural
biosphere reserve.
calamities.

Class-VIII
(b) The habitat of an animal provides it with 6. Explain how deforestation leads to reduced rainfall.
necessities such as shelter, food, and protection.
Ans. Deforestation is the removal of trees or other
If the habitat of an animal is disturbed, then it
will be forced to go to other places in search vegetation from an area for industrial, agricultural,
of food and shelter. The animal could get killed or other purposes. Plants or trees absorb CO2 from
by other animals in this process.
the atmosphere. If plants are destroyed, then the
(c) If the top layer of soil is exposed, then it will
gradually expose the lower layer of soil, which level of CO2 in the atmosphere will rise. The high
is hard and rocky in nature. This type of soil is levels of CO2 in the atmosphere will trap more heat
less fertile as it contains less humus. Continued radiations, leading to global warming. This increase
soil erosion will make the land barren or
in temperature of the Earth will disturb the natural
infertile.
4. In order to meet the ever-increasing demand in water cycle. As a result of disruption in the water
factories and for shelter, trees are being continually cycle, there will be a change in the rainfall pattern.
cut. Is it justified to cut trees for such projects? The reduced amount of rainwater can cause
Discuss and prepare a brief report.
droughts.
Ans. No, it is not at all justified to cut trees to meet the
ever increasing demands of human population. 7. Why should paper be saved? Prepare a list of ways
Forests are the habitat of several organisms including by which you can save paper.
wild animals. They provide us with good quality air
Ans. Paper should be saved because it takes around
as they give out O2 and absorb the harmful CO2 gas
from the atmosphere. seventeen full grown trees to make one tonne of
In the process, they prevent the excessive heating paper. Trees, as we know, are important to maintain
of the atmosphere. They prevent soil erosion and a balance of nature. Therefore, in order to save trees
natural calamities such as floods and droughts. They
and prevent the impact of their loss on living
increase the fertility of the soil and help conserve
biodiversity. The cutting of forests to meet the organisms, we need to save paper.
demands of growing human population will lead to Ways by which paper can be saved:
global warming, soil erosion, greenhouse effect,
(i) Collect used paper and recycle it.
droughts, floods, and many more problems. The
destruction of forests will disturb the balance of (ii) Use both sides of a paper for writing.
nature. Hence, forests must be conserved. (iii) Spread awareness about the importance of
5. How can you contribute to the maintenance of green paper.
wealth of your locality? Make a list of actions to be
(iv) Use paper intelligently.
taken by you.
Ans. I can help in maintaining the green wealth of my
locality by taking care of the plants and trees growing
in or around my locality. I can plant more and more
trees. I can also encourage the people in my locality
to plant more trees by informing them about the
importance of growing trees. I can make young
children aware of the effects that deforestation has
on our environment and on our planet. I can also
ask them to water the plants daily, which will take
very little of their time. I believe planting new trees
is as important as taking care of the existing trees.

Biology
EXERCISE # 1
1. Conservation refers to 8. Frequent floods in plains of Northern India is due
to
(1) management of natural resources
(2) judicious use of natural resources (1) no rainfall
(3) protection of natural ecosystems (2) siltation of dams

(4) all of the above (3) deforestation in catchment areas
2. Forests
(4) agriculture
(1) maintain natural balance
9. What are the causes of extinction of wildlife?
(2) control atmospheric pollution
(1) Urbanisation (2) Poaching
(3) prevent soil erosion
(4) all of the above (3) Cutting of trees (4) All of the above
3. Removal of top fertile layer of soil by wind or water 10. A National Park provides protection to
is called
(1) flora only (2) fauna only
(1) leaching (2) erosion
(3) siltation (4) weathering (3) flora and fauna (4) entire ecosystem
4. More soil erosion occurs where there is 11. Plants and animals are best protected in
(1) no rainfall (2) low rainfall (1) National parks
(3) high rainfall (4) none of the above
(2) Botanical gardens
5. Soil conservation is
(3) Zoo
(1) aeration of soil
(2) erosion of soil (4) None of these
(3) protection of soil against loss of its fertility 12. The main object of Man and Biosphere programme
is to
(4) conversion of sterile soil into fertile soil
6. Soil erosion can be prevented by (1) conserve representative samples of ecosystem
(1) increase in bird population (2) provide opportunities for education and
training
(2) afforestation
(3) provide appropriate sustainable managements
(3) over-grazing
of the living resources.
(4) removal of vegetation
(4) all of the above
7. Deforestation is the major cause of
13. Wildlife refers to
(1) environmental pollution
(1) any living organism kept in cage
(2) depletion of ozone
(2) any plant species growing in garden
(3) desertification of habitat
(3) any wild animal or plant in its natural habitat
(4) depletion of natural resources
(4) none of these

Class-VIII
14. Which of the following is killed for oil and blubber? Fill in the blanks
1. The species whose population is abundant at
(1) Tiger (2) Blue whale present but they may become endangered in future
are called..............................
(3) Chiru (4) All of the above
2. Those species of plants and animals which are found
exclus ivel y in a part icular area is called
15. The black rhino is killed for its .............................
(1) ivory (2) fur 3. The concept of Biosphere reserve was launched
by .................. programme in ..................
(3) horn (4) meat 4. Keoladeo Ghana Bird Sanctuary is famous for
.................. birds.
True or false 5. India's first national park is ..................located in
Uttrakhand.
1. Endemic species are usually localised within
6. The places where rare and threatened species of
restricted geographical area or habitat. plants are reared and conserved are called
..................
2. Largest tiger reserve in India is Ranthambore
7. Project tiger is running since.............................
National Park.
by central government.
3. Plants of all species found in a particular habitat
8. Migratory birds fly to far away places because
are called fauna. of........................changes.
4. The headquarter of IUCN is located in New York.

