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Eujin Pei · Mario Monzón
Alain Bernard Editors
Additive
Manufacturing—
Developments
in Training and
Education
Additive Manufacturing—Developments
in Training and Education
Eujin Pei Mario Monzón
•
Alain Bernard
Editors
Additive Manufacturing—
Developments in Training
and Education
123
Editors
Eujin Pei Alain Bernard
College of Engineering, Design ILS2N UMR CNRS 6004
and Physical Sciences, Institute Ecole centrale de Nantes
of Materials and Manufacturing Nantes CX 03
Brunel University London France
London
UK
Mario Monzón
Edificio de Fabricación Integrada
Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria
Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas
Spain
ISBN 978-3-319-76083-4 ISBN 978-3-319-76084-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76084-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018942921
© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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Printed on acid-free paper
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer International Publishing AG
part of Springer Nature
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Putting together this book has been more
rewarding than I could have ever imagined. It
would not have been possible without the love
and encouragement of my parents, Daniel
and Lilian, without whom I would never have
enjoyed so many opportunities. A big Thank
You to my wife, Ying for her enduring support
and bearing with me for all the late nights.
This book is dedicated to my Grandmother
who has always been there for me.
Eujin Pei
Foreword I
Technology is changing the way people live, work and do business. Digitalisation
and automation are framing our future. This creates new and exciting opportunities,
but at the same time challenges. Many of today’s jobs did not exist a decade ago.
New jobs in the future will require new skills. We need to ensure our workforce is
ready to reap the benefits of change. Because our capacity to continue driving
innovation in Europe will to a great extent be determined by how much we invest in
people and their skills.
Today, more than 30 million workers form the backbone of the manufacturing
industry in Europe. They make the world-class products that keep us ahead of other
global competitors.
Manufacturing, together with other key sectors like renewables and green
technology, has the potential to drive innovation. But in a fast-changing world, the
question of which skills are relevant, and how to anticipate these skills needs is
crucial. Without the people with right skills, they cannot reach their potential.
That’s why, in 2016, I launched a ‘Blueprint for Sectoral Cooperation on Skills’
under the new Skills Agenda for Europe. This initiative focuses on closing the skills
gaps in key economic sectors. Industry-led partnerships will map skills needs and
trends in their sector which are holding back growth. The idea is to develop new
curricula that address gaps and ways to boost development of the skills needed.
Additive manufacturing and 3-D printing is one of the 11 sectors that we have
identified to implement the Blueprint. This sector requires multidisciplinary teams
formed by people with highly diverse backgrounds and skills sets that are at the
heart of the race for global competitiveness and leadership. Additive Manufacturing
and 3D-Printing sector, one of the most disruptive advanced manufacturing tech-
nologies is expected to have an economic impact up to EUR 200–500 billion
annually in 2025.
Setting up a sustainable Erasmus + Alliance on skills development between key
industry stakeholders in the sector and education and training will be an important
step. We know from the past what difference European cooperation can make.
European cooperation brings new ideas and approaches to national reform pro-
cesses, not only at political but also at the grass-roots level. Business and industry
vii
viii Foreword I
anyway think in terms of transnational supply chains and not in national ones.
European sectoral cooperation on skills can adjust education and training to this
reality. Growing automation of manufacturing processes will require all industry
workers to have increased technical skills. Workers will need to acquire skills in
digital techniques, computing, analytical thinking, machine ergonomics and man-
ufacturing methodologies. By educating and training our students and labour force,
we will ensure that Europe stays at the forefront of disruptive technologies.
I am pleased that CECIMO, the European Association for the additive manu-
facturing industry, is a strong ally in defending the added-value of EU-funded
initiatives on education and training issues by being actively involved in European
funded projects on entrepreneurial skills in the machine tool industry and devel-
oping vocational training and apprenticeships in 3D-Printing.
This book has built on these projects and will ensure that industrialists, pro-
fessionals, educators, trainers and researchers become aware of much needed
modern educational content and training practices to make our workforce ready for
the future.
Brussels, Belgium Marianne Thyssen

European Commissioner for Employment
Social Affairs, Skills and Labour Mobility
Foreword II
Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a technological marvel that has been attracting the
attention of many over these last few years. Often referred to in the mass media as
3D Printing, AM has in fact been around for a lot longer than most people are
aware, with the first systems becoming commercially available in the early 1990s.
Most of the general public became aware of this technology only recently as
machines became more widely available due to dramatic reductions in machine
costs combined with easy access to related technologies like 3D Computer-Aided
Design, mobile computation, 3D image capture, the Internet, etc. Because of this,
there has been huge growth in the industry and there are now hundreds of thousands
if not millions of machines in use today.
This, however, causes problems as well as solutions. The main problem asso-
ciated with this book is that many people now think they know all about AM
because they have seen machines in school classrooms or the local hardware store.
They are not aware that there are many types of machines and applications from the
very simple to the extremely complex. Furthermore, these machines can be used in
a bewildering number of areas from conventional model-making through to
replacement body parts. AM is used in $300 machines that allow you to design and
replace a broken cupboard door handle in your home through to multi-million
dollar aerospace manufacturing facilities building the jet engines of the future.
When you look at AM this way, it is quite clear that there is more to it than just
melting some plastic and creating a 3D model. People need to be made aware of this
and so it is vital to have high-quality education in this sector.
I am really pleased that this book has come out. It provides insight into how AM
can be applied to teaching and training in a number of contexts. It describes how
AM has been a part of the latest stages of the manufacturing industrial revolution
and how it has helped to form new thinking in product design and development. It
also covers a number of issues surrounding AM like research, technology transfer,
intellectual property and AM’s relationship with other technologies. It discusses
how AM technology is developing as well as how it is a tool to assist learning other
areas like design, manufacture, etc. I know nearly all the editors and authors of this
book either personally or by reputation. I believe that this book is written by the
ix
x Foreword II
right people who have the right knowledge and experience to explain how AM can,
is and should be implemented in the classrooms, teaching laboratories, training
facilities and general maker spaces to ensure we get the fullest potential from it. It
comes out at the right time and I trust it will influence many on how to proceed
from here with AM.
Geelong, Australia Ian Gibson

Professor of Additive Manufacturing
School of Engineering, Deakin University
Preface
Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a rapidly developing technology and having

well-trained specialists are essential. A future-ready workforce requires the develop-
ment of new AM training programmes and teaching curricula that not only addresses
the employer’s needs and includes both technical and business aspects. As a result,
educational content and training guidelines need to be updated, so as to ensure that
industrialists, educators, researchers and professionals are kept relevant and aware of
current practices related to AM. As more and newer jobs around AM will be created,
there is a need to develop specific teaching and training strategies that can develop the
employability or re-skilling of professionals and workers. This book brings together the
contributions of leading experts to discuss aspects of new means of teaching, providing
training programmes to gain alternative employment pathways, the need for certifica-
tion by professional bodies and using community-oriented maker spaces to promote
awareness of AM among the society. We hope you will enjoy reading this book.
London, UK Eujin Pei

Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain Mario Monzón
Nantes CX 03, France Alain Bernard
xi
Review I
David Bourell
Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science and Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin, USA
This book serves a critical need for a more advanced text that takes the reader to the
next level once the basics of additive manufacturing (AM) are understood. In this
regard, the topics covered are spot on. Overall, the text will be of great use to
academics and industrialists who desire to take second and third steps towards fully
implementing a culture of AM into manufacturing. The book is much more than
just training and education in AM. It moves well beyond this to the integration of
AM into industrial practice with practical advice on how to accomplish this. The
chapters are written by world experts in their respective areas of AM. Coverage
includes when to use AM, when to displace conventionally manufactured parts with
AM parts, and more importantly defines the criteria for making such alterations.
Standards development in AM is continuously evolving, and the opening chapter
provides a clear snapshot of the current state. Chapters “Additive Manufacturing:
Instrumental Systems Used in Research, Education, and Service” and “Introducing
the State-of-the-Art Additive Manufacturing Research in Education” will be of
great use to new academics who find themselves in an AM research environment.
Chapter “Developing an Understanding of the Cost of Additive Manufacturing”
deals with cost of AM parts. Baumers and Tuck, world experts in this area, have
done an excellent job of outlining the cost factors for AM. Chapters “Additive
Manufacturing Validation Methods, Technology Transfer Based on Case Studies”
and “Teaching Design for Additive Manufacturing Through Problem-Based
Learning” extend the value proposition of AM by considering improvements in
performance enabled by AM. Intellectual property issues are of great importance
generally, and a chapter is devoted to this topic as it applies to AM. Chapter
“FoFAM and AM-Motion Initiatives: A Strategic Framework for Additive
Manufacturing Deployment in Europe” gives an excellent overview of some
of the socio-political impacts of AM as applied to developments in the European
forefront. Chapter “The Machine Tool Industry’s Changing Skills Needs: What is
xiii
xiv Review I
the Impact of Additive Manufacturing Technologies?” is a refreshing look at an

