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WorldMags.net

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The Second World War left an indelible mark on the

landscape and the people, not just of Britain and Germany,
but the world. Book of World War II aims to put the well-
known tales, memories and ruins of the war into context, and
bring to life the events that led to these lasting changes. Find
out how the war began, who fought and made key decisions
throughout its duration, and how it finally came to an end.
Uncover the stories behind some of the war's most pivotal
events – from the Battle of Midway and the attack on Pearl
Harbor to the D-Day landings and the firebombing of Tokyo
– and learn how these defining moments shaped the course
of history. See the chronology of the war through evocative
images, read detailed accounts and gain an insight into what
it was like to live during the period with this compendium of
the last world war.

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WorldMags.net

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WorldMags.net
BOOK OF

Imagine Publishing Ltd

Richmond House
33 Richmond Hill
Bournemouth
Dorset BH2 6EZ
 +44 (0) 1202 586200
Website: www.imagine-publishing.co.uk
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Editor in Chief
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Disclaimer
The publisher cannot accept responsibility for any unsolicited material lost or damaged in the
post. All text and layout is the copyright of Imagine Publishing Ltd. Nothing in this bookazine may
be reproduced in whole or part without the written permission of the publisher. All copyrights are
recognised and used specifically for the purpose of criticism and review. Although the bookazine has
endeavoured to ensure all information is correct at time of print, prices and availability may change.
This bookazine is fully independent and not affiliated in any way with the companies mentioned herein.

This bookazine is published under licence from Carlton Publishing Group Limited.
All rights in the licensed material belong to Carlton Publishing Limited and it
may not be reproduced, whether in whole or in part, without the prior written
consent of Carlton Publishing Limited. ©2016 Carlton Publishing Limited.

The content in this book has appeared previously in the Carlton book The Second World War

All About History Book Of World War II Third Edition © 2016 Imagine Publishing Ltd

