34 HARMONICS

New Loads, New Problems:

Why Harmonics Destroy

Transformers
by Gabe Paoletti, P.E.

Don’t move one step forward with new

loads that save money or improve
capabilities, and then one step backward
with outages and transformer failures.
New Transformer Technology includes
being aware of the new problems
associated with new high-tech loads;
and understanding how they can impact
the life of a transformer.

Photo by Shutterstock
Transformer Technology
Issue 1
Gabe Paoletti has applied his 40-plus years
of electrical power distribution experience
to support the electrical power industry by
providing professional engineering servic-
es to increase system reliability, resiliency,
equipment life extension, personal safety,
power system personnel training, failure
and root-cause analysis, feasibility studies,
quality systems and new solution creation.
He is a Registered Professional Engineer
in New York, Pennsylvania and Delaware
and has authored and presented numer-
ous technical publications for IEEE and
other organizations. He received his BSEE
in Electrical Engineering at Drexel Univer-
sity in 1976 (Magna Cum Laude), and an
MBA from Rutgers in 2009 (Summa Cum
Laude). Mr. Paoletti has also been on the
forefront of many power system innova-
tions and was awarded the IEEE Engineer
of the Year Award for 2009 (Northern New
Jersey Chapter) for new product and ser-
vice innovation which improved the effi-
cient distribution of electrical power. He
currently provides services such as failure
analysis, project engineering, owners rep-
resentative and engineering and feasibil-
ity studies, with his company Paoletti En-
gineering PLLC.
Being involved in root-cause failure
evaluations and harmonic studies
provides a history of practical
experience related to why harmonics
destroy transformers. New
Transformer Technology includes
being aware of the new problems
associated with new loads; and
understanding how they can impact
the life of a transformer.
Some examples of new loads, which
are implemented for very good
reasons are: adjustable speed drives
and/or electronic ballasts both
resulting in reduced electrical power
demand and the associated cost
savings; improving the capabilities
by installing new data processing
HTXLSPHQWLQRͦFHEXLOGLQJV
industrial sites and institutions.
When these new loads are being
planned, it is imperative that
harmonics be reviewed.
There has been substantial
research and publications regarding
the effects of harmonics on
transformers. While harmonics can
be linked to overloading neutral
conductors and causing nuisance
tripping of circuit breakers, we’re
focusing on the impact of harmonics
on transformers. This background
has been extracted from an excellent
article by C. Sankaran [1].
Harmonics
Some loads cause the current to
vary disproportionately with the
voltage during each half cycle.
7KHVHORDGVDUHFODVVLͤHGDV
nonlinear loads, and the current
and voltage have waveforms that
are non-sinusoidal, containing
distortions, whereby the 60 Hz
waveform has numerous additional
March 2019 35
waveforms superimposed upon it,
creating multiple frequencies within
the normal 60 Hz sine wave. The
multiple frequencies are harmonics
of the fundamental frequency.
Examples of nonlinear loads are
uninterruptable power supplies
(UPSs), adjustable speed drives,
battery chargers, electronic ballasts,
variable frequency drives, and
switching mode power supplies
(normally used in computer
loads and other data processing
equipment). As nonlinear currents
ͥRZWKURXJKDIDFLOLW\̵VHOHFWULFDO
system and the distribution-
transmission lines, additional
voltage distortions are produced
due to the impedance associated
with the electrical network. Thus,
as electrical power is generated,
distributed and utilized, voltage and
current waveform distortions are
produced.
Power systems designed to function
at the fundamental frequency, which
is 60 Hz in the United States, are
prone to unsatisfactory operation
and, at times, failure when subjected
to voltages and currents that contain
substantial harmonic frequency
elements. Very often, the operation
of electrical equipment may
seem normal, but under a certain
combination of conditions, the
impact of harmonics is enhanced,
with damaging results.
As previously discussed, changes
to a system that will lead to the
potential of failure due to harmonics
could include installation of
variable frequency drives, electronic
ballasts, power factor improvement
capacitors, arc furnaces, or the
addition or removal of large motors.
36 HARMONICS