often forgotten application area of AM: tooling. With so much emphasis on aero-
space and biomedical applications, the longstanding use of AM in tool generation is
overlooked, and most of the issues and recommendations of this chapter are broadly
applicable to the general integration of AM into existing manufacturing. Chapter
“Teaching Design for Additive Manufacturing Through Problem-Based Learning”
provides an excellent closure to the textbook by focusing on the use of AM in
design starting at the earliest stages of the design process, rather than taking an
existing part made using conventional manufacturing and porting it over to AM. In
this way, AM stands on its own merit during the part configuration stage of design,
and the impact of design freedom enabled by AM can be fully implemented.
Review II
Ian Campbell
Professor of Computer Aided Product Design and Editor-in-Chief of the Rapid
Prototyping Journal
Loughborough Design School, Loughborough University, UK
Additive manufacturing (AM) is indeed a rapidly growing discipline and there is a
current shortage of qualified personnel at every level. New courses and programmes
need to be developed to meet the needs of every level, from technician to Masters
student. The proposed book will provide valuable material for curriculum devel-
opment in that it covers a series of examples explaining how AM training and
education has been or should be implemented. Of particular value is the collabo-
rative nature of the work presented, involving education providers, industry and
government. It is essential that this ‘triple-helix’ approach is followed if AM
training and education (and therefore AM implementation) is to reach its full
potential. Also of great interest to readers will be the multi-national background
of the chapter authors. It is valuable to see the different approaches used in different
countries, as well as the different topics that need to be considered. The range of
topics covered is impressive, covering the entire value chain. Thus, the book could
be used to inform a wide-ranging Masters-level programme or very focused
industrial training courses on costing, intellectual property, or standards, for
example. Therefore, the potential market for the book is extensive, covering aca-
demic institutions, training organisations, internal training departments in compa-
nies and even government departments. It could also be a useful textbook for
students of AM at all levels.
xv
Contents
Knowledge Transfer and Standards Needs in Additive

Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Mario Monzón, Rubén Paz, Zaida Ortega and Noelia Diaz
Continuing Education and Part-Time Training on Additive
Manufacturing for People in Employment—an Approach Focused
on Content-Related and Didactical Excellence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Christian Seidel and Raphaela Schätz
Additive Manufacturing: Instrumental Systems Used in Research,
Education, and Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Bahram Asiabanpour
Introducing the State-of-the-Art Additive Manufacturing
Research in Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Li Yang
Developing an Understanding of the Cost of Additive
Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Martin Baumers and Chris Tuck
Intellectual Property Rights and Additive Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Rosa Maria Ballardini
Additive Manufacturing Validation Methods, Technology
Transfer Based on Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Iñigo Flores Ituarte, Niklas Kretzschmar, Sergei Chekurov, Jouni Partanen
and Jukka Tuomi
FoFAM and AM-Motion Initiatives: A Strategic Framework
for Additive Manufacturing Deployment in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Paula Queipo and David Gonzalez
xvii
xviii Contents
The Machine Tool Industry’s Changing Skills Needs: What is the

Impact of Additive Manufacturing Technologies? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Filip Geerts and Vincenzo Renda
Teaching Design for Additive Manufacturing Through
Problem-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Olaf Diegel, Axel Nordin and Damien Motte
‘What is in a Word?’—The Use and Background for Terms
and Definitions in Additive Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Klas Boivie
Functional, Technical and Economical Requirements Integration
for Additive Manufacturing Design Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Alain Bernard, Mary Kathryn Thompson, Giovanni Moroni, Tom Vaneker,
Eujin Pei and Claude Barlier
Additive Manufacturing Systems for Medical Applications:
Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Henrique Amorim Almeida, Ana Filipa Costa, Carina Ramos,
Carlos Torres, Mauricio Minondo, Paulo J. Bártolo, Amanda Nunes,
Daniel Kemmoku and Jorge Vicente Lopes da Silva
Professional Training of AM at the European Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Eurico G. Assunçao, Elvira Raquel Silva and Eujin Pei
Future Challenges in Functionally Graded Additive
Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Eujin Pei and Giselle Hsiang Loh
Useful Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
About the Editors
Dr. Eujin Pei is the Director for the Product Design

and Product Design Engineering programmes at
Brunel University London. His research focuses on
Design for Additive Manufacturing and Applications
for Functionally Graded Additive Manufacturing. He
is the Convenor for the International Standards
Organisation Technical Committee ISO/TC261/WG4
and Chairs’ meetings related to Data Transfer and
Design for Additive Manufacture. He is Chair for the
British Standards Institute BSI/AMT/8 for Additive
Manufacturing. Eujin is also a Chartered Engineer
(CEng) and a Chartered Technological Product
Designer (CTPD). He is active in various industry and
knowledge transfer projects in the UK and across EU.
Eujin is also the Managing Editor for the Progress in
Additive Manufacturing Journal published by
SpringerNature.
Mario Monzón Professor of manufacturing processes

at University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria.
Coordinator of a research group of integrated and
advanced manufacturing. Coordinator of a Ph.D. pro-
gramme in Chemical, Mechanical and Manufacturing
Engineering. Member of ISO TC261 and CEN TC438.
Founding member of the Spanish Association of Rapid
Manufacturing (ASERM). Member of the editorial
board of the Journal Bio-Design and Manufacturing
(Elsevier).
xix
xx About the Editors
Prof. Alain Bernard 58, graduated in 82, Ph.D. in 89,

was Associate Professor, from 90 to 96 in Centrale
Paris. From September 96 to October 01, he was
Professor in CRAN, Nancy I, in the ‘Integrated Design
and Manufacturing’ team. Since October 01, he has
been Professor at Centrale Nantes and Dean for
Research from 07 to 12. He is researcher in LS2N
laboratory (UMR CNRS 6004) leading the ‘Systems
Engineering—Products-Processes-Performances’
team. His research topics are KM, PLM, information
system modelling, interoperability, enterprise mod-
elling, systems performance assessment, virtual engi-
neering and additive manufacturing. He supervised
more than 30 Ph.D. students. He published more than
150 papers in refereed international journals and
books. He is Vice-President of AFPR (French
Association on Rapid Prototyping and Additive
Manufacturing), Vice-Chairman of WG5.1 of IFIP
(Global Product Development for the whole product
lifecycle) and member of CIRP Council. He coordi-
nated and coauthored two books in French in the field
of Additive manufacturing: Le prototypage rapide
(Hermès, 1998); Fabrication additive (Dunod, 2015).
Actually, he is leading an Industry 4.0 project at
Centrale Nantes and is developing a learning factory
with its digital twin.
Knowledge Transfer and Standards Needs
in Additive Manufacturing
Mario Monzón, Rubén Paz, Zaida Ortega and Noelia Diaz
1 Introduction
Although Additive Manufacturing (AM) technologies have high potential in terms

of productivity and competitiveness for companies, their diffusion is still relatively
limited among manufacturers and end users. The high cost of this equipment could be
a key reason, but there is a general agreement that there is a lack of deep knowledge
of these technologies as well as skills for implementing them in companies. Several
publications, books and journals specialized in AM (Gibson et al. 2010; Chua et al.
2010) are currently available. In addition, AM has been being recently introduced
in many university programmes by the adoption of low-cost equipment for teaching
laboratories. Some examples of this equipment are RepRap and RapMan. Both of
them use the extrusion-based method (Fused Deposition Modelling) and can build a
replicated machine following the instructions supplied and printing the parts needed
for the assembly. However, these resources are mainly addressed to scientists and
students rather than to companies that need to implement these new technologies
in reasonable time to decide if and how to adopt them. This chapter presents an
alternative view on how, starting from the development of knowledge in the context
of standards in AM, the new standards can provide a real training process taking into
account the valuable inputs from industry, academy and final users (Sect. 4). First,
Sect. 2 shows a previous view about the current progress on AM standardization
in the committees of ISO, ASTM and CEN as well as recommendations in relevant
projects carried out such as SASAM (Feenstra et al. 2014). In Sect. 3, some initiatives
and projects about learning in AM are presented, in particular, the experience of the
authors in the European project KTRM.
M. Monzón (B) · R. Paz

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palma,
Spain
e-mail: mario.monzon@ulpgc.es
Z. Ortega · N. Diaz
Department of Processes Engineering, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palma,
Spain
© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 1

