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Another Marx
 Also available from Bloomsbury

Aesthetic Marx, edited by Samir Gandesha and Johan Hartle

Capitalism: The Reemergence of a Historical Concept, edited by
Jürgen Kocka and Marcel van der Linden
Workers Unite! The International 150 Years Later, edited by
Marcello Musto
 To George and Ann,

for their warm hospitality,

unconditional help, boundless support,
and – most of all – infinite patience.
 Contents

List of Figures
Notice

Introduction
1. The Marx revival
2. New research paths
3. Chronology of Marx’s writings

Part 1 Intellectual Influences and Early Writings

1 Childhood, Youth and University Studies

1. The rabbi manqué
2. At school in Trier and studiosus juris in Bonn
3. Into the arms of the enemy
4. A young Hegelian in Berlin

2 The Encounter with Political Economy

1. Paris: Capital of the nineteenth century
2. Classics of political economy and alienated labour
3. Manuscripts and notebooks of excerpts: The papers of 1844
4. From critical philosophy to revolutionary praxis

Part 2 The Critique of Political Economy

3 Waiting for the Economic Crisis

1. Continuing the study of economics
2. In the solitude of exile
3. Research notes of 1850–1853
4. The trial of the communists and personal hardships
5. Articles on the crisis for the New-York Tribune

4 At the Time of the Grundrisse

 1. The financial crisis of 1857 and the date with the revolution
2. History and the social individual
3. Poverty in London
4. In search of a method
5. Writing the Grundrisse
6. Struggling against bourgeois society

5 The Polemic against Carl Vogt

1. Herr Vogt
2. Fighting misery and disease
3. In the meantime ‘Economics’ waits
4. Journalism and international politics

6 Capital: The Unfinished Critique

1. Critical analysis of theories of surplus-value
2. The writing of the three volumes
3. The completion of Volume I
4. In search of the definitive version

Part 3 Political Militancy

7 The Birth of the International Working Men’s Association

1. The right man in the right place
2. Organizational development and growth
3. The defeat of the mutualists

8 The Revolution in Paris

1. The struggle for liberation in Ireland
2. Opposition to the Franco-Prussian War
3. The Paris Commune takes power
4. The political turn of the London conference

9 The Conflict with Bakunin

1. The crisis of the International
2. Marx versus Bakunin
3. Two opposing conceptions of revolution
4. Socialism in Russia?

Bibliography
Index
 List of Figures

Karl Marx in London, April 1861. Photo by Culture Club/Getty

Images.

Karl Marx and his daughter Jenny in Margate, March 1866. Photo by
Universal History Archive/UIG via Getty Images.

Karl Marx and his daughter Jenny in London, 1869. World History
Archive/Alamy Stock Photo.
 Notice

Some of the chapters included in this volume are based, in whole or

in part, on articles published in scholarly journals and chapters in
books. However, they were initially conceived as components of a
larger work.
Chapter 2 is a thoroughly revised and extended version of ‘Marx
in Paris: Manuscripts and Notebooks of 1844’, Science & Society, vol.
73 (2009), n. 3, pp. 386–402.
Chapter 3 is a revised version of ‘The Formation of Marx’s
Critique of Political Economy: From the Studies of 1843 to the
Grundrisse’, Socialism and Democracy, vol. 24 (2010), n. 2, pp. 66–
100.
Chapter 4 is a revised and extended version of ‘Marx’s life at the
time of the Grundrisse. Biographical Notes on 1857–8’, in Marcello
Musto (ed.), Karl Marx’s Grundrisse: Foundations of the Critique of
Political Economy 150 Years Later, Routledge, 2008, pp. 147–61.
Chapter 6 is an extended version of ‘The Writing of Capital:
Genesis and Structure of Marx’s Critique of Political Economy’,
Critique, vol. 46 (2018), no. 1, pp. 11–26.
Finally, chapters 7, 8 and 9 are based on the ‘Introduction’ to the
anthology Marcello Musto (ed.), Workers Unite! The International
150 Years Later, Bloomsbury, 2014, pp. 1–68.
The permission to partially reappear in this book is gratefully
acknowledged.

Marx’s writings have been generally quoted from the 50-volume

Marx Engels Collected Works (MECW), Moscow/London/New York:
Progress Publishers/Lawrence and Wishart/International Publishers,
1975–2005. Sometimes the translations have been modified to
conform more closely to the original German. Citations from the
Grundrisse have been taken from the 1973 Penguin edition
translated by Martin Nicolaus, while Marx’s addresses, resolutions
and speeches from the period of the International Working Men’s
Association have been quoted from Marcello Musto (ed.), Workers
Unite! The International 150 Years Later, Bloomsbury, 2014.
Moreover, in a few cases the reader is referred to single works
translated into English but not included in MECW.

Texts that have not yet been translated into English are referenced
to the Marx-Engels-Gesamtausgabe (MEGA2), Berlin:
Dietz/Akademie/De Gruyter, 1975–…, of which 65 of the originally
planned 114 volumes have so far appeared in print.
As regards the secondary literature, quotations from books and
articles not published in English have been translated for the present
volume.
All the names of journals and newspapers have been indicated
first in the original language, followed by an English translation in
square brackets.
Indications of birth and death dates of authors and historical
figures have been provided the first time they are mentioned in the
book.

I would like to express my most sincere gratitude to Patrick Camiller,

who, during the past ten years that we have been working together,
has always translated my works with the highest competence,
comradely commitment and enormous patience for my many
requests. Every author dreams to collaborate with a competent
translator; only few, though, have the luck of having one who knows
more than they do. Thanks to Patrick, and to his vast knowledge of
politics, philosophy and history, I belong to the lucky circle of the
latter.
The author would like to thank the Faculty of Liberal Arts &
Professional Studies, York University, Toronto, Canada, for the
financial support it provided to this work.
 Introduction

