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Animation
to Production

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A FOCAL PRESS BOOK
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Acknowledgments
Prof. Alan Chan, Dean, College of Humanities,
Arts and Social Sciences (HASS), Nanyang
Technological University Singapore.
Prof. Vibeke Sorensen, Chair, School of Art,
Design and Media (ADM), Nanyang Techno-
logical University Singapore,
For their continuous support and encourage-
ment.
Hans Bacher and Ishu Patel, for many years of
inspiration, collaboration and friendship.
Thomas Silbereis, for designing the wonder-
ful original layout for this book.
All the BFA Digital Animation students at the
School of Art, Design and Media at Nanyang
Technological University Singapore, who
keep amazing me since I started teaching
there in 2005.
3
 Introduction
Animation is a fascinating art form. Unlike
any other medium, it allows filmmakers to
have complete artistic control over each im-
age. This book is designed to help beginners
in getting started, and to provide those with
advanced skills and “old hands” with new and
surprising insights.
In order to best achieve this, the focus of this
volume has been clearly defined: It is about
the animator in the role of filmmaker - that is,
the methodology of using artistic concepts to
implement content-specific objectives. With
regard to its content, the book follows rough-
ly the general production process of an ani-
mation film and later explores the individual
major production techniques and animation
styles.

Some may rightly argue that job descrip-

tions for those who just completed training
in the field of animation, particularly coming
from major studios, are characterized by ex-
treme specialization requirements to indi-
vidual areas. However, I am convinced that
knowledge of the larger context is helpful, if
not indispensable, for seasoned filmmakers
seeking specialization as well. A character
animator, for example, must understand the
principles of film editing in order to provide
continuity between scenes.
In addition, most animation study programs
worldwide include the production of an an-
imated short film as a major part of the final
exam. For the artistic quality, it is essential
to understand how to utilize one’s creative
resources for the optimal communication of
content, whether they be linear/narrative or
abstract/experimental in nature.
A comprehensive book about animation on

4

only 300 pages also requires that it be limited
to the major points. Nevertheless, I hope that
we have succeeded in bringing transparency
to complex correlations, while still providing
detailed and practical information.
This book is not a software manual, and for
good reason. For one thing, it would go be-
yond the realm of possibility, and secondly,
software in the field of animation is chang-
ing too quickly and cannot be reflected
adequately in just one book. I believe that
understanding the basic design concepts is
much more important than the knowledge
of purely technological details. Other media
are much better suited for teaching this kind
of information, and our work gives relevant
pointers by naming and describing the cur-
rently most important programs for every
technique.
The main focus, however, is clearly on artistic
themes, which will continue to be relevant
for years to come. I am pleased and proud to
be able to feature excellent contributors for
special topics: Guest author Kathrin Albers is
a renowned and award-winning animation
filmmaker and stop-motion expert as well
as Assistant Professor at the School of Art,
Design and Media at Nanyang Technological
University in Singapore. I also wish to thank
Melanie Beisswenger for her chapter. She is a
professor for 3D computer animation at the
University of Applied Sciences, Mainz.
My book designer Thomas Silbereis and I
have placed great emphasis on the optimal
combination of text and image, an essential
approach for this topic. Numerous illustra-
Introduction
Hannes Rall
tions, which I designed specifically for the
book, are complemented with relevant ex-
amples from the work of other animators.
Therefore, thanks also to the numerous ani-
mation film makers, studios and animation
students, who have made pictures of their
work available to us.
The high-profile interviewees, who include
Annie Award Winner Hans Bacher, star ani-
mator Andreas Deja and Oscar Award Winner
VFX Volker Engel virtually represent a trium-
virate of the German animation film. Then
there is the internationally renowned com-
puter animation expert Isaac Kerlow, who
provides some thoughts about the future of
the medium.
I sincerely hope that this book will enthuse
and inspire many aspiring and established
animators to implement, expand, and even
challenge the methods shown. Because an-
imation, like almost no other medium, de-
pends on the continuous progression and re-
invention: We are just at the beginning of an
exciting development. To use the words of a
famous spacefaring colleague: “To infinity and
beyond.“ Or something like that.
Stuttgart, December 2014
Hannes Rall
5
 Guest authors
Prof. Melanie
Beisswenger teaches
computer animation
at the University of
Applied Sciences Mainz
and works also as a free-
lance 3D character an-
imator, supervisor and
director. She has been
involved in a variety of
Melanie Beisswenger international animation
and VFX films, including
the Academy Award winner "Happy Feet" and its
sequel "Happy Feet 2", the TV clip for the BioShock
game as well as "Iron Man 3" (Oscar nomination
for the category "Best Visual Effects"), “Riddick",
"The 7th Dwarf" and "Sapphire Blue", where she
was the lead animator for the digital character.
Her animated short film "There's Bliss in the Kiss"
has won many international awards.