ISBN 9781785463433

Part of the

bookazine series

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World War II
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CONTENTS
08 - Introduction
10 - Operations map 1931–1941
12 - Operations map 1941–1942
14 - Operations map 1942–1944
16 - Operations map 1944–1945
18 - Forging the Peace
20 - Japan’s War in China
22 - Italy’s Wars
24 - Germany destroys Versailles
26 - Arming for War in the 1930s
28 - The Munich Crisis
30 - The Occupation and Break-up
of Czechoslovakia
32 - The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
34 - Germany invades Poland
36 - Britain and France declare War
38 - The Soviet-Finnish war
40 - The Battle of the River Plate
42 - The Invasion of Norway
44 - Churchill takes over
46 - Germany invades in the West
48 - Dunkirk
50 - The Fall of France
52 - Germany’s New Order
54 - The Battle of Britain
56 - The East African Campaigns
58 - Operation “Sealion”
60 - The German Blitz on Britain
62 - The Tripartite Pact
64 - Naval War in the Mediterranean
66 - Operation “Compass”:
Defeat of Italy in North Africa
68 - German Invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece
70 - The German conquest of Crete
72 - Sinking the Bismarck
74 - Hitler turns East
76 - Operation “Barbarossa”
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78 - The Siege of Leningrad
80 - Operation “Typhoon”
82 - Defeat in North Africa
84 - The Allied Invasion of Iraq & Syria
86 - The Atlantic Charter
88 - Operation “Crusader”
90 - Pearl Harbor
92 - Blitzkrieg in Asia
94 - Lend-Lease
96 - The Wannsee Conference
98 - The Fall of Singapore
100 - Commando Raids: Norway to St Nazaire
102 - The Siege of Malta
104 - Corregidor: Fall of the Philippines
106 - Japan conquers Burma
108 - The Battle of Coral Sea
110 - Operation “Ironclad”
112 - The First Thousand-Bomber Raid
114 - Oil
116 - Operation “Blue”
118 - The Battle of Midway
120 - Crisis in Egypt
122 - The Battle of the Atlantic
124 - Into the Caucasus
126 - Battle for the Solomons
128 - The Dieppe Raid
130 - The tide turns in North Africa
132 - The Battle for Stalingrad
134 - Second Alamein
136 - Operation “Torch”
138 - Guadalcanal
140 - Operation “Uranus”
142 - Defeat at Stalingrad
144 - The Casablanca Conference
146 - Operation “Longcloth”: Chindits in Burma
148 - The end of the Axis in Africa: Tunisia
150 - The Dambusters raid
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152 - Rationing: The war for food 220 - Behind Barbed Wire: The Fate of POWs
154 - The Battle of Kursk 222 - The Battle of the Bulge
156 - Operation “Husky”: Invasion of Sicily 224 - Soviet Advance on Germany:
158 - The Bombing of Hamburg Vistula-Oder Operation
160 - The French Resistance 226 - The Yalta Conference
162 - From Kharkov to Kiev: 228 - Iwo Jima
the Red Army breaks through 230 - The Firebombing of Tokyo
164 - Italy: Invasion and Surrender 232 - The Western Advance into Germany:
166 - Operation “Cartwheel”: War for New Guinea From the Rhine to the Elbe
168 - Island-hopping in the Pacific: 234 - Okinawa
Gilbert and Marshall Islands 236 - Liberation of the Camps
170 - The Big Three: The Teheran Conference 238 - Victory in Burma
172 - Partisan War 240 - Battle for Berlin
174 - Battle of the North Cape 242 - Last Days in Hitler’s Bunker
176 - The Battle for Anzio 244 - Victory in Italy
178 - The Battle for Monte Cassino 246 - The German Surrender
180 - The Secret War: Spies, Codes and Deception 248 - The Atomic Bombs
182 - Battle for India: Imphal and Kohima 250 - The Japanese Surrender
184 - Japan’s War in China: Operation “Ichi-Go” 252 - The Casualties
186 - D-Day 254 - The War Crimes Trials
188 - Battle for Normandy 256 - From World War to Cold War
190 - The V-Weapons Campaign 258 - Credits
192 - The Marianas: Defence to the Death
194 - Battle of the Philippine Sea
196 - Operation “Bagration”
198 - Defeat of the Luftwaffe
200 - Stalemate in Italy
202 - July Plot: The Coup that Failed
204 - Breakout: Operation “Cobra”
206 - The Warsaw Uprising
208 - The End of Vichy France:
Operation “Dragoon”
210 - The Liberation of Paris
212 - Operation “Market Garden”
214 - Yugoslavia: Liberation from within
216 - The Recapture of the Philippines
218 - The Battle of Leyte Gulf
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INTRODUCTION
he Second World War was the largest and
T costliest war in human history. Its scale
was genuinely global, leaving almost no
part of the world unaffected. At its end the political
geography of the world was transformed and the
stage set for the emergence of the modern states’
system. It is possible to exaggerate the break
represented by victory in 1945, but the change
between the pre-war world of economic crisis,
European imperialism and militant nationalism
and the post-war world of economic boom,
decolonisation and the ideological confrontation of
the Cold War was a fundamental one.
It is worth remembering that no-one at the start
could be certain what direction the war might
take or could anticipate the degree of destruction
and violence that it would draw in its wake. A
number of different areas of conflict coalesced,
like separate fires growing into a single inferno:
the European conflict over German efforts to
break the restrictions imposed after her defeat in
the First World War; the conflicts generated by an
expansionist and ambitious Fascist Italy whose
leader, Benito Mussolini, dreamed of re-creating
the Roman Empire; and the war for Asia fought
in the east by Imperial Japan, determined to
assert the right of non-white peoples to a share
of empire; and in western Asia by an alliance of
anti-Communist states grouped around Hitler’s
Germany which launched a crusade against the
new Soviet system in 1941.
As the war grew in scope all the major powers
were drawn in. It is often asserted that the entry
of the United States in December 1941 made
victory certain for the Allied powers through
sheer economic weight, but the outcome was not
pre-ordained. Germany and her allies had large
resources and captured yet more. German and
Japanese forces fought with high skill. To win
the war the Allies needed to improve fighting
power, to co-ordinate their activities and to keep
their populations, even in times of tribulation,
committed to the cause. The idea that the Axis
powers, and Germany in particular, lost the war
through their own ineptitude distorts the extent to
which the Allies had to learn to fight with greater
effectiveness and to exploit their own scientific,
technical and intelligence resources to the full. It
is a measure of the significance they all gave to the
war, not simply as the means to their own survival,
but as a way to impose one world order or another,
that they made the sacrifices they did. There was
a powerful sense that this really was a war that
would shape the way history would be made.
The Second World War: The Complete Illustrated
History is the story of that conflict from its roots in
the post-war settlement of 1919 to the final victory
of the Allies and the re-establishment of a more
stable world order. It starts with the early years of
more limited war, when German armies conquered
much of Europe with relatively low casualties and
with lightning speed. In just 19 months Germany
had conquered an area from Norway to Crete,
the French Atlantic coast to Warsaw. It is little
wonder that Hitler and the German leadership felt
confident that they could now build a New Order
on the ruins of the old.
It follows the war’s progress as the Axis states
pushed out into the Soviet Union, South-east Asia
and the Pacific and almost to the Suez Canal. In the
Soviet Union only exceptional efforts staved off
defeat, but with losses on an extraordinary scale,
any other state would have sued for peace. Stalin’s
ability to keep his people fighting was a vital
element in 1941 and 1942 when the Western Allies
were struggling to avoid defeat in the Pacific and
Atlantic, and could do little to hinder the German
advance. For the Allies these years turned into
a holding operation in which they tried to avoid
anything worse happening. For their Axis enemies
the tantalising prize of a new world order seemed
still within their grasp – German soldiers were in
the Caucasus, Japanese soldiers a short step from
Australia and German and Italian forces deep
inside Egypt.
However this was not to be. Slowly but surely on
land and sea and in the air, the tide of war began
to flow the Allies’ way. It became clear that Axis
forces, which had once seemed all but unstoppable,
could be defeated in open battle. Victory in the
desert war paved the way for the reconquest of the
Mediterranean; victory in the Solomons opened
a small doorway into the defensive frontier of the
Japanese Empire through which the Allies poured
overwhelming naval, air and military strength;
victory at Stalingrad demonstrated to the world
that the Red Army had come of age and the period
of easy German victories was over.
The Struggles of the end of the war were the
costliest of the entire conflict. Most Western,
German and Japanese casualties date from the
final 18 months of combat. The sight of distant
victory did not make the war easier to wage
but called for the most supreme of efforts. The
prospect of catastrophic defeat called for desperate
measures of defence from the Axis forces. When
the war was finally over in August 1945 the world
had to take stock of the wreckage left behind. The
changes provoked by the war were this time more
permanent than in 1918. Nothing to compare with
the Second World War has occurred in the sixty-
three years since it ended, but its long shadow has
extended down to the present.
RICHARD OVERY, 2010
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OPERATIONS 1931–1941
etween September 1939 and May 1941 alone, was under growing threat in North