1. The Marx revival

If an author’s eternal youth consists in his capacity to keep
stimulating new ideas, then it may be said that Karl Marx has
without question remained young.
He has even been back in fashion since the outbreak, in 2008, of
the latest crisis of capitalism. Contrary to the predictions after the
fall of the Berlin wall, when he was consigned to perpetual oblivion,
Marx’s ideas are once more the object of analysis, development and
debate. Many have begun to ask new questions about a thinker who
was often falsely identified with ‘actually existing socialism’ and then
curtly brushed aside after 1989.
Prestigious newspapers and journals with a wide audience of
readers have described Marx as a highly topical and far-sighted
theorist. Almost everywhere, he is now the theme of university
courses and international conferences. His writings, reprinted or
brought out in new editions, have reappeared on bookshop shelves,
and the study of his work, after more than twenty years of neglect,
has gathered increasing momentum, sometimes producing
important, ground-breaking results.1 Of particular value for an
overall reassessment of Marx’s work was the resumed publication in
1998 of the Marx-Engels-Gesamtausgabe (MEGA2), the historical-
critical edition of the complete works of Marx and Engels.
The dissemination of their oeuvre is a long and tortuous story.
After Marx’s death, in 1883, Friedrich Engels [1820–1895] was the
first to dedicate himself to the very difficult task – because the
material was dispersed, the language obscure and the handwriting
illegible – of editing his friend’s legacy. His work concentrated on the
reconstruction and selection of original materials, the publication of
unpublished or incomplete texts, and the republication or translation
of work that had already appeared in print. His priority was the
completion of Capital, of which Marx had published only Volume I in
his lifetime.
Two years after Engels’s death, in 1897, the Italian socialist
Antonio Labriola [1843–1904] asked: ‘Were the writings of Marx and
Engels […] ever read in their entirety by anyone outside of the group
of close friends and disciples […] of the authors themselves?’ His
conclusions were unequivocal: ‘Up to now, it seems to have been a
privilege of initiates to read all the writings of the founders of
scientific socialism’; the propagation of ‘historical materialism’ had
involved ‘endless equivocations, misunderstandings, grotesque
alterations, strange disguises and unfounded inventions’.2 In fact, as
historical research later demonstrated, the belief that Marx and
Engels had really been read was itself part of a hagiographic myth;3
many of their texts were rare or difficult to find even in the original
language. The proposal of the Italian scholar to publish ‘a full critical
edition of all the writings of Marx and Engels’ was a stark necessity.
For Labriola, what was needed were neither anthologies nor a
posthumous canon. Rather, ‘all the political and scientific activity, all
the literary production, even occasional, of the two founders of
critical socialism, needs to be placed at the disposal of readers […]
because it speaks directly to anyone who has the desire to read
them’.4 More than 120 years later, this ambition has still not been
realized.
After the death of Engels, the natural executor of the complete
works of Marx and Engels was the German Social Democratic Party
(SPD): it had possession of their literary bequest, and its leaders,
Karl Kautsky [1854–1938] and Eduard Bernstein [1850–1932], had
the greatest linguistic and theoretical competence. Nevertheless,
political conflicts within the party not only impeded publication of the
imposing mass of Marx’s unpublished works, but also led to a
scattering of the manuscripts that undermined any idea of a
systematic edition.5 The SPD did not sponsor one, and indeed it
treated the literary legacy of Marx and Engels with the utmost
negligence.6 None of its theoreticians bothered to compile a list of
their writings, or even methodically to collect their voluminous
correspondence that was such a valuable source of clarification,
sometimes even expansion, of their thought.
The first attempt to publish the complete works of Marx and
Engels, the Marx-Engels-Gesamtausgabe (MEGA), was made only in
the 1920s, in the Soviet Union, thanks mainly to the tireless initiative
of David Ryazanov [1870–1938]. In the early 1930s, however,
Stalinist purges struck at the main scholars engaged in the edition,
and the advent of Nazism in Germany abruptly curtailed further
work.
The project of a ‘second’ MEGA, designed to reproduce all the
writings of the two thinkers together with an extensive critical
apparatus, got under way in 1975 in East Germany. Following the fall
of the Berlin wall, however, this too was interrupted. A difficult
period of reorganization ensued, in which new editorial principles
were developed and approved, and the publication of MEGA2
recommenced only in 1998. Since then twenty-six volumes have
appeared in print – others are in the course of preparation –
containing new versions of certain of Marx’s works; all the
preparatory manuscripts of Capital; correspondence from important
periods of his life including a number of letters received; and
approximately two hundred notebooks. The latter contain excerpts
from books that Marx read over the years and the reflections to
which they gave rise. They constitute his critical theoretical
workshop, indicating the complex itinerary he followed in the
development of his thought and the sources on which he drew in
working out his own ideas.7
These priceless materials – many of which are available only in
German and therefore intended for small circles of researchers –
show us an author very different from the one that numerous critics
or self-styled followers presented for such a long time. Indeed, the
new textual acquisitions in MEGA2 make it possible to say that, of
the classics of political and philosophical thought, Marx is the author
whose profile has changed the most in recent years. The political
landscape following the implosion of the Soviet Union has helped to
free Marx from the role of figurehead of the state apparatus that
was accorded to him there.
Research advances, together with the changed political
conditions, therefore suggest that the renewal in the interpretation
of Marx’s thought is a phenomenon destined to continue.

2. New research paths

Study of the published and as yet unpublished corpus of MEGA2
nourished the underlying conviction of the present volume: that
many paths remain to be explored, and that, despite frequent claims
to the contrary, Marx is not at all an author about whom everything
has already been said or written.8 In fact, Marxism has often
distorted his thought.
Marx’s name was often used to justify the ideology of ‘socialist’
regimes and has often been criticized on the basis of their policies.
His quintessentially critical theory found itself reduced to a set of
biblical verses susceptible to quasi-religious exegesis. This resulted
in the most unlikely paradoxes. The thinker most resolutely opposed
to ‘writing recipes […] for the cook-shops of the future’9 was
converted into the progenitor of a new social system. The most
painstaking thinker, never satisfied with the results he had produced,
became the source of a dyed-in-the-wool doctrinarism. The steadfast
champion of the materialist conception of history was wrenched
more than any other author from his historical context. Even his
insistence that ‘the emancipation of the working classes must be
conquered by the working classes themselves’10 was locked into an
ideology that emphasized the primacy of political vanguards and
parties as the forces propelling class consciousness and leading the
revolution. The champion of the idea that a shorter working day was
the prerequisite for the blossoming of human capacities found
himself roped into support for the productivist creed of
Stakhanovism. The convinced believer in the abolition of the state
was built up into its firmest bulwark. Envisaging like few other
thinkers the free development of individuality, he had argued that –
whereas bourgeois right masked social disparities beneath a merely
legal equality – ‘right would have to be unequal rather than equal’.11
Yet the same Marx was falsely associated with a conception that
erased the richness of the collective dimension in a featureless
uniformity.
The aim of this book is to help foster discussion of various
interpretations of Marx’s work. The results presented to the reader
are modest and still incomplete: modest, because Marx’s gigantic
critical oeuvre spanning many branches of human knowledge makes
it a difficult task for any rigorous reader to synthesize it; and
incomplete, because this volume concentrates on only three periods
of Marx’s life: the early writings, the composition of Capital, and the
political activity in the International Working Men’s Association.
Moreover, within each period, certain texts have been singled out for
discussion and others inevitably excluded. The obligation not to
exceed the number of pages standard in a monograph made it
impossible to deal with various chapters in Marx’s life: for example,
his analysis of the revolutionary events of 1848, the long journalistic
labours for the New-York Tribune; his political and theoretical
reflections of the 1870s, and the research in the last years of his
life.12 These will be the object of works to be published in the future.
With an awareness of these limits, the results of research completed
so far are presented here to the reader, but they should also be seen
as a point of departure for further, more detailed studies.
Among other themes of analysis, Part One seeks to show that a
philologically unfounded counterposition between Marx’s early
writings and his later critique of political economy was shared by
‘revisionist’ Marxists – eager to prioritize the former – and by
orthodox Communists – focused on the ‘mature Marx’. In contrast to
positions that either play up a distinctive ‘young Marx’ or try to force
a theoretical break in his work, Marx’s articles and manuscripts of
1843–44 should be treated as an interesting, but only initial, stage in
his critical trajectory.
Part Two aims to enrich in various ways the existing research into
Marx’s critique of political economy, most of which has considered
only certain periods in its development, often jumping straight from
the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 to the Grundrisse
and from there to Capital, Volume I. In this book, the study of major
recently published manuscripts makes it possible to offer a more
exhaustive account of the formation of Marx’s thought.
Part Three turns to Marx’s political activity in the years between
1864 and 1872. Without denying his indispensable contribution to
the life of the International, an attempt is made to show that that
organization was much more than a ‘creation’ of a single individual,
as the ‘Marxist-Leninist’ legend maintained for a long time. Moreover,
in directly involving himself in workers’ struggles, Marx was
stimulated to develop and sometimes revise his ideas, to put old
certainties up for discussion and ask himself new questions, and in
particular to sharpen his critique of capitalism by drawing the broad
outlines of a communist society.
To relegate Marx to the position of an embalmed classic suitable
only for academia would be a serious mistake, on a par with his
transformation into the doctrinal source of ‘actually existing
socialism’. For in reality his analyses are more topical today than
they have ever been.
Following the spread of market economy to new areas of the
planet, capitalism has become a truly worldwide system, invading
and shaping all aspects of human existence. It not only determines
our lives during work time but is increasingly reconfiguring social
relations. Capitalism has overcome its adversaries, broken the
mediations of the political sphere, and remoulded human relations in
accordance with its own logic. Yet today more than ever, it produces
terrible social injustices and unsustainable environmental
destruction.
Of course, the writings that Marx composed a century and a half
ago do not contain a precise description of the world today. But
despite all the profound transformations that have intervened, Marx
still provides a rich array of tools with which to understand both the
nature and the development of capitalism.
After the last thirty years of glorification of market society, more
and more are arguing once again that the cause of human
emancipation should enlist the thought of Marx in its service. His
‘spectre’ seems likely to haunt the world and to stir humanity for a
good while to come.