Kathrin Albers has

worked as a stop-motion
filmmaker for over 13
years and has produced
many short films, trailers,
spots and music videos
under the label Stoptrick.
Since 2012, she has been
working as Assistant
Professor for Digital An-
Kathrin Albers imation at the Nanyang
Technological University
in Singapore.

Technical terms that are not explained in the text and are highlighted
as follows– example term – (in the respective chapter color), are
explained in the glossary.

6
 Guest authors/Overview

Overview
4 Introduction Hannes Rall
6 Guest authors
7 Overview

Pre-Production

8 1.1) Script and Storyboarding

50 1.2) Figure Drawing for Storyboard and Animation
76 1.3) Character Design – Virtual Casting Couch for Animated Film Stars
108 1.4) What is Production Design for Animation?
Expert Interview:
134 "I basically treat every design like a stage in the theater."
Hans Bacher, animation production designer

Production (in various techniques)

144 2.1) The Principles of Animation and their Application

212 2.2) Traditional 2D Animation
Expert Interview:
236 “That scene and that character - that's me!"
Andreas Deja, 2D character animator
254 2.3) Stop Motion
Guest author: Kathrin Albers, award-winning independent animation
filmmaker, Hamburg
276 2.4) Insight into 3D Computer Animation
Guest author: Melanie Beisswenger, Professor of 3D computer animation
Expert Interview:
300 "For me, animation is the ultimate fundamental training for
the elementary understanding of motion.”
Volker Engel, Academy Award Winner VFX
Expert Interview:
312 “There will be new ways to make things happen."
Isaac Kerlow, expert in 3D computer animation

Appendices

320 Glossary
328 Bibliography/Picture Credits
334 Recommendations for additional reading
339 Extra: Future Animation Projects by Hannes Rall

7
Chapter 1.1

Script and Storyboarding

The script, the idea and the story for an animated
film are almost always developed with a storyboard.
The storyboard forms the framework, the basis for
a successfully animated film. It is all about visual
storytelling: communicating a story through the
sequence of images.

The topic of developing and writing a story
for animation film is so broad and complex
that it would require a book of its own and
cannot be covered in its entirety here. There-
fore, we have provided a list of recommended
readings in the appendix.
Nevertheless, I want to share some important
thoughts and principles: Assuming that this
is an in-house development, it usually starts
with an idea, the beginning or end of a sto-
ry - maybe just an image, a visual or narrative
situation. Now, before proceeding with the
actual writing, it is important to have a clear
idea on a few things:
and form of writing largely depend on it. Like-
wise, let us never forget that movies are not
primarily made for oneself, but for an audi-
ence. (Exceptions prove the rule.)
Therefore, my story has to communicate
something, that is, it has to be comprehensi-
ble (more on this later).
The majority of this book’s readers will de-
velop short formats, i.e. animated short films,
whether in a degree program, as an indepen-
dent animation filmmaker or for a commis-
sioned work. An animated short film should
meet certain criteria:

Which format? (short film, feature film, TV
series)
Which narrative format? (Linear narrative
or experimental)
Which target group? (For whom do I
write/develop the story - who is the audi-
ence?)
What do I want to communicate? (Do I
want to thrill my audience with enter-
tainment or unsettle them with experi-
ments?)
Of course, the idea or content also deter-
mines or leads to the format. Deciding on a
final format is very important, since the style
The story must be visually attractive: many
outstanding animation short films are
based on a basic concept that is relatively
simple, but visually concise.
Why as animation film? Or: What makes
my story more special when it is told as an
animation film? In other words: Tell a story
in such a way, that it can only be told effec-
tively as an animation film.
Clear and simple: A short film of 2 to 10
minutes in length does not allow for a
complex introduction of characters or an
overload with too many narrative threads
and/or characters.

8

There is this widespread misconception - par-
ticularly among beginners - that complexity
equals quality, when the opposite is actually
the case!
Telling a simple story in a comprehensible
manner is often most difficult. You can cer-
tainly compare this to a well-prepared dish.
More ingredients don’t improve the recipe; it
is all about the correct balance of a few, but
properly selected ingredients!
As with anything, there are exceptions here
as well, but as a rule, such films are made by
professionals with years of experience in visu-
al storytelling.
I think it is important that you first learn to
master the smaller and simpler structure by
applying the proper rules, before being able
to modify or break those rules.
Some examples of well-designed animation
shorts with a relatively clear and simple struc-
ture are:
Michael Dudok de Wit: “Le Moine et le
Poisson” (1994)
A monk chasing a fish (with the chase be-
coming increasingly surreal).
Mark Baker: “The Hill Farm” (1989)
A day on a farm: When visitors from the
city disrupt the everyday life on an English
Script and Storyboarding
farm, it is marked with bizarre events. Cy-
clical narrative structure, which returns to
the starting point of the narrative.
Cordell Baker: "The Cat Came Back" (1988)
You cannot kill a cat, and an attempt to do
so will only make things worse. The story is
resolved in a very striking visual gag - very
specific to animation film!
Christoph und Wolfgang Lauenstein:
"Balance" (1989)
A downright exemplary idea for animation
film: Five characters must keep a free-float-
ing platform in constant balance to keep
from falling. A visually very striking idea,
and very well suited as an allegory!
Analyzing well animated commercials can be
very helpful as well: It is amazing how well
you can tell a story in 30 or 60 seconds, if you
stick to the right narrative economy.
A story for animation film, particularly for the
short form, is rarely developed as a classic
script, but often comes about exclusively as
a storyboard:
9
Chapter 1.1

Storyboard - the Blueprint for Animated Films

What is a storyboard?
A storyboard is often de-
scribed as the "comic strip
version" of the script - this
works for a quick descriptive
explanation, but it is actually
not quite accurate:

A storyboard translates the

1he -h'aM:inoV)
description of the script into
tfOIY1 i-l-J~io-fhe
images and defines "visual nex+ ~),at appear~
storytelling". ~raphicJ 11~ e~san+1
In doing so, each shot is rep- &inCe, it-~~ !:t).(l?ol on
fhe pY!'noiple o{ -He
resented by at least one im- invtr.redla~onal .
age. Long or complex shots
can be illustrated with multi-
ple images.

10
Script and Storyboarding

COMIC STRIP

Comparison of Story-
boards and Comic Strips
by Hannes Rall

11
Chapter 1.1

This storyboard illustrates a

tracking shot, combined with
zooms for a continuous shot.
It is important to understand
that although the storyboard
format can change in size, it
never changes the relative
aspect ratio.
When projected as a movie
or video, everything is shown
in the same size! (illustrations
right)

12
 Script and Storyboarding

TV

Formats for storyboard

While a comic strip can stand
alone and already represents
the final “product”, a story-
board is a planning tool for
MOVIE the film to be produced. It
must therefore take into ac-
count the requirements of