Eddy Currents

Application of non-sinusoidal
excitation voltages to transformers
increase the iron losses in the
magnetic core of the transformer in
much the same way as in a motor.
A more serious effect of harmonic
loads served by transformers
is due to an increase in winding
eddy current losses. Eddy currents
are circulating currents in the
conductors induced by the sweeping
DFWLRQRIWKHOHDNDJHPDJQHWLFͤHOG
on the conductors. Eddy current
concentrations are higher at the
ends of the transformer windings
due to the crowding effect of the
OHDNDJHPDJQHWLFͤHOGVDWWKHFRLO
extremities. The eddy current losses
increase as the square of the current
in the conductor and the square
of its frequency. The increase in
transformer eddy current loss due to
KDUPRQLFVKDVDVLJQLͤFDQWHIIHFW
on the operating temperature of the
transformer. Transformers that are
required to supply power to nonlinear
loads must be de-rated based
on the percentages of harmonic
components in the load current and
the rated winding eddy current loss.
The resultant increase in eddy
currents increases the operating
temperature of the core iron, which
in turn begins to deteriorate the
insulation between the core iron
laminations. This leads to greatly
increased I2R losses, beyond the
design limits of the transformer,
and overheating of the actual
winding insulation. Once the winding
insulation allows the energized
copper winding to contact the
grounded core-iron, an internal
failure will result. This process is
illustrated in Figure 1.

The harmonic related increase in eddy currents

increases the operating temperature of the core
iron, which in turn begins to deteriorate the
insulation between the core iron laminations.
This leads to greatly increased I2R losses,
beyond the design limits of the transformer, and
overheating of the actual winding insulation, and
eventual failure.

The insulation between the

laminations is deteriorated
Photo by Shutterstock

and damaged.
Transformer Technology
Issue 1
Figure 1. Pathway from harmonics
to transformer failure
Increased Increased Damage
Harmonics Eddy Core Iron Lamination
Currents Heating Insulation
Figure 2. 5-Why analysis of harmonics related
transformer failure
As previously stated, the eddy
current losses increase as the
square of the current in the
conductor and the square of its
frequency; therefore, with higher and
higher harmonics, this heating is
further increased.
When looking at a transformer,
it appears that the high and low
voltage winding are wrapped around
a solid iron core; but, if you look
more closely, you’ll see that the
“solid” iron core is made up of a
series of thin laminations, usually
of silicon steel, and these thin
March 2019 37
Overheat
Transformer
Winding
Failure
Insulation
laminations are insulated from each
other with an insulating coating that
is applied to both sides of the thin
metal laminations. The purpose of
insulating the laminations is to limit
the heating effect of eddy currents
during normal operation.
Even without taking into account
the increased heating effect of the
harmonic’s higher frequencies,
Figure 3 clearly illustrates the effect
on the I2R, heating losses that
occur within the core-iron as the
insulation between the laminations
is deteriorated and damaged.
38 HARMONICS

In the second illustration, we have

the same 10 amperes of eddy
currents, but now the
insulation membrane
Many end-users are familiar with protection for between the iron
transformer voltage surges, therefore they do core laminations has
been deteriorated and
DSSO\WUDQVLHQWYROWDJHVXUJHVXSSUHVVLRQDQG damaged to the point
that all ten sections
or lightening arrestors, but many do not fully of the iron core are
in contact with each
address the potential high harmonic currents other. As shown, the
total heating effect has
of new, or added, computer loads or solid-state increased from 5.0 watts
drive systems. to 50.0 watts, or a 900%
increase heating.

This increased heating effect, which

does not include the added effect of
the increased frequency associated
with harmonics will overheat the
primary and/or secondary winding
Figure 3. Illustrative effect of deteriorated iron-core insulation, resulting in a transformer
lamination insulation failure internal winding failure.