E. Pei et al. (eds.), Additive Manufacturing—Developments in Training
and Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76084-1_1
2 M. Monzón et al.
2 Standardization Needs in Additive Manufacturing
Standards are technical documents that define requirements, specifications or guide-

lines to specify test procedures or quality and safety attributes of materials, products,
processes and services. The AM community and industry have been aware that
the lack of standards is an important barrier to the more general adoption of AM,
mainly in those sectors under strict rules of regulation (medical, aerospace, automo-
tive, etc.). Several factors strongly influence the limited applicability of conventional
standards to AM, being the anisotropy and the modification of mechanical proper-
ties, depending on the process parameters, the key issue to deal with (Puebla et al.
2012). Nevertheless, for the last years, several international organizations have been
working on the development of new standards for AM (ASTM F42 since 2009, ISO
TC261 since 2011 and CEN/TC 438 since 2015), with significant number of stan-
dards approved so far. Table 1 shows a summary of standards approved by these
international organizations until 2017.
It is important to note the following appointments: in a meeting held in Notting-
ham, UK, in July 2013, ISO TC261 and ASTM F42 agreed jointly to develop AM
standards. This was, without any doubt, a relevant landmark for further development
of AM standards under a common interest. In 2015, CEN created a new Technical
Committee CEN/TC 438, adopting, if possible, those standards agreed by ISO and
ASTM. The collaboration between ISO and ASTM takes place by periodic face to
face or online meetings, where groups of experts for each side discuss and develop
the new proposed standards. In Table 1 is observed those common standards in ISO,
ASTM and CEN. Another relevant highlight agreed between ISO TC261 and ASTM
F42 was the general structure of how the developed standards should be fitted. In
this structure, there are three levels and different target areas in each level (Monzon
et al. 2014). From the top to the bottom, the levels are General AM standards; Cate-
gory AM standards; Specialized AM standards. The target areas are Raw materials;
Process equipment; and Finished parts.
Several initiatives have been carried out in different countries to support the devel-
opment of standards for AM (Monzon et al. 2014), but it should be highlighted the
support action funded by the European Commission in 2014, the project SASAM
(Support Action for Standardization in Additive Manufacturing) (Feenstra et al.
2014). Among other actions in SASAM, a survey studying the standards needs of the
AM community was carried out. In this survey, a group of 122 industrially-driven
stakeholders indicated the need and type of standards to be developed. A number
of standards categories were distinguished such as design, specific industrial needs,
quality of manufactured parts, safety (regulations) and education. These needs were
summarized in the roadmap of SASAM (Feenstra et al. 2014). The roadmap is based
upon priorities (on a scale from 0 to 5) and it adopted the above-mentioned structure
agreed by ISO and ASTM. Since many of the partners of the SASAM project are
experts in either ASTM F42, ISO TC261, or CEN/TC 438, some of these recom-
mendations have been implemented in the developed standards, contributing to the
successful result of the SASAM project.
Knowledge Transfer and Standards Needs in Additive Manufacturing 3
Table 1 List of approved standards until 2017

Topic ISO ASTM CEN
Additive ISO 17296-2:2015 EN ISO
manufacturing—General 17296-2:2016
principles—Part 2: Overview
of process categories and
feedstock
principles—Part 3: Main
characteristics and
corresponding test methods
principles—Part 4: Overview
of data processing
Additive ISO/ASTM ISO/ASTM EN ISO/ASTM
manufacturing—General 52900:2015 52900:2015 52900:2017
principles—Terminology
Additive ISO/ASTM ISO/ASTM
manufacturing—General 52901:2017 52901:2017
principles—Requirements
for purchased AM parts
Specification for additive ISO/ASTM ISO/ASTM EN ISO/ASTM
manufacturing file format 52915:2016 52915:2016 52915:2017
(AMF) Version 1.2
Standard terminology for ISO/ASTM ISO/ASTM EN ISO/ASTM
additive 52921:2013 52921:2013 52921:2016
manufacturing—Coordinate
systems and test
methodologies
Standard Practice for F2971-13
Reporting Data for Test
Specimens Prepared by
Additive Manufacturing
Standard Guide for F3122-14
Evaluating Mechanical
Properties of Metal Materials
Made via Additive
Manufacturing Processes
Standard Guidelines for ISO/ASTM52910- ISO/ASTM52910-
Design for Additive 17 17
Manufacturing
Standard Specification for F2924-14
Titanium-6 Aluminum-4
Vanadium with Powder Bed
Fusion
(continued)
4 M. Monzón et al.
Table 1 (continued)
Topic ISO ASTM CEN
Titanium-6 Aluminum-4
Vanadium ELI (Extra Low
Interstitial) with Powder Bed
Fusion
Standard Guide for F3049-14
Characterizing Properties of
Metal Powders Used for
Processes
Standard Specification for F3055-14a
Nickel Alloy (UNS N07718)
with Powder Bed Fusion
Standard Specification for F3056-14e1
Nickel Alloy (UNS N06625)
with Powder Bed Fusion
Standard Specification for F3091/F3091 M-14
Powder Bed Fusion of
Plastic Materials
Stainless Steel Alloy (UNS
S31603) with Powder Bed
Fusion
Standard Guide for Directed F3187-16
Energy Deposition of Metals
3 Training Needs and Knowledge Transfer in Additive

Manufacturing
In the context of education, in the field of manufacturing processes, the topic of

Additive Manufacturing is still going slowly in terms of its inclusion as part of the
content of the different curricula at all academic levels, as well as at industrial training.
Other methods such as subtractive processes (milling, turning, etc.), welding, casting,
forming, etc. are very well represented in the support material for training. Many
reasons could explain this but some of them are summarized as follows: conventional
procedures have been used for decades, even centuries. The latest advance of these
traditional procedures has introduced technological innovations but always keeping
the same basic process. For instance, conventional milling machines became into
CNC milling machines, but the concept itself is the same. This allows developing
books or training content suitable to be up to date for several years, with just a
few modifications when necessary. Since the concept of Rapid Prototyping turned
up in the 90s (first just as a method for making formal or functional prototypes),
many different patents and methods reached the market, but many others could not
be successful. This impressive number of new technologies for plastics, metals and
ceramics has had a huge capacity of evolution, being quite difficult to arrange them
under closed categories. This characteristic, together with the specific materials for
AM and the lack of methods for predicting the mechanical behaviour of AM parts,
have hindered the process of training. We are facing, without any doubt, a new concept
of manufacturing and the traditional rules for teaching manufacturing processes or
design require new methods and procedures. One important issue to take into account
is that AM for metals requires a different expertise than for example AM for plastics.
Although all AM technologies start from a similar base (3D digital data and layering
software) the process is different and the behaviour of the material is not the same.
This means that an expert in metals for AM is not necessarily an expert for plastics
and AM. Although many people think that the training process for metals and plastics
could be done on the same basis, the real need of the industry probably requires a
more specific training. Even at the same level of plastics or metals, the technologies
available in the market start with clear differences and the specialization on each
one for increasing the productivity and quality is other relevant issue to take into
consideration. Although several books have been edited (Gibson et al. 2010; Chua
et al. 2010; KTRM 2012) all of them require more updates at short term than any
other handbooks of technology. In any case, the mentioned books are focused on the
general technology, but not on specific technologies. Some road maps of AM have
highlighted the need of education in AM. For instance, the first relevant roadmap
was the one published by the University of Texas at Austin (Bourell et al. 2009),
where two recommendations were give as follows:
• To develop university courses, education materials, and curricula at both the under-
graduate and graduate levels, as well as at the technical college level.
• To develop training programmes for industry practitioners with certifications given
by professional societies or organizations.
Similar conclusions were given in the strategic research agenda of the European
sub-Platform of AM (Platform 2014), with the following main recommendations:
• Development of a series of training modules for specific AM processes.
• University and technical college courses, education materials, and curricula at
basic undergraduate and post-graduate levels.
• Training programmes for industry practitioners.
• Outreach programmes for the non-technical population.
• AM “design for manufacture” seminars.
• More education books dedicated to increase the knowledge of AM technologies.
Some projects have faced the problem of training in AM, making some surveys
about the needs of the industry and providing some recommendations. One example
is the project 3DPRISM, funded by Erasmus+ program (European Union) and led by
the University of Sheffield Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre (Project 3D
6 M. Monzón et al.
Fig. 1 Distribution of received filled questionnaires by sector
2017). This project facilitates, accelerates and supports the acquisition of leading-
edge manufacturing skills by the workforce. It should be also highlighted the Euro-
pean project Knowledge Transfer on Rapid Manufacturing (KTRM), in which the
authors of this work actively participated (KTRM 2012). The main objectives of the
KTRM project were give as follows:
• To make a survey about training needs in the AM community and industry (about
150 questionnaires responded by 15 countries, mainly from Europe).
• To edit a handbook about additive manufacturing.
• To develop an E-learning platform for training in AM.
The questionnaire had a number of questions regarding training needs: interest in
training in this field and aspects of interest in training. The teaching method was also
asked so that it could be determined if conventional or online training were preferred
and if practical lessons would be useful. Finally, companies were asked about the
benefits expected in using these technologies. Figure 1 shows the distribution of
sectors in the survey. The most relevant global results of this survey, for companies,
are presented in the following figures. In Fig. 2, it is shown the level of knowledge on
the main AM technologies, on the basis of the maximum possible knowledge. Also,
the difference between large companies and small and medium companies (SMEs)
were analysed. It can be observed that any technology has a level of knowledge
reaching 50.0%; in general terms and that knowledge on SMEs is over than twice
higher than knowledge in large companies.
The highest knowledge was observed for stereolithography, plastic SLS, 3D print-
ers, FDM and metallic SLS. As explained above, it seems that plastic technologies
are more known than metallic ones.
To take into account whether or not the availability of any technology could
influence the level of knowledge, the survey studied the availability or outsourcing
of them (Fig. 3).
The most usual technologies on companies are plastic SLS and 3D printers, fol-
lowed by stereolithography, FDM and metallic SLS. Outsourcing is over three times
higher than availability, being the most important stereolithography and plastic SLS.
It is also confirmed that plastic AM technologies are more used than metallic ones.
Fig. 2 Knowledge of main AM technologies by size of company
Fig. 3 Availability and outsourcing of AM technologies
As most works in this field are subcontracted, the low level of knowledge on these
technologies is thus not surprising. Figure 4 shows the profiles of worker with more
needs of training in AM. Designers are the group with more needs in terms of learning
about AM.
But if the question is about the aspect to be improved by training of AM, the answer
places “design“ in the third position (Fig. 5). The general conclusions of this survey,
considering also other questions not presented in this summary, are as follows: In
general, knowledge on AM is quite low in companies; in large companies is lower than
in SMEs. Outsourcing is most usual in companies than owning these systems. SMEs
are more involved with AM technologies than large companies, as they are owner
8 M. Monzón et al.
Fig. 4 Training profiles requested
Fig. 5 Aspects to be improved by AM training
of most part of the systems and also subcontract them in larger extension. Plastic
technologies are more known than metallic ones. Stereolithography and plastic SLS
are the most used technologies.
One important result of the survey in aspects such as the methodology for training
was the interest for the E-learning method. KTRM developed an E-learning platform
based on SCORM. This platform included content from design, technologies, mate-
rials and business models. The advantages of this E-learning platform for companies
are given as follows:
• Wide volume of updated information of AM is available for students, where several
new technologies are being developed almost every year.
• The daily activity of the company is not disturbed at all because of the high
flexibility of time and place for learning.
• The student can be in touch with teachers and experts of AM from all over the
world.
• Availability of different tools for teacher-student communication.
• Availability of multimedia material (audio, video).
• Collaborative training with other students, being previous experiences in RM/AM
suitable to be interchanged.
• The students can be evaluated by themselves.
• Transport time and cost saving.
• Also, in the context of KTRM, a handbook was edited with the same structure
of theoretical content than the one provided in the E-learning platform (KTRM
2012).
4 How Standards Can Support Knowledge Transfer for