"\.~~ : /1 /\. ss ; ..-1 the film format. This includes,

for example, the constant
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13
Chapter 1.1

Split Screen Apart from exceptions, such Choosing a format

A "split screen" is an addi-
tional segmentation of the
actual image format into
additional windows: several
formats within a format. This
variation, which is not unlike
a comic strip, is often used to
show concurrence of actions.
Examples can be found in
the TV series "24" or the
motion picture film "Hulk" by
Ang Lee: Here, the stylistic
element was deliberately
used to create a "comic-strip-
like" appearance.
as split screen and various
multi-media formats, once
you have selected a format, it
is used throughout the entire
production: The drawings for
the storyboard must be drawn
in an appropriate format using
a frame - the composition must
work within this frame, since ev-
erything that is outside of it will
not be visible later and becomes
irrelevant. A common mistake
for beginners is to neglect this
simple rule and draw the indi-
vidual storyboards randomly in
various formats, something that
does not work for filmmaking.
Choosing the “correct” type of
movie or TV screen format de-
pends on several factors. The
decision can either be moti-
vated artistically or financially,
or include technical produc-
tion considerations. The key is
to decide on the format at the
beginning of the production
and to stick with it throughout
the entire process.

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14
 Script and Storyboarding

Cut-Off Area – the “Safety Clearance“ in Movie and Television Formats

Due to the so-called projection cut-off area
for film projectors as well as different screen
dimensions and standards for TV formats, it is
important to take into account a certain "safe-
ty clearance" when configuring film images:
important image elements or components of
titles should not be positioned outside this “ti-
tle safe area". This does not necessarily have to
be observed precisely in the storyboard, if the
positions of the image elements are exactly
defined in a layout stage later. However, the
storyboard illustrator can take into account
the important image elements such as heads,
etc., making sure that they are not placed at
the extreme edge of the format. If the sole
purpose of the storyboard is to develop the
story, then such technical factors can be com-
pletely ignored. If, however, the storyboard is
adopted almost unchanged as a layout, or if
individual storyboard drawings are adopted
as key frames, then it is safer to consider the
respective cut-off areas from the beginning.

fA}(TIGULA(tl.Y IHPOltiANT 'FOJ( lmES To MAKe

~vt<E l"t{AT 11t€'f Af1.£ NO\ kc;ar Off"~~

These two drawings show,

where important image
information for 2.35 : 1 (Cine-
maScope) and wide-screen TV
(16 : 9) should be and where
they should not be.
\1--<fORT?\Nr €L6H6~ OfT-He
\MAG6 ~(jJLD Nar ~E flAC6t>
OUT~ ll::E-rt-.\1-S RANGE.
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P~Aca:> FA~cF
WIT~lNo TNE lt-tA(d::. t"t\JS'~
&E PLAceD
lNSits '·

15
Chapter 1.1
A storyboard translates or develops the story
for an animated film into the drawn version of
the individual shots: It is about visual narra-
tion, visual storytelling. Here is an example of
There is hardly a change in the camera’s angle:
Although the camera changes between long, medium
and close-up shots, it always remains roughly at eye level
to the viewer and never “tilts” in perspective. The lighting
of the scene is also very uniform and lacks dramatic
accents. Since the stylistic means create an emotionally
neutral effect, it leaves the viewer with a documenta-
ry-style impression.
16
how choosing different camera angles for the
individual shots can create an entirely differ-
ent impression of the same story.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Quite differently here:
Dramatic/extreme lighting (e.g. the classic “horror
under-lighting") and highly varied camera angles
(from above/below) are used: this creates the im-
pression of threat (down-shot [1]), suspense (silhou-
ette, lighting [3]) and shock/horror (under-lighting,
up-shot [4]).
 Script and Storyboarding

Assignment:
Create two versions of an identical or similar story, for example a com-
edy and a horror version. Use the above-mentioned stylistic means
such as camera angles, shot sizes and lighting/light and shadow.
An example for such a story might be:
A man/woman walking with a dog. The man/woman throwing a ball
and the dog returning it (or something else?).