Eddy
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Current

Impedance 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Heating

I2R 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 5.0

Eddy
1 1 1 1 10 1 1 1 1 1
Current

Impedance 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Heating

I2R 0 0 0 0 50 0 0 0 0 0 50.0
 Transformer Technology
Issue 1
Solutions
Many end-users are familiar with
protection for voltage surges,
therefore they do apply transient
YROWDJHVXUJHVXSSUHVVLRQDQGRU
lightening arrestors, but many do
not fully address the potential high
harmonic currents of new, or added,
computer loads or solid-state drive
systems.
7KHͤUVWVWHSZKHQUHGHVLJQLQJ
or altering your current power
distribution system to support
new power loads is to model your
electrical system to simulate the
harmonics from the new loads.
It is also highly recommended
to measure the actual current
harmonics that exists, and after
the new loads are installed, to then
again measure the actual current
harmonics.
If the changes are being made
to an existing power distribution
system, you can cautiously add the
new loads and then immediately
obtain the harmonic measurements
resulting from these new loads.
A transformer supplying these
Photo by Shutterstock
new loads will hopefully not fail
within days of the new loads being
installed.
March 2019 39
Once the level of harmonics is
determined, you should disconnect
them from the transformer and
determine your next steps.
A solution can be to install
KDUPRQLFͤOWHULQJRUUHFRQͤJXULQJ
transformers connections to allow References
for cancellation of harmonics, [1] C. Sankaran, Effects of Harmonics
or changing the transformer to on Power Systems, 1999, retrieved
accommodate the harmonics. from https://www.ecmweb.com/
power-quality/effects-harmonics-
Another option to support long-term power-systems
diagnostics is to install a permanent [2] IEEE standard 519-1992,
harmonics meter. Should you have Recommended Practice and
a transformer failure, and you have Requirements for Harmonic
not applied the types of new loads Control in Electric Power Systems
discussed above, then a review of
harmonics should be part of the
root-cause analysis. As an example,
IEEE standard 519-1992 [2] states
the total harmonic distortion (THD)
of the voltage waveform provided
by the utility cannot exceed 3%
of the ideal sine wave. To ensure
that harmonics are not generated
by the utility, you would obtain
this measurement at the point of
common coupling (PCC). This is
where the utility and facility wiring
meet (usually at the meter box). If
the voltage distortion exceeds 3%,
the utility should provide some form
of mitigation to correct the problem.
40 DIELECTRIC
RESPONSE

Dielectric Frequency Response:

A New IEEE Guide for Field Test on

Power and Distribution Transformers
by Diego Robalino
and Roberts Neimanis

Photo by Shutterstock
Transformer Technology March 2019 41

Issue 1

Since the invention of the non-destructive testing method to

Diego Robalino currently works for Meg-
ger as Principal Engineer, where he special-
izes in the diagnosis of complex electrical
testing procedures. While doing research in
power system optimization with a focus on
aging equipment at Tennessee Technologi-
cal University, Robalino received his electri-
cal engineering PhD from that institution.
Robalino has over 20 years of involvement
in the electrical engineering profession with
management responsibilities in the power
systems, oil and gas, and research arenas.
He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, member
of the IEEE/PES transformers main commit-
VGGCPFCEGTVKƒGF2TQLGEV/CPCIGOGPV2TQ-
fessional with the PMI. He is an active mem-
ber of the IEEE/DEIS Electrical Insulation
Conference. Author and co-author of multi-
ple technical articles related to power, dis-
tribution and instrument transformer condi-
tion assessment.
transformer, the design, quality
DQGHͦFLHQF\RIWKLVPDJQLͤFHQW
machine has been improved thanks
to the development of electro-
magnetic materials, computer
design algorithms, insulation
materials, cooling systems,
structural design, etc. Nowadays, a
vast number of transformers operate
worldwide aiming to provide reliable
and safe operation under the most
cumbersome environmental and
operational conditions.
Even though the materials, design
and manufacturing processes
have improved, the most common
insulation system is a combination
of liquid insulation, cellulose and
impregnated in oil cellulose. These
components of the overall insulation
system go through an inevitable
aging process that leads to the
end of the service life of power and
distribution transformers. One can
expand this statement into other
components with similar insulation
construction such as bushings and
instrument transformer with oil-
impregnated paper insulation.
The Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers (IEEE)
Standards Association approved
the publication of IEEE C57.161-
2018 – “Guide for Dielectric
Frequency Response Test”. The
work was developed within the IEEE
Transformers Committee and the
Dielectrics Sub-committee. A needed
document for a non-intrusive and
better understand the condition of
the insulation system of power and
distribution transformers.
Introduction
During the last two decades, other
technical references presented the
development of DFR (Dielectric
Frequency Response) a.k.a.
Frequency Domain Spectroscopy
)'6 DLPLQJVSHFLͤFDOO\WR
its application for power and
distribution transformers with oil-
impregnated paper insulation. CIGRE
Technical Brochures 254, 414 and
445 as well as IEEE Std. C57.152
addressed the importance, the
UHVHDUFKFDUULHGRXWDQGWKHEHQHͤWV
of the method as applied to power
and distribution transformers.
In the IEEE Transformer Committee,
a Task Force was initially formed
to recommend (or not) the need
to develop a guide describing
the application of DFR on oil-
impregnated transformers. From
the initial step of forming the
Task Force to the publication
of the guide, the contribution
and participation of specialists,
end-users, testing equipment
manufacturers, transformer
manufacturers and academia
made possible the production of a
practical and comprehensive guide
for the use of DFR technology and
interpretation of transformer’s
insulation dielectric response in
the frequency domain.