The concept of AM was not the first definition related to this advanced technology.
In the 90s, it was common to mention it as Rapid Prototyping, so, even at that time,
neither 3D printing was commonly used. In Fig. 6, it is shown the evolution of the
different terminology and how the interest of the industry moved from a general
concept of rapid prototyping to more specific aspects as shown in the bottom of the
graph. This significant change, in only two decades, has caused continuous update
of the training material in AM.
The bottom of Fig. 6 shows how as result of the evolution of the technology and
the interest of industry in different aspects, the training activities need to be focused
on specific issues or fields rather than on general topics as in the training material
developed in the past. Therefore, experts in these specific areas are required for
successful process of education and skills. As commented in Sect. 4, these levels
of categories, suitable for training, are the same to the ones agreed by ISO-ASTM
in the structure for standardization (proposed by the industry sector and approved
with high level of consensus). This is a key point because this structure is a good
starting point for establishing the content for training in all the educational levels
and industry, allowing a more effective process. International entities such as ISO,
ASTM or CEN are encouraged in spreading the standards among the industry and
academia. For example, ISO provides a repository of teaching materials, which is a
list of existing teaching materials on standardization, with details of the authors and
publishers. These materials have been divided into two groups, which are:
• Materials for primary and secondary education
• Materials for university-level education
This section presents how standards in AM could be a very relevant and valuable
source of knowledge transfer. The process of bringing together the committees ISO
10 M. Monzón et al.
Fig. 6 Evolution of the concept of AM to the final topics of interest for industry
TC261, ASTM F41 and CEN/TC 438 represents a relevant milestone because many
standards for AM are being developed with the expertise of hundreds of technicians
and engineers from all over the world. These experts are mainly part of the industry,
but academia and technological centres participate in this process as well. In ASTM
F42, there are about 400 members, and in ISO TC261 (Fig. 7), experts from 22
participating countries and seven observer countries are collaborating in the different
working groups. All the standards approved require a rigorous process of review once
they are proposed by the different working groups. For instance, considering that not
all the countries and experts actively participate in the review process, an average
rate of 20% in terms of person effort could be acceptable. This means that only
one standard, developed by a joint group ISO-ASTM, requires the direct work of
10 people and the review process is under the supervision of at least 100 experts.
In other words, there is not any other technical document, book or paper with such
a number of experts participating in the work itself and the review process. Note
that a paper in a technical journal could be elaborated by between 2 and 5 authors
and the number of reviewers is usually three. Otherwise, what makes this process of
elaborating standards so valuable is the collaboration between experts from industry,
Fig. 7 How standards in AM can support knowledge transfer
academia, technological centres and national bodies, as part of the spearhead of the
AM technology (Fig. 7).
Standards fall into two general categories— Normative and Informative (Stan-
dards and Standardisation 2017). Normative documents are those documents that
contain requirements which must be met in order for claims of compliance with
the standard to be certified. Informative documents are those documents that do not
contain any requirements (in the case of standards published by ISO and CEN, infor-
mative documents are typically published as Technical Reports). Although Technical
reports include the most suitable content for knowledge transfer, the normative doc-
uments also can be used as a base of training because they are more specific and
are very focused on the process, materials, tests, etc., based on the experience of the
industry and responding to the real needs of the final user. An example of the devel-
oped standards until 2017, which many of them are very useful for training in AM, it
could be mentioned “Standard Guidelines for Design for Additive Manufacturing”.
This guide provides guidelines and best practices for using additive manufacturing
(AM) in product design and helps determine which design considerations can be uti-
lized in a design project. Other good examples are the future standards for designing
specific technologies (powder bed fusion, extrusion-based, etc.). Of course, there is
an important barrier for the use of these standards as training material, which is the
purchase process that is not so easy to be afforded for many companies or universities.
Nevertheless, agreements between universities or entities with the national bodies
are a way to access to these valuable documents, which could be easily downloaded
from the corresponding websites (ISO TC261 2017; ASTM F42 2017).
12 M. Monzón et al.
5 Conclusions
Training for Additive manufacturing is according to several research agendas and

roadmaps, a priority for supporting the industry in a technology that does not follow
the same rules as the traditional ones. Initiatives such as the KTRM project allows,
by responding to the needs of the AM community, supporting them by applying
innovative methods such as E-learning. The activities carried out by ISO TC261 and
ASTM F42 as well as CEN/TC 438 allow disseminating new standards with high-
quality technical documents (normative and technical reports), with the contribution
of hundreds of experts all over the world, being very useful for supporting the training
needs of the industry.
References
ASTM F42. Resource document. https://www.astm.org/COMMIT/SUBCOMMIT/F42.htm.

Accessed 23 August 2017
Bourell, D.L., Leu, M.C. & Rosen, D.W. (2009). Roadmap for additive manufacturing identifying
the future of freeform processing. http://wohlersassociates.com/roadmap2009.pdf. Accessed 23
August 2017.
Chua, C. K., Leong, K. F., & Lim, C. S. (2010). Rapid prototyping: principles and applications.
Singapore: World Scientific.
Feenstra, F., Boivie, K., Verquin, B., Spierings, A., Buining, H., & Schaefer, M. (2014). Road map for
additive manufacturing. Resource document. SASAM project FP7–NMP–2012-CSA-6–319167.
http://www.sasam.eu/. Accessed 23 August 2017.
Gibson, I., Rosen, D. W., & Stucker, B. (2010). Additive manufacturing technologies. New York:
Springer.
ISO TC261. Resource document. https://www.iso.org/committee/629086/x/catalogue/p/1/u/0/w/0/
d/0. Accessed 23 August 2017
KTRM, (2012). A Guide to Successful Rapid Manufacturing. Shrewsbury: Smithers Rapra Tech-
nology. Lifelong Learning Programme, Project code: 2010-1-ES1-LEOO5-21195
Monzon, M. D., Ortega, Z., Martinez, A., & Ortega, F. (2014). Standardization in additive man-
ufacturing: activities carried out by international organizations and projects. The International
Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 76(5–8), 1111–1121.
AM Platform, (2014). Additive Manufacturing: Strategic Research Agenda. http://www.rm-
platform.com/linkdoc/AM%20SRA%20-%20February%202014.pdf. Accessed 23 August 2017.
Project 3dprism. 3d printing skills for manufacturing. Erasmus+. https://3dprism.eu/en/. Accessed
23 August 2017.
Puebla, K., Arcaute, K., Quintana, R., & Wicker, R. B. (2012). Effects on environmental condi-
tions, aging, and build orientations on the mechanical properties of ASTM type I specimens
manufactured via stereolithography. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 18, 374–388.
Standards and Standardisation. A practical guide for researchers. Resource document.
European Commission. https://ec.europa.eu/research/industrial_technologies/pdf/practical-
standardisation-guide-for-researchers_en.pdf. Accessed 23 August 2017
Mario Monzón Professor of manufacturing processes at University of Las Palmas de Gran