3. Chronology of Marx’s writings

Given the size of Marx’s intellectual output, the following chronology
can only include his most significant writings; its aim is to highlight
the unfinished character of many of Marx’s texts and the chequered
history of their publication.
In the first column are indicated the years when the respective
texts were written, and in the second column their titles. The
manuscripts that Marx did not send to press are placed between
square brackets, as a way of differentiating them from finished
books and articles. The greater weight of the former in comparison
with the latter emerges as a result. The third column features the
corresponding publication history, particularly in the case of texts
that first appeared posthumously, where the year of first publication,
the bibliographical reference and, where relevant, the names of their
editors are given. Any changes that these made to the originals are
also indicated. When a published work or manuscript was not
written in German, the original language is specified.
The following abbreviations have been used in the table: MEGA
(Marx-Engels-Gesamtausgabe, 1927–1935); SOC (K. Marks i F.
Engel’s Sochineniya, 1928–1946); MEW (Marx-Engels-Werke, 1956–
1968); MECW (Marx-Engels Collected Works, 1975–2005); MEGA2
(Marx-Engels-Gesamtausgabe, 1975–…).

Table 1 Chronological table of Karl Marx’s writings

Year Title Information about editions
1841 [Difference 1902: in Aus dem literarischen
Between the Nachlass von Karl Marx, Friedrich
Democritean and Engels und Ferdinand Lassalle,
Epicurean ed. by Mehring (partial version).
Philosophy of 1927: in MEGA I/1.1, ed. by
Nature] Ryazanov.
1842–43 Articles for the Daily published in Cologne.
Rheinische Zeitung
[Rhenish
Newspaper]
1843 [Critique of Hegel’s 1927: in MEGA I/1.1, ed. by
Philosophy of Ryazanov.
Right]
1844 Essays for the Including ‘On the Jewish
Deutsch- Question’ and ‘A Contribution to
Französische the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy
Jahrbücher of Right’. Only one issue,
[German-French published in Paris. The majority
Yearbooks] of copies were confiscated by the
police.
1844 [Economic and 1932: in Der historische
Philosophic Materialismus, ed. by Landshut
Manuscripts of and Mayer, and in MEGA I/3, ed.
1844] by Adoratskii (the editions differ
in content and order of the
parts). The text was omitted
from the numbered volumes of
MEW and published separately.
1845 The Holy Family Published in Frankfurt-am-Main.
(with Engels)
1845 [Theses on 1888: appendix to republication
Feuerbach] of Ludwig Feuerbach and the
End of German Classical
Philosophy by Engels.
1845–46 [The German 1903–1904: in Dokumente des
Ideology] (with Sozialismus, ed. by Bernstein
 Engels) (partial version with editorial
revisions).
1932: in Der historische
Materialismus, ed. by Landshut
and Mayer, and in MEGA I/3, ed.
by Adoratskii (the editions differ
in content and order of the
parts).
1847 Poverty of Printed in Brussels and Paris.
Philosophy Text in French.
1848 Speech on the Published in Brussels. Text in
Question of Free French.
Trade
1848 Manifesto of the Printed in London. Began to
Communist Party circulate widely in the 1880s.
(with Engels)
1848–49 Articles for the Daily appearing in Cologne.
Neue Rheinische Includes Wage Labour and
Zeitung. Organ der Capital.
Demokratie [New
Rhenish
Newspaper: Organ
of Democracy]
1850 Articles for the Monthly printed in Hamburg in
Neue Rheinische small runs. Includes The Class
Zeitung. Politisch- Struggles in France, 1848 to
ökonomische 1850.
Revue [New
Rhenish
Newspaper:
Political-Economic
Review]
1851–62 Articles for the Many of the articles were written
New-York Tribune by Engels.
1852 The Eighteenth Published in New York in the first
Brumaire of Louis issue of Die Revolution. Most of
 Bonaparte the copies were not collected
from the printers for financial
reasons. Only a small number
reached Europe. The second
edition – revised by Marx –
appeared only in 1869.
1852 [Great Men of the 1930: in Arkhiv Marksa i Engel’sa
Exile] (with Engels) (Russian edition). The
manuscript had previously been
hidden by Bernstein.
1853 Revelations Published as an anonymous
concerning the pamphlet in Basle (nearly all two
Communist Trial in thousand copies were
Cologne confiscated by the police) and in
Boston. Republished in 1874 in
Volksstaat (with Marx identified
as the author) and in 1875, in
book form.
1853–54 Lord Palmerston Text in English. Originally
published as articles in the New-
York Tribune and The People’s
Paper, and subsequently in
booklet form.
1854 The Knight of the Published in New York in booklet
Noble form.
Consciousness
1856–57 Revelations of the Text in English. Though already
Diplomatic History published by Marx, it was
of the 18th Century subsequently omitted from his
works and published in the
‘socialist’ countries only in 1986,
in MECW.
1857 [Introduction] 1903: in Die Neue Zeit, ed. by
Kautsky, with various
discrepancies from the original.
1857–58 [Grundrisse: 1939–1941: edition with small
Outlines of the print run.
Critique of Political 1953: republication allowing
Economy] wide circulation.
1859 Contribution to the Published in Berlin in a thousand
Critique of Political copies.
Economy
1860 Herr Vogt Published in London with little
resonance.
1861–63 [Contribution to 1905–1910: Economic
the Critique of Manuscript of 1861–63, ed. by
Political Economy Kautsky (in revised version). A
(manuscript of text conforming to the original
1861–1863)] appeared only in 1954 (Russian
edition) and 1956 (German
edition).
1976–1982: manuscript
published in full in MEGA2 II/3.1–
3.6.
1863–64 [On the Polish 1961: Manuskripte über die
Question] polnische Frage, ed. by the IISH.
1863–67 [Economic 1894: Capital, Volume III. The
manuscripts of Process of Capitalist Production
1863–1867] as a Whole, ed. by Engels (who
also used later manuscripts
published in MEGA2 II/14 and
MEGA2 II/4.3).
1933: Volume I. Unpublished
Chapter VI, in Arkhiv Marksa i
Engel’sa.
1988: publication of manuscripts
of Volume I and Volume II, in
MEGA2 II/4.1.
1992: publication of manuscripts
of Volume III, in MEGA2 II/4.2.
1864–72 Addresses, Texts mostly in English, including
resolutions, the Inaugural Address of the
circulars, International Working Men’s
manifestos, Association and The Fictitious
programmes, Splits in the International (with
statutes of the Engels).
International
Working men’s
Association
1865 [Wages, Price and 1898: ed. by Eleanor Marx. Text
Profit] in English.
1867 Capital, Volume I. Published in 1,000 copies in
The Process of Hamburg. Second edition in 1873
Production of in 3,000 copies. Russian
Capital translation in 1872.
1870 [Manuscript of 1885: Capital, Volume II. The
Volume Two of Process of Circulation of Capital,
Capital] ed. by Engels (who also used the
manuscript of 1880–1881 and
the shorter ones of 1867–1868
and 1877–1878, published in
MEGA2 II/11).
1871 The Civil War in Text in English. Numerous
France editions and translations in a
short space of time.
1872–75 Capital, Volume I, Text reworked for the French
The Process of edition which appeared in
Production of instalments. According to Marx,
Capital (French it had a ‘scientific value
edition) independent of the original’.
1874–75 [Notes on 1928: in Letopisi marxisma, with
Bakunin’s a preface by Ryazanov (Russian
Statehood and edition). Manuscript with
Anarchy] excerpts in Russian and
comments in German.
1875 [Critique of the 1891: in Die Neue Zeit, ed. by
Gotha Programme] Engels, who altered a few
passages from the original.
1875 [Relationship 2003: in MEGA2 II/14.
between Rate of
Surplus-Value and
Rate of Profit
Developed
Mathematically]
1877 ‘From Kritische Published in part in Vorwärts and
Geschichte’ (a then in full in the book edition.
chapter in Anti-
Dühring by Engels)
1879–80 [Notes on 1977: in Karl Marx über Formen
Kovalevskii’s Rural vorkapitalistischer Produktion,
Communal ed. by the IISH.
Property]
1879–80 [Marginal Notes on 1932: in Das Kapital (partial
Adolph Wagner’s version).
Textbook of 1933: in SOC XV (Russian
Political Economy] edition).
1880–81 [Excerpts from 1972: in The Ethnological
Morgan’s Ancient Notebooks of Karl Marx, ed. by
Society] the IISH. Manuscript with
excerpts in English.
1881–82 [Chronological 1938–1939: in Arkhiv Marksa i
excerpts 90 BC to Engel’sa (partial version, Russian
approx. 1648] edition).
1953: in Marx, Engels, Lenin,
Stalin Zur deutschen Geschichte
(partial version).