You can also experiment by changing place and time: City or nature?
Night or day?

But start with those versions, which are set in a similar environment
and time, and only later try out bolder variations: In this way it
becomes clear, how much you can greatly change the effect of visual
storytelling with only limited resources!

Why a Storyboard?

For live-action film, shots are usually repeat-
ed and sometimes covered with multiple
cameras or camera angles. During the editing
process, the director can then select the de-
sired versions and continuity from a surplus
of footage. For animation film, the process is
very different: The elaborate frame-by-frame
production process generally does not allow
for the repeated production of scenes for cost
reasons alone. Therefore, the film has to be
planned visually exact in advance, in order
not to lose time and money during the ac-
tual production process. It is equally import-
ant that an animation film be edited at least
approximately when still in the storyboard
format. Continuity and transitions between
individual scenes can already be defined in
the storyboard.
Last but not least, the storyboard is often the
crucial communication tool between film
producers/authors and potential investors, on
the basis of which the approval of financing is
decided: A script alone is not sufficient to ap-
ply for granting subsidies for animation films,
the same applies to private and commercial
investors. The storyboard is a relatively inex-
pensive way to present the visual implemen-
tation of the story the most precise way.

17
Chapter 1.1
Because of this precise planning method, the
storyboard has also been used in live-action
filmmaking since the 40s and 50s, mainly for
visually elaborate productions and those as-
sociated with special effects. The use of sto-
ryboards is now standard in complex feature
film productions, but it is also being widely
replaced by so-called previsualization (short:
previz) when it comes to the planning of
elaborate effects sequences or hybrid forms
of CG animation and live-action film.
An animated TV series such as "Star Wars: The
Clone Wars" (Filoni, 2008-2014) is now exclu-
sively developed using previz - storyboards
are no longer used. Newer CG animations, on
18
the other hand, like Pixar's "Brave" (Andrews,
Chapman, 2012) still use storyboards: This is
probably due to the fact that drawings have
an original expressive power that can present
the charm of a story in a much more attrac-
tive manner.
Historically, the storyboard has been a medi-
um that was first invented and used for ani-
mated film and later was used increasingly for
live-action film as well. The name comes from
the original form, where many small draw-
ings in the format of the film are pinned to a
board with needles.
The drawings represented the various shots
of the film and enabled the production staff