B the Axis powers in Europe, Germany

and Italy, came to dominate most of the
European continent from Norway in the north to
Crete in the south. The Allies had more success in
the naval war and in sub-Saharan Africa,
but by mid-1941 the British Empire, fighting
Africa and the Middle East and, in eastern Asia,
from the expanding Japanese Empire, which
by mid-1941 reached down deep into Chinese
territory and was poised to threaten the eastern
European imperial possessions from India to the
Dutch East Indies.

GENERAL MAP KEY — TO SPREAD MAPS WORLD MAP KEY

Military units Nationalities Military types FRONTIERS, 1941
XXXXX
JAPANESE EMPIRE, 1937
Army Group German Infantry
XXXX
Army Italian Armour ITALY'S AFRICAN EMPIRE, 1939
XXX
Japanese Airbourne
Corps
XX French
Division
X
Brigade
British EUROPE MAP KEY
III Soviet FRONTIERS, 1941
Regiment
II Other (named)
AXIS STATES AXIS CONQUERED TERRITORY
Battalion
I
Company AXIS ALLIES VICHY FRANCE AND TERRITORIES

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World War II
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OPERATIONS 1941—1942
rom May 1941 to summer of the following

F year, the Axis powers ruled almost

unchallenged over Western Europe.
This permitted Hitler to launch an unprovoked
invasion of the Soviet Union in autumn 1941,

Glasgow
Edinburgh

U N I O N O F S O V I E T IRELAND
The Battle of the Atlantic, S O C I A L I S T R E P U B L I C S
U N I T E D
January 1942– March 1943 GREAT Dublin
BRITAIN
C A N A D A
GERMANY
Liverpool Manchester
FRANCE SEE RIGHT
The Atlantic Charter, Cork
9–12 August 1941 ITALY K I N G D O M
J A PA N
Birmingham
U N I T E D S TAT E S SEE BOTTOM RIGHT C H I N A
OF AMERICA
A T L A N T I C I N D I A
P A C I F I C London
O C E A N F R E NC H W E S T Plymouth
AFRICA O C E A N
A t l a n t i c Portsmouth
E n g l i s h C h a n n e l
O c e a n Cherbourg
IN DIAN Lill
B R A Z I L
O CEAN SEE BOTTOM LEFT Brest The Dieppe Raid,
Caen
19 August 1942
Se
A U S T R A L I A ine
Operation “Ironclad”: Paris
Commando Raids:
S OU T H
the Allied conquest of Madagascar, from Norway to St. Nazaire,
AFRICA
5 May–5 November 1942 3 March 1941–27 March 1942
Lo
Nantes ire