1 For a survey of the main recent additions to the literature, see the section
‘Marx’s Global Reception Today’, in Marcello Musto (ed.), Marx for Today.
 London: Routledge, 2012, pp. 170–234. Cf. also Marcello Musto (ed.), The
Marx Revival. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming 2019.
2 Antonio Labriola, Socialism and philosophy. Chicago: C.H. Kerr & Company,
1907, pp. 16–18.
3 Marx’s biographers Boris Nikolaevskij and Otto Maenchen-Helfen correctly
state, in the foreword to their book, that ‘of the thousands of socialists,
maybe only one has read an economic work of Marx; of the thousands of
anti-Marxists, not even one has read Marx’. Cf. Karl Marx: Man and Fighter.
Philadelphia/London: J.P. Lippincott Company, 1936, p. v.
4 Labriola, Socialism and philosophy, pp. 22–3.
5 Cf. Maximilien Rubel, Bibliographie des oeuvres de Karl Marx. Paris: Rivière,
1956, p. 27.
6 Cf. David Ryazanov, ‘Neueste Mitteilungen über den literarischen Nachlaß von
Karl Marx und Friedrich Engels’, Archiv für die Geschichte des Sozialismus und
der Arbeiterbewegung, vol. 11 (1925), see esp. pp. 385–6.
7 Cf. Marcello Musto, ‘The Rediscovery of Karl Marx’, International Review of
Social History, vol. 52 (2007), n. 3, pp. 477–98.
8 The immense literature on Marx includes numerous biographies. Among the
most important are: John Spargo, Karl Marx: His Life and Work. New York: B.
W. Huebsch, 1912; Franz Mehring, Karl Marx. Geschichte seines Lebens.
Leipzig: Leipziger Buchdruckerei AG, 1918; Otto Rühle, Karl Marx. Leben und
Werk. Hellerau bei Dresden: Avalun-Verlag, 1928; Karl Vorländer, Karl Marx.
Leipzig: F. Meiner, 1929; Marx-Engels-Lenin-Institut, Karl Marx. Chronik seines
Lebens in Einzeldaten. Moscow: Marx-Engels-Verlag, 1934; Boris Nikolaevskij
and Otto Maenchen-Helfen, Karl Marx: Man and Fighter, op. cit. 1936; Isaiah
Berlin, Karl Marx: His Life and Environment. London: Thornton Butterworth,
1939; Maximilien Rubel, Karl Marx. Essai de biographie intellectuelle. Paris:
Librairie M. Rivière et Cie, 1957; Institut für Marxismus-Leninismus, Karl Marx.
Biographie. Berlin: Dietz, 1968; David McLellan, Karl Marx: His Life and His
Thought. London: Macmillan, 1973; Francis Wheen, Karl Marx: a life. New
York: Norton, 2000. Mary Gabriel, Love and Capital: Karl and Jenny Marx and
the Birth of a Revolution. New York/Boston/London: Little, Brown and
Company, 2011; and most recently Gareth Stedman Jones, Karl Marx:
Greatness and Illusion, London: Allen Lane, 2016. Despite the many
contributions made during decades of scholarship, to date a complete
intellectual biography of Marx still has to be written.
9 Karl Marx, ‘Afterword to the Second German Edition’, in MECW, vol. 35, p. 17.
10 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ‘General Rules of the International Working
Men’s Association’, in Marcello Musto (ed.), Workers Unite! The International
150 Years Later. New York: Bloomsbury, 2014, p. 265.
11 Karl Marx, Critique of Gotha Programme, in MECW, vol. 24, p. 87.
12 For this last topic see Marcello Musto, The Last Marx (1881–1883): An
Intellectual Biography. London: Oxford University Press, 2018.
 Part One