In 1996, WaBtech AB in Sweden brings to the market

WKH̨UVWSRUWDEOHGHYLFHIRU')5WHVWLQWKH̨HOG
'U3HWHU:HUHOLXVDQG%MRUQ%HQJWVVRQLQWURGXFHG
IDA (Insulation Diagnostics Analyzer) mainly for
cable and transformer testing.
42
DFR References
As mentioned previously, since the
beginning of the use of insulation
materials, a method to determine
an acceptable condition for its
use in electrical applications was
required. The dielectric response
of any insulation material can be
obtained in the time domain or in
the frequency domain. Time domain
dielectric response has been in
place for over 100 years and the
typical “Insulation Resistance” test
became, by far, the easiest and most
practical approach to understand the
condition of the solid insulation.
The complex impedance
of the dielectric system
is measured at different
frequencies and the
dielectric response
LV̨QDOO\SORWWHGDV
percentage dissipation
factor, permittivity
or capacitance as a
function of frequency.
Nevertheless, around the mid-1900s,
the frequency domain response was
JUHDWO\VWXGLHGDQGWKHGHͤQLWLRQ
of dielectric losses at power or line
frequency (50/60 Hz) turned to be
a great success for transformer
manufacturers, end-users and
testing service companies.
Nevertheless, technology evolved
and with that, electronic components
and control devices opened the door
to a wider band frequency spectrum
to analyze different insulation
materials.
In 1996, WaBtech AB in Sweden
EULQJVWRWKHPDUNHWWKHͤUVWSRUWDEOH
GHYLFHIRU')5WHVWLQWKHͤHOG'U
Peter Werelius and Bjorn Bengtsson
introduced IDA (Insulation Diagnostics
Analyzer) mainly for cable and
transformer testing.
The practical application of DFR
LQWKHͤHOGJHQHUDWHGWKHLQWHUHVW
in the industry and international
organizations took lead on
the investigation of this “new
technology” revolutionizing the
WHVWLQJSUDFWLFHVLQWKHͤHOG
In 2002, CIGRE developed the
Technical Brochure 254 – “Dielectric
Response Methods for Diagnostics
of Power Transformers”. This report
from the Task Force (TF) D1.01.09
focused on three dielectric response
techniques:
̽Return Voltage
Measurements (RVM)
̽Dielectric
Spectroscopy in Time
Domain (PDC)
̽Dielectric Frequency
Domain Spectroscopy
(FDS)
To summarize the text
of this document, the
TF concluded that all
WKUHHPHWKRGVUHͥHFW
the same fundamental
polarization and
conduction phenomena
in transformer
insulation and that the
GHͤQLWLRQRIPRLVWXUH
in the solid insulation
by time domain and
frequency domain responses
required mathematical modelling
and good understanding of dielectric
properties of the insulation system
components.
In 2010, CIGRE continued the
work and published the Technical
Brochure 414 – “Dielectric Response
Diagnoses for Transformer
Windings”. In this document, CIGRE
combines the practical experience
acquired with the mathematical
modelling approach to determine
best testing practices. The
document covers the fundamentals
of the X-Y model, measurement
FRQͤJXUDWLRQVWHVWSHUIRUPDQFHDQG
maybe the most important part, case
studies and comparative analysis
using Karl Fisher Titration (KFT) to
validate the moisture estimation
DIELECTRIC
RESPONSE
in the solid insulation by dielectric
response methods.
Considering the great acceptance
RIWKHWHFKQRORJ\LQWKHͤHOGWKH
CIGRE Working Group (WG) A2.34
incorporates dielectric response
methods in time and frequency
domain in section 5.1.3 in the
Technical Brochure 454 published
in 2011. Dielectric response
methods are included as “Special
or Advanced Measurements”. DFR
or FDS is an advanced testing
WHFKQLTXHXVHGLQWKHͤHOGWR
determine the water content in the
solid cellulose insulation of oil-
paper insulation, insulation failures,
and contamination of insulation.
Moisture content in the solid
LQVXODWLRQGHULYHGIURPͤHOGWHVWLQJ
mathematical modelling and data
base source is compared against
limits given for dry, moderately wet
and extremely wet insulation given
in IEC 60422. As a reminder, IEC
60422 states that the determination
of the water content in the paper of a
transformer by the measurement of
the water in oil has been frequently
described, but practical results are
often not in line with the theoretical
predictions. All calculations and
correlations of the water content
in oil and the water content in the
oil/paper-system depend on the
equilibrium state between the
insulating oil and the oil/paper
system and vice versa.
Photo by Shutterstock
Transformer Technology
Issue 1
In the North American world, the IEEE
Transformer Committee revised the
document IEEE 62 Part 1– “Guide for
Diagnostic Field Testing of Electric
Power Apparatus – OilͤOOHG3RZHU
Transformers, Regulators, and
Reactors”. One of the fundamental
reasons to revise this document
was the application of new testing
techniques not described in this
document and considered important
for the current requirements of
manufacturers and end-users
HVSHFLDOO\LQWKHͤHOG,WLVLQWHUHVWLQJ
to notice that IEEE 62 (R2005)
provided in section 6.3.12 two
tables with general guidelines for
interpreting data expressed in
percent saturation of water in oil and
in percent moisture by dry weight of
paper.
March 2019 43
The work carried out by the IEEE
transformer committee ended up
with the publication in 2013 of
the IEEE Std. C57.152 – “Guide
for Diagnostic Field Testing of
Fluid-Filled Power Transformers,
Regulators and Reactors”. The
amount of information put together
LQWKLVGRFXPHQWLVGLͦFXOWWR
describe in just a few lines, but
this guide added the Informative
ANNEX G introducing to the IEEE
references the Dielectric Frequency
Response Method. Annex G provides
a brief description of the DFR
method and its interpretation for oil-
paper insulation systems in power
transformers.
Enough about history. Let us focus
now on the recently published guide
for DFR testing.
44 DIELECTRIC
RESPONSE