Canaria. Coordinator of a research group of integrated and advanced manufacturing. Coordina-
Another random document with
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applied also to the parchment-trade carried on at the Fair of St.
Germain.
It is evident from the many renewed edicts and ordinances
referring to this trade that it was not easy to carry out such
regulations effectively, and that much friction and dissatisfaction was
produced by them. It seems probable also that, with the trade in
parchment as in other trades, the attempt to secure uniformity of
price, irrespective of the conditions of manufacture or of the market,
had the effect not infrequently of lessening the supply and of causing
sales to be made surreptitiously at increased prices.
After the use of parchment had in large part been replaced by
paper made of linen, the supplies of Paris came principally from
Lombardy. Later, however, paper-mills were erected in France, the
first being at Troyes and Esson. These earlier paper manufacturers
were, like the book-dealers in Paris, made free from tax. This
exemption was contested from time to time by the farmers of the
taxes and had to be renewed by successive ordinances. Later, the
university associated with its body, in the same manner as had been
done with the parchment-dealers, the manufacturers and dealers in
paper, and confirmed them in the possession of the privileges
previously enjoyed by the librarii and stationarii. The privileges of the
paper manufacturers extended, however, outside of Paris, which
was, of course, not the case with the librarii.
While, in connection with the requirements of the university and
the special privileges secured through university membership, the
book-trade of Paris and the trades associated with it secured a larger
measure of importance as compared with the trade of the provinces
than was the case in either Italy or Germany, there came into
existence as early as the middle of the fourteenth century a
considerable trade in manuscripts in various provincial centres.
In Montpellier, the university was, as in Paris, a centre for
publishing undertakings, but in Angers, Rouen, Orleans, and
Toulouse, in which there are various references to book-dealers as
early as the beginning of the fourteenth century, the trade must have
been supported by a public largely outside of the university
organisation. The statutes of Orleans and of Toulouse, dating from
1341, regulate the supervision of the trade in manuscripts.
In Montpellier, there appears to have been, during the beginning of
the fourteenth century, a business in the loaning of the manuscripts
and of manuscript hefts—pecias, similar to that already described in
Bologna. The university authorities, usually the bedels, supervised
the correctness of the pecias and prescribed the prices at which they
should be rented. The stationarii who carried on this business and
also the venditores librorum were members of the university body.
The sale of books on commission was also supervised under
regulations similar to those obtaining in Bologna.
No stationarius was at liberty to dispose of a work placed in his
hands for sale (unless it belonged to a foreigner) until it had been
exposed in his shop for at least six days, and had at least been three
times offered for sale publicly in the auditorium. This offering for sale
was cared for by the banquerii, who were the assistants or tenants of
the rectors. These banquerii were also authorised to carry on the
business of the loaning of pecias under the same conditions as
those that controlled the stationarii. They were also at liberty, after
the close of the term lectures, to sell their own supplies of
manuscripts (usually of course the copies of the official texts) at
public auction in the auditorium.
It is difficult to understand how, with a trade, of necessity, limited in
extent, and the possible profits of which were so closely restricted by
regulations, there could have been a living profit sufficient to tempt
educated dealers to take up the work of the stationarii or librarii.
It is probably the case, as Kirchhoff, Savigny, and others point out,
that the actual results of the trade cannot be ascertained with
certainty from the texts of the regulations, and that there were
various ways in which, in spite of these regulations, larger returns
could be secured for the work of the scholarly and enterprising
librarii.
An ordinance issued in 1411 makes reference to booksellers
buying and selling books both in French or in Latin and gives
privilege to licensed booksellers to do such buying and selling at
their pleasure. This seems to have been an attempt to widen the
range of the book-trade, while reference to books in the vernacular
indicates an increasing demand for literature outside of the circles of
instructors and students.
In the beginning of the fifteenth century, there was, among a
number of the nobles of families in France, a certain increase in the
interest of literature and in the taste for collecting elaborate,
ornamented, and costly manuscripts.
The princely Houses of Burgundy and of Orleans are to be noted
in this connection, and particularly in Burgundy, the influence of the
ducal family was of wide importance in furthering the development of
the trade in manuscripts and the production of literature.
A large number of the manuscripts placed in these ducal family
libraries were evidently originally prepared by scribes having
knowledge only of plain script, and the addition of the initial letters
and of the illuminated head and tail pieces was made later by
illuminators and designers attached to the ducal families. It was to
these latter that fell the responsibility of placing upon the
manuscripts the arms of the owners of the libraries. In case
manuscripts which had been inscribed with family arms came to
change hands, it became necessary to replace these arms with
those of the later purchaser, and many of the illuminated
manuscripts of the period give evidence of such changing of the
decorations, decorations which took the place of the book-plate of to-
day.
The taste for these elaborate illuminated manuscripts, each one of
which, through the insertion of individual designs and of the family
arms, became identified with the personality and taste of its owner,
could not easily be set aside, after the middle of the fifteenth century,
by the new art of printing. As a matter of fact, therefore, it not
infrequently happened, towards the latter part of the fifteenth century,
that these noble collectors caused elaborate transcripts to be made,
by hand, of works which were already in print, rather than to place in
their own collection books in the form in which ordinary buyers could
secure them.
By the year 1448, the number of certified librarii in Paris had
increased to twenty-four.[366] Kirchhoff is of opinion that a certain
portion at least of these librarii carried on also other trades, but it is
evident that there had come to be in these years, immediately
preceding the introduction of the printing-press, a very considerable
development in the demand for literature and in the book-trade of the
capital.
In 1489, the list of book-dealers and of those connected with the
manufacture of books who were exempt from taxation included
twenty-four librarii, four dealers in parchment, four dealers in paper,
seven paper manufacturers (having mills outside of Paris), two
illuminators, two binders, and two licensed scribes.
In the following year, the list of librarii free from taxation was
reduced to seventeen. It is probable that those librarii whose names
had been taken off the exemption list undertook a general book
business carried on outside of the university regulations, and were
probably able to secure returns more than sufficient to offset the loss
caused by the curtailing of their freedom from taxation and of their
university privileges.
This reduction in the number of manuscript-dealers who remained
members of the corporation was, however, very promptly made up
by including in the corporation the newly introduced printers. As early
as 1476, one of the four officials of the guild was the printer Pasquier
Bonhomme.
The cessation of the work of the scribes and the transfer of the
book-trade from their hands to those of the printers took place
gradually after the year 1470, the printers being, as said, promptly
included in the organisation of the guild. There must, however, have
been, during the earlier years at least, not a little rivalry and
bitterness between the two groups of dealers.
An instance of this rivalry is given in 1474, in which year a librarius
juratus, named Herman von Stathoen (by birth a German), died.
According to the university regulation, his estate, valued at 800
crowns of gold, (there being no heirs in the country) should have
fallen to the university treasury. In addition to this property in Paris,
Stathoen was part owner of a book establishment in Mayence,
carried on by Schöffer & Henckis, and was unpopular with the Paris
dealers generally on the ground of his foreign trade connections.
Contention was made on behalf of the Crown that the property in
Paris should be confiscated to the royal treasury, and as Schöffer &
Henckis were subjects of the Duke of Burgundy, whose relations with
Louis XI. might be called strained, the influence of the Court was
decidedly in favour of the appropriation of any business interest that
they might have in their partner’s property in Paris. In the contention
between the university and the Crown, the latter proved the stronger,
and the bookseller’s 800 crowns were confiscated for the royal
treasury, and at least got so far towards the treasury as the hands of
the chancellor.
As a further result of the issue which had been raised, it was
ordered on the part of the Crown that thereafter no foreigner should
have a post as an official of the university or should be in a position
to lay claim to the exemption and the privileges attaching to such
post.
While in Paris the manuscript-dealers had been promptly driven
from the field through the competition of the printers, in Rouen they
held their own for a considerable term of years. The space which
had been assigned to the librarii for their shops at the chief doorway
of the cathedral, continued to be reserved for them as late as 1483,
and the booksellers keeping on sale the printed books, were
forbidden to have any shops at this end of the cathedral, but were
permitted to put up, at their own cost, stalls at the north doorway.
The oldest Paris bookseller whose name has been placed on
record is described as Herneis le Romanceur. He had his shop at the
entrance to Notre Dame. His inscription appeared in a beautiful
manuscript presenting a French translation of the Code of Justinian,
a manuscript dating from the early part of the thirteenth century. It is
possible that Guillaume Herneis, whose name appeared in the tax
list of 1292 with a rate of ten livres, was the scribe and the publisher
of the above manuscript, but if this were the case he must have been
at the time of this tax rating well advanced in years.[367] In 1274, the
name of Hugichio le Lombard appears recorded on several
manuscripts which have been preserved in existing collections. In
the taxes of 1292, appears the name of Agnien, Libraire, in the Rue
de la Boucherie, assessed for thirty-six sous. The tax is too large to
make it probable that Agnien was a mere pedlar or did business from
an open stall, and it is Géraud’s opinion that he was charged
probably as a university bookseller to whom the tax collector had
refused the exemption belonging to university members.[368]
In the year 1303, the stock of books of a certain Antoine Zeno,
libraire juré, was scheduled for taxation. Among the titles included in
this schedule are the commentaries or lectures of Bruno on S.
Matthew (57 pages, price one sol), the same on Mark, Luke, and
John, the commentaries of Alexander on Matthew, the Opera Fratris
Richardi, the Legenda Sanctorum, various texts of the Decretals,
commentaries of S. Bernard on the Decretals, a treatise of a certain
Thomas on metaphysics, on physics, on the heavens and the earth,
and on the soul, and a series of lectures on ethics, and on politics.
The scheduled price ranged from one sol to eight sols, the latter
being the price of a manuscript of 136 pages. The books were
probably confined exclusively to texts used in the university
work.[369]
In 1313, appears in the tax list, assessed for twelve sous, the
name of Nicholas L’Anglois, bookseller and tavern-keeper in Rue St.
Jacques.
It is to be noted that the booksellers, and for that matter the
traders generally of the time, are frequently distinguished by the
names of their native countries. It is probable that Nicholas failed to
escape taxation as a bookseller because he was also carrying on
business (and doubtless a more profitable business) in his tavern.
The list of 1313 includes in fact but three booksellers, and each of
these is described as having an additional trade.[370]
A document of the year 1332 describes a sale made by a certain
Geoffroy de Saint Léger, a clerc libraire, to Gérard de Montagu,
avocat du roy au parlement. Geoffroy acknowledges to have sold,
ceded, assigned, and delivered to the said Gérard a book entitled
Speculum Historiale in Consuetudines Parisienses, comprised in
four volumes, and bound in red leather. He guarantees the validity of
this sale with his own body, de son corps mesme. Gérard pays for
the book the sum of forty Parisian livres, with which sum Geoffroy
declares himself to be content, and paid in full.[371] It appears that
the sale of a book in the fourteenth century was a solemn
transaction, calling for documentary evidence as specific as in the
case of the transfer of real estate.
In the year 1376, Jean de Beauvais, a librarius juratus, is recorded
as having sold various works, including the Decretals of Gregory IX.,
illustrated with miniatures, a copy of Summa Hostiensis, 423
parchment leaves, illustrated with miniatures, and a codex of
Magister Thomas de Maalaa.[372]
In the year 1337, Guidomarus de Senis, master of arts and
librarius juratus, renews his oath as a taxator. He seems to have put
into his business as bookseller a certain amount of literary gaiety, if
one may judge from the lines added at the end of a parchment codex
sold by him, which codex contains the poems of Guillaume de
Marchaut.
The lines are as follows:
Explicit au mois d’avril,