Intellectual Influences and Early

Writings
 1

Childhood, Youth and University

Studies

1. The rabbi manqué

Karl Marx was born on 5 May 1818 in Trier, the oldest city in
Germany. Founded in 16 BC as the Roman colony of Augusta
Treverorum, it was an important army bastion and a residence of
many emperors, with a population of 80,000 by the year AD 300, and
went on to become the seat of the Gallic prefecture and one of the
main administrative centres of the Western Empire. In the Middle
Ages, it was for a long time an archbishopric capital and
subsequently preserved the splendour of its intense religious past.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe [1749–1832], who visited it in 1792,
described it as a ‘characteristic and striking city’: ‘inside the walls it is
burdened, nay overwhelmed, with churches, chapels, monasteries,
convents, colleges, and other chivalric and monastic buildings;
outside it is beset by abbeys, foundations, and Carthusian
monasteries’.1 Yet Trier’s decline from the late-seventeenth century
on meant that by the time of Marx’s birth its population was as low
as 11,400.2
Trier’s position on the border between Germany and France –
belonging to France from 1795 to 1814 – enabled the population to
benefit from the economic and political reforms of the Napoleonic
Civil Code and a post-Enlightenment cultural climate. The peasantry
was liberated from feudal servitude and intellectuals from
ecclesiastical constraints, while the bourgeoisie managed to gain
approval for the liberal laws necessary for its development. After
1815, being situated in the southern part of the Prussian Rhineland
– a region quite different from the more developed north with its
metallurgical and cotton industries – Trier remained an essentially
agricultural centre; peasant smallholdings were the norm, and it had
almost no proletariat at all.3 Nevertheless, the widespread poverty
made it one of the first German cities where French utopian socialist
theories made an appearance, introduced by Ludwig Gall [1791–
1863].
Marx came from an old Jewish family, and to examine its
genealogical tree is to lose oneself in a centuries-long list of
successive rabbis.4 His paternal uncle, Samuel, was rabbi in Trier
until 1827, and Samuel’s father, Levi Mordechai [1743–1804] (a
name later modified to Marx), had occupied the same position until
his death, numbering several more rabbis in his lineage. Levi’s wife,
Eva Lwow [1754–1823], was the daughter of Moses Lwow [1764–
1788], himself a rabbi in Trier, like his father Joshue Heschel Lwow
[1692–1771] before him – a leading figure in the Jewish community
of his time – and like his grandfather Aron Lwow [1660–1712],
originally from the Polish city of Lwów. Before emigrating to Poland,
the family ancestors had lived in Hesse, and before that, around the
mid-fifteenth century, in Italy. In fact, five generations before, anti-
Jewish persecution had forced Abraham Ha-Levi Minz [1440–1525]
to emigrate from Germany to Padua, where he was rabbi and his
son-in-law, Mayer Katzenellenbogen [1482–1565], became rector of
the Talmudic university.5
There was also a rabbinical ancestry on the maternal side of
Marx’s family. Although information is scarcer, we know that Karl’s
mother, Henriette [1788–1863], was the daughter of Isaac Pressburg
[1747–1832], rabbi in Nijmegen, and that her line of descent
consisted of Hungarian Jews forced by persecution to migrate to the
Netherlands, where it took the name of its city of origin: Pressburg
(today’s Bratislava).6 In the course of moving around, the Pressburgs
also spent some time in Italy, the home of Jehuda ben Eliezer ha
Levy Minz [?–1508], professor at Pavia University. In this family too,
as Marx’s youngest daughter Eleanor [1855–1898] wrote, ‘the male
offspring had been rabbis for hundreds of years’.7
With this background, and being the only surviving son, Marx
might very well have followed the same path. We may say, then,
that he was a rabbi manqué, whom circumstances pointed toward a
different destiny. His father Hirschel [1777–1838] was part of a
generation of young Jews – Heinrich Heine8 [1797–1856] and
Eduard Gans [1797–1839] made the same choice in this period –
who shook off the constraints of a community living apart amid the
hostility of Christians, closed to the outside world and the changes
taking place within it.9 At that time, moreover, relinquishment of the
Jewish faith was not only a price to be paid for keeping one’s job but
also, as Heine pointed out, the intellectual entry ticket to European
civilization.10
After a complicated youth and difficulties with his family, Hirschel
Marx managed to secure a good position as legal adviser at the
Court of Appeal in Trier. The Prussian annexation of the Rhineland in
1815, however, led to the exclusion of Jews from all public office.
Forced to choose between quitting his profession and abandoning
the faith of his ancestors, he then had himself baptised and changed
his name to Heinrich. Although Trier had a Catholic majority, he
decided to join the small, 300-strong Protestant community, which
distinguished itself by its greater liberalism. The conversion of his
children (including Karl) followed in August 1824, and that of his
wife the following year.11 Despite the change of religion and the
Enlightenment atmosphere that the household always exuded, the
Marx family retained many Jewish habits and types of behaviour, the
influence of which should not be minimized in a discussion of Karl’s
childhood and adolescence.
Few particulars are known about the first years of Marx’s life. It is
likely that he spent them happily in the calm and cultivated
ambience of a bourgeois family and was seen by it as a particularly
gifted child holding out bright hopes for the future. Educated at
home until he was twelve, he got his early bearings from a paternal
rationalism that would exert a profound influence on his
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 A violation of the terms of the armistice by private
individuals acting on their own initiative, only confers the
right of demanding the punishment of the offenders, and, if
necessary, indemnity for the losses sustained.

{363}

SECTION III.
On Military Authority over Hostile Territory.

ARTICLE XLII.
Territory is considered occupied when it is actually placed
under the authority of the hostile army. The occupation
applies only to the territory where such authority is
established, and in a position to assert itself.

ARTICLE XLIII.
The authority of the legitimate power having actually passed
into the hands of the occupant, the latter shall take all
steps in his power to re-establish and insure, as far as
possible, public order and safety, while respecting, unless
absolutely prevented, the laws in force in the country.

ARTICLE XLIV.
Any compulsion of the population of occupied territory to take
part in military operations against its own country is
prohibited.

ARTICLE XLV.
Any pressure on the population of occupied territory to take
the oath to the hostile Power is prohibited.

ARTICLE XLVI.
Family honours and rights, individual lives and private
property, as well as religious convictions and liberty, must
be respected. Private property cannot be confiscated.
ARTICLE XLVII.
Pillage is formally prohibited.

ARTICLE XLVIII.
If, in the territory occupied, the occupant collects the
taxes, dues, and tolls imposed for the benefit of the State,
he shall do it, as far as possible, in accordance with the
rules in existence and the assessment in force, and will in
consequence be bound to defray the expenses of the
administration of the occupied territory on the same scale as
that by which the legitimate Government was bound.

ARTICLE XLIX.
If, besides the taxes mentioned in the preceding Article, the
occupant levies other money taxes in the occupied territory,
this can only be for military necessities or the
administration of such territory.

ARTICLE L.
No general penalty, pecuniary or otherwise, can be inflicted
on the population on account of the acts of individuals for
which it cannot be regarded as collectively responsible.

ARTICLE LI.
No tax shall be collected except under a written order and on
the responsibility of a Commander-in-chief. This collection
shall only take place, as far as possible, in accordance with
the rules in existence and the assessment of taxes in force.
For every payment a receipt shall be given to the taxpayer.