IEEE Guide for Dielectric

Frequency Response Test

The continuous work of IEEE and

LWVPHPEHUVLVZHOOUHͥHFWHGLQ
the guide for dielectric frequency
response test applicable for liquid-
immersed transformers. The guide
includes a thorough description
of the DFR method, a comparative
analysis between line-frequency
power factor and the dielectric
response in a wide frequency
spectrum, recommendations for
instrumentation, procedures for
performing the tests, and guidelines
for interpretation of the data. The
application of DFR allows testing in
IDFWRU\DQGLQWKHͤHOG

After a general overview, Section

4 introduces the DFR method.
DFR is a non-intrusive and non-
destructive off-line testing technique
performed in the frequency domain
to determine the moisture content
of the transformer’s solid insulation
and the conductivity of the liquid
insulation. This paragraph covers
one very important characteristic
of the dielectric response; it can
discriminate between the effect of
moisture or contamination in the
liquid or solid insulation.
In Section 4, some important facts
are described. First, DFR as any other
dielectric response method depends
on the unique dielectric properties of
WKHPDWHULDOWKHHOHFWULFͤHOGDQGWKH
temperature of the specimen at the
time of the test. Second, DFR follows
the same measurement principle as
line – frequency power factor test,
but the excitation signal applied by
DFR instruments varies frequency in
the range from 1 kHz down to 1 mHz
(typical range at 20°C). The complex
impedance of the dielectric system
is measured at different frequencies
DQGWKHGLHOHFWULFUHVSRQVHLVͤQDOO\
plotted as percentage dissipation
factor, permittivity or capacitance as
a function of frequency.