to examine and exchange them, or to replace
them quickly with new versions. This allowed
for a constant evolution of the story process,
in which the story was continuously evolving
until, ultimately, a final version of the story in
drawn form had emerged.
The Oscar-winning CG animation feature film
"Rango" (Industrial Light and Magic, 2011)
was first developed fully as a storyboard to-
gether with director Gore Verbinski. Even
composition and camera angles were rough-
ly defined in the storyboard. However, both
were greatly modified and improved in the
subsequent stage of the 3D layout.
Script and Storyboarding
Example:
Excerpts from the previz version of the student
film "Daisy" by Renald Taurusdi and Michael King
Sutanto, School of Art, Design and Media, Nanyang
Technological University Singapore, 2010.
Animatic: Filmed version of a storyboard, which
frequently already includes key frames, gener-
ally highlighted with provisional sound as well.
The key is the ability to develop the timing of
the film.
Leica Reel: Animatic in feature film length. Ini-
tially consisting of only the storyboards, these
are replaced in the course of production by
layout images, animation tests, and lastly, the
final animation. A Leica reel allows everyone
involved in production to keep in mind the
structure of the overall film. An absolutely indis-
pensable planning tool.
Previz/3D layout: An animatic, which does not
use drawings, but very rough computer models
in a 3D environment. This is where in the work
process of computer animation, the positions
of the characters and shot angles are often fi-
nalized.
19
Chapter 1.1
Fundamentals of Cinematic Design
If you want to tell a linear story through film
that the audience can understand, it is nec-
essary to speak the same language the au-
dience understands: Since the introduction
of the film medium, certain conventions of
visual language have been established that
the audience can understand. By adhering to
these conventions with regard to shots and
editing, the audience can follow the action.
If these conventions are violated, the under-
standing of the events on the screen is made
difficult or impossible.
A classic example is the editing of shot and reverse shot.
20
It is an established cinematic convention that
the close-up of a face is followed by a shot
that shows what that person sees.
If you want to tell a traditionally structured
story, you will stick to these established rules
and expand/modify them in a playful manner.
There are, of course, numerous examples, es-
pecially from the recent past and postmod-
ernism, in which these rules were deliberate-
ly broken in order to achieve a certain effect.
Masters of cinematics are able to integrate this
in such a way that the story is still - or maybe
even better - understood. This works, because
the breaks with convention are used deliber-
ately to support a certain narrative statement.
For beginners, however, it is imperative to
first familiarize themselves with the estab-
lished rules of the film language before they
can begin to purposefully override them.
Starting out, it is difficult enough to combine
all the skills needed to draw an attractively
designed and narrated storyboard that is
clear and comprehensible. You can compare
this to a jazz musician, who must first mas-
ter all the scales before he can begin to im-
provise at all. If your work is about a purely
improvisational, i.e. experimental animation
film, which is not designed to tell a conven-
tionally structured and intelligible story,
then these rules can be ignored. However,
many experimental abstract animation films
by masters such as Oskar Fischinger ("Mo-
tion Painting No.1", 1947) or Michel Gagné
("Sensology", 2010) have a sequential graph-
ic structure - which can certainly be planned
in and with storyboards. Graphic contrasts
and tension and relief through rhythmic
 Script and Storyboarding

variations are used to structure a film in a

storyboard rather than classic rules of nar-
rative film language. Other experimental
animated artists are completely abandoning
storyboards for some of their films and are
improvising: One image follows another, ev-
erything in straight-ahead animation.

Composition

Storyboards are about the appealing and

functional arrangement of image elements
in a given format: That is why a good story-
boarder must master the basic rules of com-
position. Students starting out often forget
that drawing for storyboards is always about
the composition in a defined frame:

It is important to show exactly, what the viewer Important image elements are placed on "thirds". Contrast between
the diagonal lines and the vertical line of the right figure.
will later see on a movie or TV screen!

PERFECT SYMMETRY

Symmetry can
work very well!

COMPOSITION BASED ON “THIRDS"

Contrast between symmetry and irregular distribution of objects =

irritation, draws attention.

21
Chapter 1.1

If a strong base
composition forms the
basis, ...

... then the added visual

themes will work.

Even when detailed

texture(s) and color are
added (= higher demand
for realism). Color can
also support the com-
position.

22

It is important to understand that compo-
sition can not be regarded in isolation: The
idea is to choose the composition of a scene
so that it supports and highlights the appro-
priate content of the story. The design should
ultimately benefit visual storytelling. Form
follows function. If that is achieved, then this
alone will often result in a good composi-
tion, since it is based on a well thought-out
concept. Successful compositions are usually
based on an organized system for optimal
communication of the image content: Artis-
tic styling means and tools such as lighting,
Figure 1
Figure 2
Script and Storyboarding
line thickness, density of detail and scaling
are used to achieve this effect.
This can be seen in the following example:
In Figure1 , objects are placed in the fore-
ground as silhouettes, there is more detail
at the mid-ground, which decreases with in-
creasing distance. Likewise, the line thickness
is varied to emphasize the essentials (thick
lines) and to mark the less important "acces-
sories" (thin lines, gray/blue outlines in the
background).
In Figure2, none of these sty-
listic means are used; each
element is treated the same
way: There is no system, the
composition appears confus-
ing and not well organized
- and was therefore not suc-
cessful.
Additional note:
Of course, there may be ar-
tistic reasons to have a shot
appear "flat" and "one-di-
mensional", perhaps even
confusing - there are excep-
tions to the rule.
Always important:
The compositional imple-
mentation must meet the
artistic/content-related in-
tention!
23
Chapter 1.1

Composition for the Purpose of Visual Storytelling

FRAMING

Image elements draw attention to the

central motif.