Qui est gai, cointe et gentil,
L’an mil trois cent soixante et onze.
D’Avril la semaine seconde,
Acheva à un vendredi,
Guiot de Sens c’est livre si,
Et le comansa de sa main,
Et ne fina ne soir ne matin,
Tant qu’il eut l’euvre accomplie,
Louée soit la vierge Marie.[373]
Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, was one of the more important
book collectors of his time. In 1386, the Duke paid to Martin
L’Huillier, dealer in manuscripts and bookbinder, sixteen francs for
binding eight books, six of which were bound in grain leather.[374]
The Duke of Orleans also appears as a buyer of books, and in 1394,
he paid to Jehan de Marsan, master of arts and dealer in
manuscripts, twenty francs in gold for the Letters of S. Pol, bound in
figured silk, and illuminated with the arms of the Duke.
Four years later, the Duke makes another purchase, paying to
Jehan one hundred livres tournois for a Concordance to the Bible in
Latin, an illuminated manuscript bound in red leather, stamped.
The same Duke, in 1394, paid forty gold crowns to Olivier, one of
the four principal librarii, for a Latin text of the Bible, bound in red
leather, and in 1396, this persistent ducal collector pays sixty livres
to a certain Jacques Jehan, who is recorded as a grocer, but who
apparently included books in his stock, for the Book of the Treasury,
a book of Julius Cæsar, a book of the King, The Secret of Secrets,
and a book of Estrille Fauveau, bound in one volume, illuminated,
and bearing the arms of the Duke of Lancaster. Another volume
included in this purchase was the Romance of the Rose, and the
Livres des Eschez, “moralised,” and bound together in one volume,
illuminated in gold and azure.[375]
In 1399, appears on the records the name of Dyne, or Digne
Rapond, a Lombard. Kirchhoff speaks of Rapond’s book business as
being with him a side issue. Like Atticus, the publisher of Cicero,
Rapond’s principal business interest was that of banking, in which
the Lombards were at that time pre-eminent throughout Europe. In
connection with his banking, however, he accepted orders from
noble clients and particularly from the Duke of Burgundy, for all
classes of articles of luxury, among which were included books.
In 1399, Rapond delivered to Philip of Burgundy, for the price of
five hundred livres, a Livy illuminated with letters of gold and with
images, and for six thousand francs a work entitled La Propriété de
Choses. A document, bearing date 1397, states that Charles, King of
France, is bound to Dyne Rapond, merchant of Paris, for the sum of
190 francs of gold, for certain pieces of tapestry, for certain shirts,
and for four great volumes containing the chronicles of France. He is
further bound in the sum of ninety-two francs for some more shirts,
for a manuscript of Seneca, for the Chronicles of Charlemagne, for
the Chronicles of Pepin, for the Chronicles of Godefroy de Bouillon,
the latter for his dear elder son Charles, Dauphin. The King further
purchases certain hats, handkerchiefs, and some more books, for
which he instructs his treasurer in Paris to pay over to said Rapond
the sum of ninety francs in full settlement of his account; the
document is signed on behalf of the King by his secretary at his
château of Vincennes.[376]
Jacques Rapond, merchant and citizen of Paris, probably a
brother of Dyne, also seems to have done a profitable business with
Philip of Burgundy, as he received from Philip, for a Bible in French,
9000 francs, and in the same year (1400), for a copy of The Golden
Legend, 7500 francs.
Nicholas Flamel, scribe and librarius juratus, flourished at the
beginning of the thirteenth century. He was shrewd enough, having
made some little money at work as a bookseller and as a school
manager, to carry on some successful speculations in house
building, from which speculations he made money so rapidly that he
was accused of dealings with the Evil One. One of the houses built
by him in Rue Montmorency was still standing in 1853, an evidence
of what a clever publisher might accomplish even in the infancy of
the book business.
The list of booksellers between the years 1486-1490 includes the
name of Jean Bonhomme, the name which has for many years been
accepted as typical of the French bourgeois. This particular
Bonhomme seems, however, to have been rather a distinctive man
of his class. He calls himself “bookseller to the university,” and was a
dealer both in manuscripts and in printed books. On a codex of a
French translation of The City of God, by S. Augustine, is inscribed
the record of the sale of the manuscript by Jean Bonhomme,
bookseller to the University of Paris, who acknowledges having sold
to the honoured and wise citizen, Jehan Cueillette, treasurer of M. de
Beaujeu, this book containing The City of God, in two volumes, and
Bonhomme guarantees to Cueillette the possession of said work
against all. His imprint as a bookseller appears upon various printed
books, including the Constitutiones Clementinæ, the Decreta
Basiliensia, and the Manuale Confessorum of Joh. Nider.
Among the cities of France outside of Paris in which there is
record of early manuscript-dealers, are Tours, Angers, Lille, Troyes,
Rouen, Toulouse, and Montpellier. In Lille, in 1435, the principal
bookseller was Jaquemart Puls, who was also a goldsmith, the latter
being probably his principal business. In Toulouse, a bookseller of
the name of S. Julien was in business as early as 1340. In Troyes, in
the year 1500, Macé Panthoul was carrying on business as a
bookseller and as a manufacturer of paper. In connection with his
paper-trade, he came into relations with the book-dealers of Paris.
Manuscript Dealers in Germany.—The information
concerning the early book-dealers in Germany is more scanty, and
on the whole less interesting, than that which is available for the
history of bookselling in Italy or in France. There was less wealth
among the German nobles during the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, and fewer among the nobles who had means were
interested in literary luxuries than was the case in either France,
Burgundy, or Italy.
As has been noted in the preceding division of this chapter, the
references to the more noteworthy of the manuscript-dealers in
France occur almost entirely in connection with sales made by them
to the members of the Royal Family, to the Dukes of Burgundy, or to
other of the great nobles. The beautifully illuminated manuscript
which carried the coat-of-arms or the crest of the noble for whom it
was made, included also, as a rule, the inscription of the manuscript-
dealer by whom the work of its preparation had been carried on or
supervised, and through whom it had been sold to the noble
purchaser. Of the manuscripts of this class, the record in Germany is
very much smaller. Germany also did not share the advantages
possessed by Italy, of close relations with the literature and the
manuscript stores of the East, relations which proved such an
important and continued source of inspiration for the intellectual life
of the Italian scholars.
The influence of the revival of the knowledge of Greek literature
came to Germany slowly through its relations with Italy, but in the
knowledge of Greek learning and literature the German scholars
were many years behind their Italian contemporaries, while the
possession of Greek manuscripts in Germany was, before the
middle of the fifteenth century, very exceptional indeed. The
scholarship of the earlier German universities appears also to have
been narrower in its range and more restricted in its cultivation than
that which had been developed in Paris, in Bologna, or in Padua.
The membership of the Universities of Prague and of Vienna, the
two oldest in the German list, was evidently restricted almost entirely
to Germans, Bohemians, Hungarians, etc., that is to say, to the races
immediately controlled by the German Empire.
If a scholar of England were seeking, during the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, special instruction or special literary and scholarly
advantages, his steps were naturally directed towards Paris for
theology, Bologna for jurisprudence, and Padua for medicine, and
but few of these travelling English scholars appear to have taken
themselves to Prague, Vienna, or Heidelberg.
In like manner, if English book collectors were seeking
manuscripts, they betook themselves to the dealers in Paris, in
Florence, or in Venice, and it was not until after the manuscript-trade
had been replaced by the trade in the productions of the printing-
press that the German cities can be said to have become centres for
the distribution of literature.
Such literary interests as obtained in Germany during the
fourteenth century, outside of those of the monasteries already
referred to, centred nevertheless about the universities. The oldest of
these universities was that of Prague, which was founded in 1347,
more than a century later than the foundations of Paris and Bologna.
The regulations of the University recognised the existence of scribes,
illuminators, correctors, binders, dealers in parchment, etc., all of
which trades were placed under the direct control of the university
authorities.
Hauslik speaks of the book-trade in the fourteenth century as
being associated with the work of the library of the university, and
refers to licensed scribes and illuminators, who were authorised to
make transcripts, for the use of the members of the university, of the
texts contained in the library.[377]
If we may understand from this reference that the university
authorities had had prepared for the library authenticated copies of
the texts of the works required in the university courses, and that the
transcribing of these texts was carried on under the direct
supervision of the librarians, Prague appears to have possessed a
better system for the preparation of its official texts than we have
record of in either Bologna or Paris. Hauslik goes on to say that the
entire book-trade of the city was placed under the supervision of the
library authorities, which authorities undertook to guarantee the
completeness and the correctness of all transcripts made from the
texts in the library. Kirchhoff presents in support of this theory
examples of one or two manuscripts, which contain, in addition to the
inscription of the name of the scribe or dealer by whom it had been
prepared, the record of the corrector appointed by the library to
certify to the correctness of the text.[378]
The second German university in point of date was that of Vienna,
founded in 1365, and, in connection with the work of this university
the manuscript-trade in Germany took its most important
development. There is record in Vienna of the existence of stationarii
who carried on, under the usual university supervision, the trade of
hiring out pecias, but this was evidently a much less important
function than in Bologna.
The buying and selling of books in Vienna was kept under very
close university supervision, and without the authority of the rector or
of the bedels appointed by him for the purpose, no book could be
purchased from either a magister or a student, or could be accepted
on pledge.
The books which had been left by deceased members of the
university were considered to be the property of the university