After a clear understanding of the behavior of the

materials under an alternating excitation signal in a
wide frequency spectrum, different factors affecting
the dielectric response are described. One of the
most important factors to take into account is the
presence of EMI in the surrounding test area.
Photo by Shutterstock
Transformer Technology
Issue 1
The modelling algorithm requires
VSHFLͤFLQIRUPDWLRQWRHYDOXDWHWKH
condition of the insulation system.
7KHQRUPDOO\ͤ[HGLQIRUPDWLRQLV same instrument-to-object hook up
a. Liquid Insulation relative
SHUPLWWLYLW\Ər
b. Thermal activation energy for
solid and liquid insulation
c. Temperature of the insulation
under test
The outcome of the test will provide:
D/LTXLGLQVXODWLRQFRQGXFWLYLW\ Ɲ
b. Moisture in solid insulation (m)
Figure 1. Hook up diagram between a DFR test
set and a two-winding transformer
Besides the modelling part, it is
important to understand that the test
LVSHUIRUPHGLQWKHͤHOGIROORZLQJWKH
principles as those used for power
factor / dissipation factor testing at
line frequency. Figure 1 shows the
hook up diagram of the DFR test set
to a commonly used two-winding
transformer.
Section 5 provides the best practices
DQGFRQͤJXUDWLRQVWRSHUIRUPWKHWHVW
LQWKHͤHOG
March 2019 45
As any other electrical test, the
YHU\ͤUVWUHFRPPHQGDWLRQVDUH
related to safety. For many readers,
safety is not just a best practice
but also a life style. Therefore, local
and federal regulations required to
perform the test as well as safety
instructions provided by the test set
manufacturer must be followed. One
more advantage of DFR is that the
test involves a LV excitation signal
W\SLFDOO\͠9RMS.
46
,QWKHͤHOGZRUNLQJFRQGLWLRQV
might not be optimal. Section 5
provides guidelines to minimize
the effect of external factors on
the test performance as well as the
PHDVXUHPHQWFRQͤJXUDWLRQV$WWKLV
stage, the reader should be aware
that the most accurate estimation
of moisture in the solid insulation
is related to the test between
windings in a UST (ungrounded
specimen test) test mode. In a two-
winding transformer, the capacitance
of interest is the inter-winding
insulation between high and low
voltage windings represented in
Figure 1 as CHL. Other insulation
systems, between high voltage
winding and ground (CH) or between
the low voltage winding and ground
(CL DUHVXVFHSWLEOHWRWKHLQͥXHQFH
of bushings and sometimes-other
components inside the transformer
such as tap changers. Nevertheless,
the GST measurements are often
taken to identify non-typical
responses related to contamination
or degradation of the insulation
system.
Figure 2. DFR of mineral oil (left);
DFR of paper only (right)
10000
1000
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0010 0..010 0..1 11
Frequency [Hz]
Section 6 provides the guidelines to
generate the test report, including an
example of the report.
Maybe the most important part
of the guide is without a doubt
Section 7 – Measurement Analysis
and Interpretation. In this section,
the guide provides the differences
between the dielectric response
of liquid and solid insulation
graphically represented in Figure 2.
The liquid insulation dielectric
properties can be described by
a simple parallel RC-circuit, the
capacitance representing the liquid
permittivity and the resistance the
liquid conductivity. The dielectric
properties of solid insulation are
more complex, both capacitance
and losses vary with frequency in a
manner that cannot be described by
a simple parallel or series RC-circuit.
After a clear understanding of the
behavior of the materials under an
alternating excitation signal in a wide
frequency spectrum, different factors
affecting the dielectric response are
described. One of the most important
factors to take into account is the
presence of EMI in the surrounding
test area.
100
10
1
0.1
01 00 1000 0.0010 0..010
OIL ONLY
DIELECTRIC
RESPONSE
Overcome the effect of noise (EMI)
on the measurement signal, the use
RIDYROWDJHDPSOLͤHULVFRQVLGHUHG
DVRSWLRQDOLQWKHͤHOGHVSHFLDOO\
for low capacitance specimens and
tests at temperatures close to zero
degrees Celsius.
The Annexes included in the
document cover:
A. Dielectric Frequency Response
Analysis – Theory and validation
B. Non-moisture related
IDFWRUVLQͥXHQFLQJWKH')5
measurements
C. Examples of typical measurement
challenges
D. Bibliography
Closing Note
This article is a brief summary
of a well-developed document
provided by IEEE and its members.
Authors consider imperative for
asset managers, utility operators,
transformer manufacturers and
testing service providers to acquire
this document and follow the
guidelines given.
The article is co-authored by Dr.
Roberts Neimanis, Product Manager
at Megger Sweden.
Photo by Shutterstock
0..1 11 01 00 1000
Frequency [Hz] PAPER ONLY