POSITIVE AGAINST NEGATIVE:

small positive figure against large nega-
tive surface; also works in reverse:

VARIED SPATIAL LAYOUT:

irregular distribution of parallel
curves + size contrast.

- BALANCE OF NEGATIVE SURFACES

- TRIANGLE AS COMPOSITIONAL
ELEMENT

VARIATION + CONTRAST OF BASIC SHAPES + SIZE DIFFERENCE:

central figure slightly offset against symmetry:
Contrast to diagonals.

24
 Script and Storyboarding

Drawing attention with fram-

ing and the use of vanishing
point perspective.

VERTICAL LINE/ CURVES

Repetition of shapes as
decorative elements.

Convex / Concave

Round / Rectangular

25
Chapter 1.1

Dynamic Composition

Animation film is not about static compo-
sitions: A composition can change within a
scene, be it through tracking shots or, in the
case of animation film, by metamorphoses.
Unlike, for example, in a comic, a character
moves through a scene, or the camera moves
horizontally, vertically, or zooms: Ideally,
there should always be a well-designed im-
age composition at any point within a scene.

Over time, the character moves through the scene,

while the camera moves at the same time: For each
resulting shot, there should be a perfect composition.
Animated film in particular, offers the possibility of
absolute control, since each frame is individually
generated. However, it should be mentioned that
this control is significantly easier with (digitally or
traditionally) drawn animated film than with 3D
computer animated film. This is because, as a rule,
virtual backgrounds are modeled in computer
animations in which the characters move - similar
to a live-action shoot. Changing these backgrounds
within a scene or adapting them is quite difficult, if
not impossible.
This "composition" shows how positions of
characters change within a single, unedited
shot, and how camera angle and image frame
adjust. It becomes apparent that the balance
between the dynamic image elements and
the background must be taken into account.
On the following page, the shot is shown in
three separate sequential storyboard draw-
ings. As you can see, such a complex and
dynamic shot requires multiple drawings in
order to illustrate it intelligibly.

26
 Script and Storyboarding

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27
 Chapter 1.1

Film Takes - How Do I Find the Right Shot?

A film usually consists of Cut and Editing The relationship between

single shots, which are con-
nected through film edit-
ing. It is the purpose of the
storyboard to break down
the described action of the
script (if available) into shots.
Choosing the right shots is
extremely important in or-
der to achieve the desired
emotional and narrative ef-
fect on the audience.
The most important basic
rule for film editing is: Cuts
must be motivated! Since
a cut means changing the
shot, then there must be a
reason why a new shot is se-
lected. As a rule, it is about
communicating informa-
tion relevant to the action:
A new place of action is
being introduced.
A detail is shown.
two people in a particular
environment is shown.
Time has passed.
These are just a few exam-
ples, but an edit should al-
ways be motivated by the
need for visual storytelling.
It is of vital importance to
preserve the narrative con-
tinuity in this process. For
example, in the storyboard,
the characters in the draw-
ings must always be recog-
nizable - otherwise the story
becomes unintelligible.

Break in continuity:
Different clothing of the
same character for implied si-
multaneity and for the same
environment leads to irrita-
tion (= perceived as an error
by the audience).

Or:
Used deliberately by the film-
maker in order to suggest a
"leap in time" in contrast to
visual conventions.

The traditionally “correct" version: Edit of

close-up to medium shot with change of
camera angle. Continuity through left-
right distribution and unchanged lighting/
colors completely appropriate. In this edit of a continuous movement
(= direct continuity) and an unchanged en-
vironment, the viewer perceives the change
in dress color as a continuity error.

28
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 works for, 422.