authorities, and could be sold only under their express directions.
The commission allowed by the authorities for the sale of books was
limited to 2½ per cent., and before any books could be transferred at
private sale, they must be offered at public sale in the auditorium.
The purpose of this regulation was apparently here as in Paris not
only to insure securing for the books sold the highest market prices,
but also to give some protection against the possibility of books
being sold by those to whom they did not belong.
The regulation of the details of the book business appears to have
fallen gradually into the hands of the bedels of the Faculty, and the
details of the supervision exercised approach more nearly to the
Italian than to the Parisian model.
The third German university was that of Heidelberg, founded in
1386. Here the regulations concerning the book-trade were
substantially modelled upon those of Paris. The scribes and the
dealers in manuscripts belonged to the privileged members of the
university. The provisions in the foundation or charter of the
university, which provided for the manuscript-trade, make express
reference to the precedents of the University of Paris.
By the middle of the fifteenth century, there appears to have been
a considerable trade in manuscripts in Heidelberg and in places
dependent upon Heidelberg. In the library of the University of
Erlangen, there exists to-day a considerable collection of
manuscripts formerly belonging to the monastery of Heilsbronn,
which manuscripts were prepared in Heidelberg between 1450 and
1460. The series includes a long list of classics, indicating a larger
classical interest in Heidelberg than was to be noted at the time in
either Prague or Vienna.[379]
The University of Cologne, founded a few years later, became the
centre of theological scholarship in Germany, and the German
manuscripts of the early part of the fifteenth century which have
remained in existence and which have to do with theological subjects
were very largely produced in Cologne. A number of examples of
these have been preserved in the library of Erfurt.
One reason for the smaller importance in Germany of the
stationarius was the practice that obtained on the part of the
instructors of lecturing or of reading from texts for dictation, the
transcripts being made by the students themselves. The authority or
permission to read for dictation was made a matter of special
university regulation. The regulation provided what works could be
so utilised, and the guarantee as to the correctness of the texts to be
used could either be given by a member of the faculty of the
university itself or was accepted with the certified signature of an
instructor of a well known foreign university, such as Paris, Bologna,
or Oxford.
By means of this system of dictation, the production of
manuscripts was made much less costly than through the work of
the stationarii, and the dictation system was probably an important
reason why the manuscript-trade in the German university cities
never became so important as in Paris or London.
It is contended by the German writers that, notwithstanding the
inconsiderable trade in manuscripts, there was a general knowledge
of the subject-matter of the literature pursued in the university, no
less well founded or extended among the German cities than among
those of France or Italy. This familiarity with the university literature is
explained by the fact that the students had, through writing at
dictation, so largely possessed themselves of the substance of the
university lectures.
In the Faculty of Arts at Ingolstadt, it was ordered, in 1420, that
there should be not less than one text-book (that is to say, one copy
of the text-book) for every three scholars in baccalaureate. This
regulation is an indication of the scarcity of text-books.
The fact that the industry in loaning manuscripts to students was
not well developed in the German universities delayed somewhat the
organisation of the book-trade in the university towns. Nevertheless,
Richard de Bury names Germany among the countries where books
could be purchased, and Gerhard Groote speaks of purchasing
books in Frankfort. This city became, in fact, important in the trade of
manuscripts for nearly a century before the beginning of German
printing.[380]
Æneas Silvius says in the preface of his Europa, written in 1458,
that a librarius teutonicus had written to him shortly before, asking
him to prepare a continuation of the book “Augustalis.”[381] This
publishing suggestion was made eight years after the perfection of
Gutenberg’s printing-press, but probably without any knowledge on
the part of the librarius of the new method for the production of
books.
In Germany there was, during the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries, outside of the ecclesiastics, very little demand for reading
matter. The women had their psalters, which had, as a rule, been
written out in the monasteries. As there came to be a wider demand
for books of worship, this was provided for, at least in the regions of
the lower Rhine, by the scribes among the Brothers of Common Life.
The Brothers took care also of the production of a large proportion of
the school-books required.
During the fourteenth century and the first half of the fifteenth, the
Brothers took an active part in the production and distribution of
manuscripts. Their work was distinct in various respects from that
which was carried on in monastery or in university towns, but
particularly in this that their books were, for the most part, produced
in the tongue of the common folk, and their service as instructors
and booksellers was probably one of the most important influences
in helping to educate the lower classes of North Germany to read
and to think for themselves. They thus prepared the way for the work
of Luther and Melanchthon.
As has been noted in another chapter, the activity of the Brothers
in the distribution of literature did not cease when books in
manuscripts were replaced by the productions of the printing-press.
They made immediate use of the invention of Gutenberg, and in
many parts of Germany, the first printed books that were brought
before the people came from the printing-presses of the Brothers.
Some general system of public schools seems to have taken
shape in the larger cities at least of North Germany as early as the
first half of the thirteenth century. The teachers in these schools
themselves added to their work and to their earnings by transcribing
text-books and sometimes works of worship. Later, there came to be
some extended interest in certain classes of literature among a few
of the princes and noblemen, but this appears to have been much
less the case in Germany than in Italy or even than in France. In the
castles or palaces where there was a chaplain, the chaplain took
upon himself the work of a scribe, caring not only for the
correspondence of his patron, but occasionally also preparing
manuscripts for the library, so called, of the castle. There is also
record of certain stadtschreiber, or public scribes, licensed as such
in the cities of North Germany, and in some cases the post was held
by the instructors of the schools.
Ulrich Friese, a citizen of Augsburg, writing in the latter half of the
fourteenth century, speaks of attending the Nordlingen Fair with
parchment and books. Nordlingen Church was, it appears, used for
the purpose of this fair, and in Lübeck, in the Church of S. Mary,
booths were opened in which, together with devotional books,
school-books and writing materials were offered for sale.
In Hamburg also, the courts in the immediate neighbourhood of
the churches were the places selected by the earlier booksellers and
manuscript-dealers for their trade. In Metz, a book-shop stood
immediately in front of the cathedral, and in Vienna, the first book-
shop was placed in the court adjoining the cathedral of S. Stephen.
Nicolaus, who was possibly the earliest bookseller in Erfurt, had his
shop, in 1460, in the court of the Church of the Blessed Virgin.
From a school regulation of Bautzen, written in 1418, it appears
that the children were instructed to purchase their school-books from
the master at the prices fixed in the official schedule.[382] A certain
schoolmaster in Hagenau, whose work was carried on between 1443
and 1450, has placed his signature upon a considerable series of
manuscripts, which he claims to have prepared with his own hands,
and which were described in Wilken’s History of the library in
Heidelberg. His name was Diebold Läber, or, as he sometimes wrote
it, Lauber, and he describes himself as a writer, schreiber, in the
town of Hagenau. This inscription appears in so many manuscripts
that have been preserved, that some doubt has been raised as to
whether they could be all the work of one hand, or whether Lauber’s
name (imprint, so to speak) may not have been utilised by other
scribes possibly working in association with him.[383]
Lauber speaks of having received from Duke Ruprecht an order
for seven books, and as having arranged to have the manuscripts
painted (decorated or illuminated) by some other hand. Lauber is
recorded as having been first a school-teacher and an instructor in
writing, later a scribe, producing for sale copies of standard texts,
and finally a publisher, employing scribes, simply certifying with his
own signature to the correctness of the work of his subordinates.
There is every indication that he had actually succeeded in
organising in Hagenau, as early as 1443, an active business in the
production and distribution of manuscripts. The books produced by
him were addressed more generally to the popular taste than was
the case with the productions of the monastery scribes.
In part, possibly, as a result of this early activity in the production
of books, one of the first printing-presses in Germany, outside of that
of Gutenberg in Mayence, was instituted in Hagenau, and its work
appears to have been in direct succession to that of the public writer
Lauber.
The relations between Hagenau and Heidelberg were intimate,
and the scholarly service of the members of the university was
utilised by the Hagenau publishers. The book-trade of Hagenau also
appears to have been increased in connection with the development
of intellectual activity given by the Councils of Constance and Basel.
In regard to the latter Council, Kirchhoff quotes Denis as having said:
Quod concilium, qui scholam librariorum dixerit haud errabit.[384]
Either as a cause or as an effect of the activity of the book
production in Hagenau, the Hagenau schools for scribes during the
first half of the fifteenth century became famous.[385] The work of
producing manuscripts appears to have been divided, according to
the manufacturing system; one scribe prepared the text, a second
collated the same with the original, a third painted in the rubricated
initials, and a fourth designed the painted head-pieces to the pages,
while a fifth prepared the ornamented covers. It occasionally
happened, however, that one scribe was himself able to carry on
each division of the work of the production of an illuminated
manuscript.
Hagen quotes some lines of a Hagenau manuscript, as follows:
Dis buch vollenbracht vas,