ARTICLE LII.
Neither requisitions in kind nor services can be demanded from
communes or inhabitants except for the necessities of the army
of occupation. They must be in proportion to the resources of the
country, and of such a nature as not to involve the population
in the obligation of taking part in military operations
against their country. These requisitions and services shall
only be demanded on the authority of the Commander in the
locality occupied. The contributions in kind shall, as far as
possible, be paid for in ready money; if not, their receipt
shall be acknowledged.

ARTICLE LIII.
An army of occupation can only take possession of the cash,
funds, and property liable to requisition belonging strictly
to the State, depots of arms, means of transport, stores and
supplies, and, generally, all movable property of the State
which may be used for military operations. Railway plant, land
telegraphs, telephones, steamers, and other ships, apart from
cases governed by maritime law, as well as depots of arms and,
generally, all kinds of war material, even though belonging to
Companies or to private persons, are likewise material which
may serve for military operations, but they must be restored
at the conclusion of peace, and indemnities paid for them.

ARTICLE LIV.
The plant of railways coming from neutral States, whether the
property of those States, or of Companies, or of private
persons, shall be sent back to them as soon as possible.

ARTICLE LV.
The occupying State shall only be regarded as administrator
and usufructuary of the public buildings, real property,
forests, and agricultural works belonging to the hostile
State, and situated in the occupied country. It must protect
the capital of these properties, and administer it according
to the rules of usufruct.

ARTICLE LVI.
The property of the communes, that of religious, charitable,
and educational institutions, and those of arts and science,
even when State property, shall be treated as private
property. All seizure of, and destruction, or intentional
damage done to such institutions, to historical monuments,
works of art or science, is prohibited, and should be made the
subject of proceedings.

SECTION IV.
On the Internment of Belligerents and the Care of the Wounded
in Neutral Countries.

ARTICLE LVII.
A neutral State which receives in its territory troops
belonging to the belligerent armies shall intern them, as far
as possible, at a distance from the theatre of war. It can
keep them in camps, and even confine them in fortresses or
localities assigned for this purpose. It shall decide whether
officers may be left at liberty on giving their parole that
they will not leave the neutral territory without
authorization.

ARTICLE LVIII.
Failing a special Convention, the neutral State shall supply
the interned with the food, clothing, and relief required by
humanity. At the conclusion of peace, the expenses caused by
the internment shall be made good.

ARTICLE LIX.
A neutral State may authorize the passage through its
territory of wounded or sick belonging to the belligerent
armies, on condition that the trains bringing them shall carry
neither combatants nor war material. In such a case, the neutral
State is bound to adopt such measures of safety and control as
may be necessary for the purpose. Wounded and sick brought
under these conditions into neutral territory by one of the
belligerents, and belonging to the hostile party, must be
guarded by the neutral State, so as to insure their not taking
part again in the military operations. The same duty shall
devolve on the neutral State with regard to wounded or sick of
the other army who may be committed to its care.
{364}

ARTICLE LX.
The Geneva Convention applies to sick and wounded interned in
neutral territory. The Convention establishing these
regulations was not signed by the delegates from the United
States, nor by those of Great Britain. The reasons for
abstention on the part of the latter were stated in a
communication from the British War Office, as follows: "Lord
Lansdowne … considers it essential that the revised Articles,
together with the Preamble and final dispositions, should be
submitted to the most careful examination by the high military
authorities and by the legal advisers of Her Majesty's
Government, before he can pronounce a definitive opinion on
the three points raised. Subject to such reserves as may
result from this examination, Lord Lansdowne is of opinion
that the Project of Convention is in general of such a nature
that it may, in principle, be accepted as a basis of
instructions for the guidance of the British army, but he is
unable, until that examination has been completed, to offer an
opinion as to whether it is desirable to enter into an
international engagement. Lord Lansdowne would therefore
suggest, for Lord Salisbury's consideration, that instructions
should be given to Sir Julian Pauncefote to reserve full
liberty for Her Majesty's Government, to accept only such
Articles as, after mature examination by their military and
legal advisers, they may approve of." Probably the delegates
from the United States were similarly instructed by their
government.

Added to the Convention relative to Laws and Customs of War

were three Declarations, separately signed, as follows:

1. "The contracting powers agree to prohibit, for a term of

five years, the launching of projectiles and explosives from
balloons, or by other new methods of a similar nature."
2. "The contracting parties agree to abstain from the use of
bullets which expand or flatten easily in the human body, such
as bullets with a hard envelope which does not entirely cover
the core, or is pierced with incisions."

3. "The contracting parties agree to abstain from the use of

projectiles the object of which is the diffusion of
asphyxiating or deleterious gases."

The first of these Declarations was signed by the delegates

from the United States, but not by those from Great Britain.
The second and third were signed by neither British nor
American representatives. In the discussion that preceded the
adoption of the second Declaration by a majority of the
Conference, Captain Crozier, of the American delegation,
presented the objections to it, on which he and his colleagues
were in agreement with the British representatives. He said
"there was a great difference of opinion as to whether the
bullets of small calibre rifles sufficed to put men 'hors de
combat,' which was admitted on all sides to be the object
which rifle fire was expected to achieve. He considered the
proposition before the Conference to be unsatisfactory, since
it limited the prohibition to details of construction which
only included a single case, and left all others out of
consideration. He would not enter into a recapitulation of all
the advantages of small calibre rifles, since they were
perfectly well known; but he felt sure that certain Powers
might adopt calibres even smaller than those at present in
use, and, in this case, he maintained that they would be
compelled to secure increased shock by some new method of
construction of the projectile. He considered that it would be
perfectly easy to devise such projectiles while keeping within
the terms of the proposed interdiction, and he thought that
the result might be the ultimate adoption of a bullet of an
even less humane character than those aimed at by the
Resolution. He declared that he had nothing to say for or
against the Dum-Dum bullet [see, in this volume, DUM-DUM
 BULLET], of which he knew nothing except what had been stated
during the meetings of the First Commission, but that he was
not disposed to make any condemnation without proofs, and
these proofs had not been forthcoming."

As for the third Declaration, it was opposed by Captain Mahan,

who spoke for the Americans, because "he considered the use of
asphyxiating shell far less inhuman and cruel than the
employment of submarine boats, and as the employment of
submarine boats had not been interdicted by the Conference
(though specially mentioned with that object in the Mouravieff
Circular), he felt constrained to maintain his vote in favour of
the use of asphyxiating shell on the original ground that the
United States' Government was averse to placing any
restriction on the inventive genius of its citizens in
inventing and providing new weapons of war."

PEACE CONFERENCE:
Convention for the adaptation to maritime warfare of the
principles of the Geneva Convention of August 22, 1864.

ARTICLE I.
Military hospital-ships, that is to say, ships constructed or
assigned by States specially and solely for the purpose of
assisting the wounded, sick, or shipwrecked, and the names of
which shall have been communicated to the belligerent Powers
at the commencement or during the course of hostilities, and
in any case before they are employed, shall be respected and
cannot be captured while hostilities last. These ships,
moreover, are not on the same footing as men-of-war as regards
their stay in a neutral port.