9. Species that is found in small numbers are
called...........................
5. The main leader of Chipko movement was
Pandurang Hegde. 10. ..........................was the first biosphere reserve
established in India.

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 4 4 2 3 3 2 3 3 4 4 1 4 3 2 3
True or false
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. False 5. False

Fill in the blanks
1. vulnerable species 2. endemic species 3. MAB, 1971
4. migratory birds/Siberian crane 5. Jim Corbett 6. Botanical Garden
7. 1 April, 1973 8. climatic 9. rare
10. Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve

Biology
EXERCISE # 2
Very short answer type questions 4. Describe the causes of soil erosion.
1. What do you mean by biodiversity? 5. How wildlife can be conserved?
2. Mention some human activities that cause 6. What do you mean by Endemic species? Give any
deforestation. three examples.
3. What are greenhouse gases? 7. Give few causes of destruction of endemic species.
4. What do you mean by Global warming? 8. What is Project tiger? When was it started?
5. What do you mean by Flora & Fauna? 9. Name the various categories included in IUCN red
list.
6. Write definition of National Park.
10. What is Chipko movement?
7. What are Botanical and Zoological gardens?
8. Give definition of Rare species.
1. What is importance of forests? Write a note on it.
9. Give the full form of IUCN.
2. How deforestation affect increasing concentration
10. Write differences between afforestation and
of CO2, landslides and floods?
reforestation.
3. How increased carbon dioxide concentration is
responsible for increase in temperature of earth?
1. List various purposes for which trees are cut.
4. What are the advantages of recycling paper?
2. How building houses, factories and overgrazing
5. Write a short note on migration.
affect deforestation?
3. Explain how deforestation leads to reduced water
table.

Class-VIII
Important Notes

Biology
Important Notes

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SCIENCE-1 INDEX

2. METALS AND NON-METALS 85-104

2. MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 123-138

3. CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 139-153

CHAPTER 1 FORCE AND PRESSURE

A football player kicks the ball

"Force is an action exerted on

(c) Hitting a hockey ball (d) Stopping a cricket ball

Table given below contains some examples of familiar situations involving

(c) Two wrestlers applying

Net force : 100 N

If many forces are acting simultaneously on an object, the effect

(a) A goalkeeper stopping the ball (b) A cyclist applying brakes to

(a) Force exerted in the (b) Force exerted in opposite

(a) Original shape of ball

Fig.17 Active physics 6

In the fig.16(b), a force is applied on a rubber ball but, it is not moving.

Fig.20 Numerical ability 1.1 (3)

How are forces applied? Try to give some examples.

Fig.22 A tennis player applying a

(a) A karate fight (b) Stretching a bowstring

The force resulting due to the action of muscles is known as the

(a) Repulsion between like poles

(a) Like poles repel (b) Unlike poles attract

The force exerted by a charged body on another charged body or uncharged

Are weight and mass the same thing?

1. A force of 20 N acts over a surface having an area of 4 m2. What is the

Take a transparent hollow glass tube of length about 15 cm and diameter

Fig.38 The pressure exerted by

The atmosphere at Earth’s surface is only about 1/1000 times as dense as

The force pushing down on your body due to atmospheric pressure is as

What happens to the atmospheric pressure if you go at higher altitudes or

Conclusion : The magnitude of atmospheric pressure is very large. In

NCERT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS

EXERCISE # 1 ANSWER KEY

6. Does the application of a force always result in the suitable examples.

Short answer type questions Numerical problems

6. A force of 500 N acts on a square piece of plywood,

7. A boy stands on the ground. The area below his feet B

as shown. Given that all the acrobats

(1) The sailing ship moves faster (2)

(1) The force changes the direction of the moving

EXERCISE # 2 ANSWER KEY

1. A force of 20 N acting in the direction of greater force 2. 280 N 3. Team B, 45 N

4. (i) Motion, by a force of 7 N in the direction of 4 N

(ii) Motion, by a force of 1 N in the direction of 5 N

5. F1 = 6 N, F2 =3 N 6. 20 Nm–2 7. 490 N 8. 450 N

Activity based questions

A climber slowly moves up the side

"When two objects in contact

Fig.3 Active physics 2

The force of friction on a carrom ‘striker’ is very small when it is sliding on

A boy falls down when he steps on a banana peel. Why?

1. Make an inclined plane on a smooth floor. Use a wooden board supported

(b) Pencil cell covers a smaller distance on cotton cloth.

Applied force Applied

6. Friction depends on the force between surfaces

1. Yes, friction is desirable in many cases. For example, we cannot walk on

THE 7. Static friction

Fig.13 Understanding sliding friction

9. Friction : a necessary evil

Fig.16 Check your concepts 2 (1)

Why is it hard to pull out a nail fixed in a piece of wood or a wall?

Push force 10. Rolling friction