In der zit, also man schreip vnd las,
Tusent vnd vyer hundert jar.
Nach Christus gebort daz ist war,
Dar nach jn dem eyn vnd siebentzigsten jar,
Vff sant Pauly bekarung, daz ist ware,
Von Hans Dirmsteyn, wist vor war,
Der hait es geschreben vnd gemacht,
Gemalt, gebunden, vnd gantz follenbracht.[386]
Hagenau was one of the few places of book production (excepting

the workshops of the Brothers of Common Life) in which, during the
manuscript period, books were prepared to meet the requirements of
the common folk. The literature proceeding from Hagenau included
not only “good Latin books,” that is to say, copies of the accepted
classics as used in Heidelberg and elsewhere, but also copies of the
famous Epics of the Middle Ages, the Sagas, Folk Songs, Chap-
Books, copies of the Golden Bull, Bible stories, books of worship,
books of popular music, books of prophecy, and books for the telling
of fortunes, etc.[387]
Throughout both Germany and the Low Countries, it was the case
that, during the manuscript period, the work of the school teachers
was closely connected with the work of the producers and sellers of
manuscripts, and the teachers not infrequently themselves built up a
manuscript business. The school ordinance of the town of Bautzen,
dating from the year 1418, prescribed, for example, the prices which
the scholars were to pay to the locatus (who was the fifth teacher in
rank in the institution) for the school-books, the responsibility for
preparing which rested upon him.
A history of the Printers’ Society of Dresden, printed in 1740, gives
examples of some of these prices:
For one A. B. C. and a paternoster, each one groschen.
For a Corde Benedicite, one groschen.
For a good Donat, ten groschens.
For a Regulam Moralem et Catonem, eight groschens.
For a complete Doctrinal, a half mark.
For a Primam Partem, eight groschens.
In case no books are purchased from the locatus, there shall be

paid to him by each scholar, if the scholar be rich, two groschens, if
he be in moderate circumstances, one groschen, and if the scholar
be poor, he shall be exempt from payment.[388]
A certain Hugo from Trimberg, who died about 1309, is referred to
by Jaeck as having been a teacher for forty years, at the end of
which term he gave up the work of teaching with the expectation of
being able to make a living out of his collection of books. The
collection comprised two hundred volumes, of which twelve are
specified as being original works, presumably the production of
Trimberg himself. Jaeck does not tell us whether or not the good
schoolmaster was able to earn enough from the manifolding or from
the sale of his books to secure a living in his last years.[389]
Kirchhoff refers to the importance of the fairs and annual markets
for the manuscript trade. It is evident that, in the absence of any
bookselling machinery, it was of first importance for the producers of
copies of such texts as might be within their reach, to come into
relations with each other in order to bring about the exchange of their
surplus copies.
There is record of the sale and exchange of manuscripts, during
the first half of the fifteenth century, at the Fairs of Salzburg, Ulm,
Nordlingen, and Frankfort. It was in fact from its trade in manuscripts
that Frankfort, by natural development, became and for many years
remained the centre of the trade in printed books.[390] Ruland
speaks of one of the most important items of the manuscript-trade at
the Frankfort Fair between 1445 and 1450, being that of fortune-
telling books and illustrated chap-books.
It appears also from the Fair records that in Germany, as in Italy,
the dealers in parchment and paper were among the first to
associate with their goods the sale of manuscripts. In 1470, occurs
the earliest record of sales being made at the fair in Nordlingen of
printed books.[391] The earliest date at which the sale of printed
books at the fair at Frankfort was chronicled was 1480. In 1485, the
printer Peter Schöffer was admitted as a citizen in Frankfort.
While Kirchhoff maintains that the distribution of books in
manuscript was more extensive in Germany than in either France or
Italy, and emphasises particularly the fact that there was among
circles throughout Germany a keener interest in literature than
obtained with either the French or the Italians, he admits that the
record of noteworthy booksellers in Germany, during the manuscript
period, is, as compared with that of France and Italy, inconsiderable.
In Cologne, he finds, as early as 1389, through an inscription in a
manuscript that has been preserved, the name of Horstan de
Ledderdam, who called himself not a librarius, but a libemarius. The
manuscript that bears this record is a treatise by Porphyry on
Aristotle.
In Nordlingen, the tax list of 1407 gives the name of Joh. Minner,
recorded as a scriptor. There is an entry of a sale made by Minner to
the Burgermeister Protzen of a German translation of the Decretals.
The tax list of 1415 gives the name of Conrad Horn, described as a
stadtschreiber. Horn seems to have carried on an extensive
business in the production and the exchange of manuscripts.
Kirchhoff quotes a contract entered into by him in 1427 with a certain
Prochsil of Eystet for the purchase of a buch, the title of which is not
given, for the sum of forty-three Rhenish gulden.
The name of Diebold Lauber has already been mentioned. His
inscription appears on a number of manuscripts that have been
preserved principally through the Heidelberg University. On the first
sheet of a Legend of the Three Holy Kings from this library, is written
the following notice, which can be considered as a general
advertisement:

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Additive Manufacturing –

Developments in Training and

Additive Manufacturing, Second Edition Amit

Additive Manufacturing of Emerging Materials Bandar

Additive Manufacturing-Fundamentals and Advancements

Industrializing Additive Manufacturing Proceedings of

Handbook of Sustainability in Additive Manufacturing

Handbook of Sustainability in Additive Manufacturing

ASM Handbook Volume 24 Additive Manufacturing Processes

Laser Additive Manufacturing. Materials, Design,

ISBN 978-3-319-76083-4 ISBN 978-3-319-76084-1 (eBook)

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019

Printed on acid-free paper

Brussels, Belgium Marianne Thyssen

Geelong, Australia Ian Gibson

Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a rapidly developing technology and having

London, UK Eujin Pei

the Impact of Additive Manufacturing Technologies?” is a refreshing look at an

Knowledge Transfer and Standards Needs in Additive

The Machine Tool Industry’s Changing Skills Needs: What is the

Dr. Eujin Pei is the Director for the Product Design

Mario Monzón Professor of manufacturing processes

Prof. Alain Bernard 58, graduated in 82, Ph.D. in 89,

Mario Monzón, Rubén Paz, Zaida Ortega and Noelia Diaz

Although Additive Manufacturing (AM) technologies have high potential in terms

M. Monzón (B) · R. Paz

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 1

2 Standardization Needs in Additive Manufacturing

Standards are technical documents that define requirements, specifications or guide-

Table 1 List of approved standards until 2017

3 Training Needs and Knowledge Transfer in Additive

In the context of education, in the field of manufacturing processes, the topic of

Fig. 1 Distribution of received filled questionnaires by sector

Fig. 2 Knowledge of main AM technologies by size of company

Fig. 3 Availability and outsourcing of AM technologies

Fig. 4 Training profiles requested

Fig. 5 Aspects to be improved by AM training

4 How Standards Can Support Knowledge Transfer for

Fig. 7 How standards in AM can support knowledge transfer

Training for Additive manufacturing is according to several research agendas and

ASTM F42. Resource document. https://www.astm.org/COMMIT/SUBCOMMIT/F42.htm.

Mario Monzón Professor of manufacturing processes at University of Las Palmas de Gran

Explicit au mois d’avril,

Dis buch vollenbracht vas,

Hagenau was one of the few places of book production (excepting

In case no books are purchased from the locatus, there shall be

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