ARTICLE II.
Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of
private individuals or officially recognized relief Societies,
shall likewise be respected and exempt from capture, provided
the belligerent Power to whom they belong has given them an
 official commission and has notified their names to the
Hostile Power at the commencement of or during hostilities,
and in any case before they are employed. These ships should
be furnished with a certificate from the competent
authorities, declaring that they had been under their control
while fitting out and on final departure.

ARTICLE III.
Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of
private individuals or officially recognized Societies of
neutral countries, shall be respected and exempt from capture,
if the neutral Power to whom they belong has given them an
official commission and notified their names to the
belligerent Powers at the commencement of or during
hostilities, and in any case before they are employed.

ARTICLE IV.
The ships mentioned in Articles I, II, and III shall afford
relief and assistance to the wounded, sick, and shipwrecked of
the belligerents independently of their nationality. The
Governments engage not to use these ships for any military
purpose. These ships must not in any way hamper the movements
of the combatants. During and after an engagement they will
act at their own risk and peril. The belligerents will have
the right to control and visit them; they can refuse to help
them, order them off, make them take a certain course, and put
a Commissioner on board; they can even detain them, if important
circumstances require it. As far as possible the belligerents
shall inscribe in the sailing papers of the hospital-ships the
orders they give them.

{365}

ARTICLE V.
The military hospital-ships shall be distinguished by being
painted white outside with a horizontal band of green about a
metre and a half in breadth. The ships mentioned in Articles
II and III shall be distinguished by being painted white
outside with a horizontal band of red about a metre and a half
in breadth. The boats of the ships above mentioned, as also
small craft which may be used for hospital work, shall be
distinguished by similar painting. All hospital-ships shall
make themselves known by hoisting, together with their
national flag, the white flag with a red cross provided by the
Geneva Convention.

ARTICLE VI.
Neutral merchantmen, yachts, or vessels, having, or taking on
board, sick, wounded, or shipwrecked of the belligerents,
cannot be captured for so doing, but they are liable to
capture for any violation of neutrality they may have
committed.

ARTICLE VII.
The religious, medical, or hospital staff of any captured ship
is inviolable, and its members cannot be made prisoners of
war. On leaving the ship they take with them the objects and
surgical instruments which are their own private property.
This staff shall continue to discharge its duties while
necessary, and can afterwards leave when the
Commander-in-chief considers it possible. The belligerents
must guarantee to the staff that has fallen into their hands
the enjoyment of their salaries intact.

ARTICLE VIII.
Sailors and soldiers who are taken on board when sick or
wounded, to whatever nation they belong, shall be protected
and looked after by the captors.

ARTICLE IX.
The shipwrecked, wounded, or sick of one of the belligerents
who fall into the hands of the other, are prisoners of war.
The captor must decide, according to circumstances, if it is
best to keep them or send them to a port of his own country,
to a neutral port, or even to a hostile port. In the last
case, prisoners thus repatriated cannot serve as long as the
war lasts.

ARTICLE X.
The shipwrecked, wounded, or sick, who are landed at a neutral
port with the consent of the local authorities, must, failing
a contrary arrangement between the neutral State and the
belligerents, be guarded by the neutral State, so that they
cannot again take part in the military operations. The
expenses of entertainment and internment shall be borne by the
State to which the shipwrecked, wounded, or sick belong.

ARTICLE XI.
The rules contained in the above Articles are binding only on
the Contracting Powers, in case of war between two or more of
them. The said rules shall cease to be binding from the time
when, in a war between the Contracting Powers, one of the
belligerents is joined by a non-Contracting Power.

ARTICLE XII.
The present Convention shall be ratified as soon as possible.
The ratifications shall be deposited at The Hague. On the
receipt of each ratification a "procès-verbal" shall be drawn
up, a copy of which, duly certified, shall be sent through the
diplomatic channel to all the Contracting Powers.

ARTICLE XIII.
The non-Signatory Powers who accepted the Geneva Convention of
the 22d August, 1864, are allowed to adhere to the present
Convention. For this purpose they must make their adhesion
known to the Contracting Powers by means of a written
notification addressed to the Netherland Government, and by it
communicated to all the other Contracting Powers.

ARTICLE XIV.
In the event of one of the High Contracting Parties denouncing
 the present Convention, such denunciation shall not take
effect until a year after the notification made in writing to
the Netherland Government, and forthwith communicated by it to
all the other Contracting Powers. This denunciation shall only
affect the notifying Power.

In faith of which the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed

the present Convention and affixed their seals thereto.

[Signed by the representatives of Belgium, Denmark, Spain,

Mexico, France, Greece, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Persia,
Portugal, Roumania, Russia, Siam, Sweden and Norway, and
Bulgaria]

----------PEACE CONFERENCE: End--------

PEARY'S EXPLORATIONS.

See (in this volume)

POLAR EXPLORATION, 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898—.

PEKING: A. D. 1900.
The siege of the Foreign Legations and their rescue.
Occupation of the city by the allied forces.
Looting and outrage.
March through the "Forbidden City."

See (in this volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1900 (JUNE-AUGUST);
and (AUGUST 4-16, and 15-28).

PEKING: A. D. 1900-1901.
Seizure of grounds for a fortified Legation Quarter.

See (in this volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1900-1901 (NOVEMBER-FEBRUARY).
PEKING SYNDICATE, Chinese concessions to the.

See (in this volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1898 (FEBRUARY-DECEMBER).

PELAGIC SEAL KILLING, The question of.

See (in this volume)

BERING SEA QUESTIONS.

PELEW ISLANDS:
Sale by Spain to Germany.

See (in this volume)

CAROLINE AND MARIANNE ISLANDS.

PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1897.
Great strike of coal miners.
Conflict at Lattimer.

See (in this volume)

INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES: A. D. 1897.

PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1900.
Strike of anthracite coal miners.

See (in this volume)

INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES: A. D. 1900.

PENNSYLVANIA, University of:

Expeditions to explore the ruins of Nippur.

See (in this volume)

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: BABYLONIA:
AMERICAN EXPLORATION.

PENNY POSTAGE, British Imperial.

 See (in this volume)
ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (DECEMBER).

PENSIONS, Old-Age.

See references (in this volume) under

OLD-AGE PENSIONS.

PEONES.

See (in this volume)

PORTO RICO: A. D. 1898-1899 (AUGUST-JULY).

PEOPLE'S PARTY, The.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1896 (JUNE-NOVEMBER);
and 1900 (MAY-NOVEMBER).

{366}

PERRY'S EXPEDITION TO JAPAN,

Proposed monument to commemorate.

See (in this volume)

JAPAN: A. D. 1901.

PERSIA: A.D. 1896.

Assassination of the Shah.

The Shah of Persia, Nâsr-ed-din, was shot, on the 1st day of

May, when entering the mosque of Shah Abdul Azim, by one Mirza
Mahomed Reza, said to be of the Babi sect. Nâsr-ed-din had
reigned since 1848. He was succeeded by his son,
Muzaffar-ed-din, who was forty-three years old at his
 accession.

PERSIA: A. D. 1897-1899.
Recent exploration of the ruins of Susa.