Violin sonata (evolution), 384;

(G. B. Vitali), 387;
(Biber), 391;
(Corelli), 397ff;
(Albinoni), 399;
(Vivaldi), 400;
(Veracini), 402;
(Tartini), 403;
(Leclair), 407;
(Rust), 416;
(Handel), 421;
(various types), 426f;
(Beethoven), 454ff;
(Schubert), 457;
(Schumann), 457f;
(Brahms), 459f;
(Franck), 461;
(Saint-Saëns, modern French), 462f;
(Grieg), 463;
(Strauss), 465f.
See also Violin solo, sonata for.

Violin technique, (development), 368ff, 373ff;

(18th cent.), 430f;
(Paganini), 438;
(Spohr), 441;
(Brahms-Joachim), 460.
See also Double-stopping; Bowing.

Violinists. See Virtuosi (violin).

Violoncello music, 590ff;

(Beethoven), 592ff;
(Schumann, Mendelssohn), 595f;
(Brahms), 596f;
 (Grieg), 597;
(modern), 597f.

Viotti, Giambattista, 402, 404f, 408, 410ff, 428, 430, 431, 433, 488.
Violin concertos, 411.

Virdung, S., 374.

Virginal, 4.

Virginal music, 18.

Virtuosi, (piano), 209, 284, 290;

(violin), 401f, 411, 417, 435ff, 444, 451f.

Virtuosity, 41, 43, 45, 298f.

Virtuoso effects (violin), 401, 448.

Virtuoso music, 165, 177, 276, 288ff, 297, 304, 310, 400, 436, 443,
466, 511.

Virtuoso style, 216, 405.

Vitali, Giovanni Battista, 387, 479.

Vitali, Tommaso Antonio, 383, 388.

Vivaldi, Antonio, 37, 95, 98, 399, 400, 413, 483f;

(influence on Bach), 69, 422.

Vocal music (as chamber music), 467;

(15th-16th cent.), 486ff.

Vocal polyphony, 9.

Vocal style, 12;

 (influence on instrumental), 9 (footnote);
(in violin music), 376;
(in instrumental music), 377, 378.

Vogler, Abbé, 191.

Volkmann, Robert (string quartet), 547.

Wachs, Paul, 342.

Wagenseil, G. C., 113, 117, 123f, 498.

Wagner, Richard, 132, 133, 251, 442, 459;

(transcription of Tannhäuser overture), 307.

Waldhorn. See Horn.

Walter, Jacob, 386, 422.

Wasielewski, G., 122 (footnote);

(cited), 406, 412, 413, 415, 446.
Variations on a Popular Romanza, (op. 28), 185.
Variations on a Theme in C major (op. 7), 185.
Variations (op. 40), 186.
Variations on a Bohemian Melody (op. 55), 186.
Piano sonata in C major (op. 42), 188.
Piano sonata in A-flat major, 188ff.
Piano sonata in D major, 189.
Invitation to the Dance, 190f.
Konzertstück in F minor, 191f.

Weber, Carl Maria von, 132, 183ff, 206, 208, 209, 267, 350, 367;
(Preciosa transcription), 296;
 (clarinet compositions), 602f.

Weiss, Amalie, 451.

Weiss, Franz, 510, footnote.

Weitzmann (cited), 137.

Well-Tempered Clavichord. See Bach.

‘We're a' noddin',’ 285.

Whole-tone scale, 355, 359f.

Wieck, Clara. See Clara Schumann.

Wieniawski, Henri, 447, 450.

Wihtol, Joseph, 334.

Wilhelmj, August, 443.

Wind instruments (in chamber music), 598ff;

(combinations of), 604.

Woldemar, 436.

Women violinists, 404.

Worms, 371.

Wranitzky, Anton, 419.

Wyzewa, 425.

Y
Ysäye, Eugène, 461.

Zacconi, Ludovico, 375.

Zanata, 391, 478.

Zinke. See Cornetto.

Zmeskall von Domanowecz, Nicolaus, 492, 518.

Zweelinck, 16, 21.

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