See (in this volume)

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: PERSIA.

PERSIA: A. D. 1899 (May-July).

Representation in the Peace Conference at The Hague.

See (in this volume)

PEACE CONFERENCE.

PERSIA: A. D. 1900.
Russian railway projects.

See (in this volume)

RUSSIA IN ASIA: A. D. 1900.

PERSIAN GULF, Railways to the.

See (in this volume)

TURKEY: A. D. 1899 (NOVEMBER);
and RUSSIA IN ASIA: A. D. 1900.

PERU: A. D. 1894-1899.
Overthrow of an unconstitutional government.
Legitimate authority restored.

The death of President Bermudez, in March, 1894, brought about

a revolutionary movement in the interest of ex-President
Caceres. Constitutionally, the First Vice-President, Dr. del
Solar, would have succeeded the deceased President, until a
new election was held; but the Second Vice-President, who was
a partisan of Caceres, and who had the army with him, seized
control of the government. In May, Caceres was proclaimed
 Provisional President, and in August it was claimed for him
that he had been elected by Congress; but the election was not
recognized by his opponents. A formidable rebellion was
organized, under the lead of ex-President Pierola, who had
been in exile and now returned. Civil war raged for nearly a
year, Pierola gaining steadily. In February, 1895, his forces
reached the capital and laid siege to it. On the 17th of March
they entered the city, and there was desperate fighting in the
streets of Lima for three days, nearly 2,000 of the
combatants being killed and more than 1,500 wounded. Chiefly
through the efforts of the Papal delegate, the bloody conflict
was finally stopped and terms of peace arranged. A provisional
government, made up from both parties, was formed, under which
a peaceable election was held in the following July. Pierola
was then elected President. Caceres and his partisans
attempted a rising the next year (1896), but it had no
success. In the northern department of Loreto, on the border
of Ecuador, an abortive movement for independence was set on
foot by an ambitious official, who gave the government
considerable trouble, but accomplished nothing more. In 1899,
President Pierola was succeeded by Eduardo L. de Romana,
elected in May. A rebellion attempted that year by one General
Durand was promptly suppressed.

PERU: A. D. 1894.-1900.
The dispute with Chile concerning Tacna and Arica.

See (in this volume)

CHILE: A. D. 1884-1900.

PESCADORES ISLANDS:
Cession by China to Japan.

See (in this volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1894-1895.

PHILADELPHIA: A. D. 1897.
Opening of the Commercial Museum.

A Commercial Museum which has acquired great importance was

opened in Philadelphia on the 2d of June, 1897. "In both aim
and results the institution is unique. Other countries, also,
have their commercial museums, which are doing excellent work.
Their scope, however, is much more limited; the Museum of
Philadelphia differing from them in that it is an active, not
merely a passive, aid to the prospective exporter. The foreign
museums, situated in London, Bremen, Hamburg, Stuttgart,
Vienna, Havre, Brussels, and various other commercial centres,
do not extend active aid, but content themselves with more or
less complete displays of samples of domestic and foreign
competitive goods sold in export markets. The theory of their
organization is, that the manufacturer, contemplating a
foreign business campaign, will be enabled to pursue it
intelligently through the study of these samples. The
initiative is left to the exporter himself, who must discover
what opportunities exist for him abroad; and it is also left
to him to take advantage of his opportunities in the way that
may seem best to him. The display of manufactured samples is
only a small part of the work of the Philadelphia Museum. This
institution shows not only what goods are sold in foreign
markets, but also where those markets are, what commercial
conditions obtain in connection with them, what particular
kinds of goods they demand, how these markets may be best
competed for, and where the raw material may be most
profitably purchased. It furnishes information, furthermore,
as to business connections as well as the credit ratings of
the agents or firms recommended. To secure specific
information it is not necessary to visit the institution
itself; for reports of trade opportunities abroad are
distributed by the Museum to its members; and these reports
are provided with photographs of many of the articles which,
at that particular time, are in demand, in certain parts of
the world. Under these circumstances, the exporter is
practically provided with a staff of expert, foreign
 representatives, without any expense to himself beyond the
merely nominal fee for membership. While its activities are
dependent to a certain extent upon the income derived from
subscribers, the Museum is not a money-making institution.
Indeed, its income from this source does not cover half the
expenditures. It is enabled to carry on its work only by
reason of the generous, annual appropriation provided for it
by the City Councils of Philadelphia. But a very large income
is required to maintain a staff of 150 employees in
Philadelphia, as well as 500 regular and several thousand
occasional correspondents scattered throughout the world. The
only advantage which the city itself derives from the Museum
is that resulting indirectly from the presence of foreign
buyers attracted to Philadelphia by the Museum's work."

W. P. Wilson,
The Philadelphia Commercial Museum
(Forum, September, 1899).

PHILADELPHIA: A. D. 1899.
National Export Exposition and International
Commercial Congress.

See (in this volume)

INTERNATIONAL COMMERCIAL CONGRESS.

{367}

----------PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: Start--------

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS:
Number, area, shore line, and population.

"In regard to the number and areas of the islands in the

archipelago there must necessarily be a certain inaccuracy,
because the group has never been properly surveyed, and the
only method of determining the number and areas is by counting
 and measuring on the charts. The following figures are
probably the best ever compiled. They are drawn from
enumeration and mensuration on maps recently obtained by the
United States commissioners to the Philippines and which are
without doubt the most complete and the most thorough ever
made. The following is quoted from the introduction to these
maps, which are being published by the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey. All the islands or groups having an area of over
20 square miles have been measured, and the areas are here
given in square miles and square kilometers. Many different
statements have been made in regard to the number of the
islands composing the archipelago. The cause for this must be
attributed to the scale of the charts on which the count was
made and the difficulty of distinguishing between rocks and
formations of sufficient area to dignify them by the name of
islands. Thus on a small-scale Spanish chart of the entire
group 948 islands were counted; on various large-scale charts
of the same area there were found 1,725. The principal
islands, with the extent of shore line of some of them and
their area, are given on the following lists. The areas were
carefully measured, but are subject to the inaccuracy of the
length of general shore line.

Name. Square Miles. Square

kilometers.

Babuyan 36
93
Bagata, or Quinalasag 27
70
Balabae 38
98
Basilan 350
907
Batan 21
54
Bantayan 26
67
Bohol 1,430
3,727
Bucas 41
106
Burias 153
422
Busuanga 328
850
Calayan 37
96
Calamian 117
303
Camiguin (Babnyanes group) 54
140
Camiguin 71
184
Catandunanes 680
1,761
Cebu 1,742
4,512
Dalupiri 20
53
Dinagat 259
671
Dumaran 95
246
Fuga 21
54
Guimaras 176
456
 Leite (Leyte) 2,713
7,027
Linapacan 40
104
Luzon 47,238
122,346
Mactan 20
52
Malhou (Homonkon) 35
91
Marindugna 287
743
Masbate 1.200
3,341
Mindanao 36,237
93,854
Mindoro 3,972
10,987
Negros 4,854
12,571
Olutanga 71
184
Panaon 57
148
Panay 4,708
12,194
Panglao 24
62
Pangutaran 32
85
Polillo 231
598
Samal 105