F R A N C E

GENERAL MAP KEY — TO SPREAD MAPS MID EAST MAP KEY M O N G O L I A M AN C HUR I A

Military units Nationalities

FRENCH MANDATE, TO VICHY FRANCE
XXXXX
KORE A JA
Army Group German
C H I N A Tokyo
XXXX
Italian Japan conquers Burma, Nanking
Army
XXX
FAR EAST MAP KEY 20 January–16 June 1942 Shanghai
Japanese
Corps JAPANESE EMPIRE, Formosa Iw
XX United States 1942 Kunming Blitzkrieg in Asia:
Division BU R M A Japan attacks
JAPANESE ALLIED Hong Kong Malaya,Burma,
X British STATES Dutch East Indies
Brigade I N D I A and The Philippines,
Soviet LIMIT OF JAPANESE SIAM 8 December–
III EXPANSION, 1942 Rangoon F RE NCH 11 May 1941
Manila
Regiment I ND O-
French PHILIPPINES
II CH I NA
Battalion Romanian Saigon Corregidor:
the Fall of
I Ceylon the Philippines,
Company Finnish EUROPE MAP KEY MALAY STATES 7–8 May 1942

Singapore
Military types Vichy (named) AXIS STATE, 1942 Borneo
Celebes Hollan

Hungarian DUTCH EAST INDIES New

Infantry AXIS ALLIED The Fall of Singapore,
STATES, 1942 7–15 February 1942 Jakata
Other (named)
Armour Timor Port
AXIS OCCUPIED, 1942
Airbourne I N D I A N O C E A N
LIMIT OF AXIS EXPANSION AU S T R A L I A
Mechanised EASTWARDS, 1942

12 WorldMags.net
 Operations 1941—1942
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which after initial rapid advances stalled outside series of lightning assaults, pushing the paralysed the War, and, though Japan’s forces pushed the
Moscow in the winter snow, and, despite reaching British forces out of the Malay peninsula and Americans out of the Philippines and a series of
into the Caucasus the next spring, never quite capturing the vital strategic position of Singapore. other island positions in the Pacific, a serious
succeeded in defeating the Soviets. In eastern The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December naval check at Midway showed their over-
Asia, the Japanese joined the conflict, launching a 1941, however, brought the United States into extended perimeter’s vulnerability.

N O R W A Y FINLAND
Oslo Helsinki Leningrad

Stockholm The Siege of Leningrad,

Commando Raids: Reval 8 September 1941–27 January 1944)
from Norway to St. Nazaire, S O V I E T
3 March 1941–27 March 1942 E S T O N I A
S W E D E N Rybinsk
Yaroslavl
V

ol
ga
Gorkiyatov
Gothenburg Pskov
N o r t h Vladimir

S e a Riga Moscow
L A T V I A Operation “Typhoon”:
Dv the Battle for Moscow,
ina
DENMARK B a l t i c Dünaburg
30 September–14 December 1941
L I T H U A N I A
Ryazan
Tula
Copenhagen S e a
Smolensk
Wilna U N I O N
Königsberg REICHSKOMMISSARIAT
Danzig
Hamburg Mogilev Orel
EAST OSTLAND Tambov

Dnieper
NETHERLANDS Bremen PRUSSIA Briansk Saratov
Stettin
a
tul

Amsterdam Minsk
Vi s

Rotterdam Berlin
Hanover
The Wannsee Conference
and the “Final Solution”, Kursk
The Thousand- Elbe 20 January 1942 Gomel
Bomber Raid: Warsaw Brest
Brussels Oder
e Cologne,
30 May 1942 Leipzig Lodz GENERAL
BELGIUM U K R A I N E
GOVERNMENT
Breslau
Frankfurt Operation “Barbarossa”, Kharkov Stalingrad Vo l g a
Kiev
LUXEMBOURG G R E A T E R G E R M A N Y 22 June–30 September 1941
Operation “Blue”:
Prague Cracow REICHSKOMMISSARIAT the German advance to Stalingrad,
Metz
Dni 28 June–19 August 1942
Stuttgart BOHEMIA Lemberg UKRAINE epe
r
MORAVIA
ine

Strassburg be
Danu
Rh

Dnepropetrovsk
n
Munich SLOVAKIA Dni Do
est
er Taganrog Rostov-on-Don

Budapest Debrecen Nikolayev

H U N G A R Y Kherson
Chisinau Sea of
Odessa Azov
A PA N Perekop
Kerch
Black CRIMEA Into the Caucasus,
Timisoara 25 July–9 November 1942
P A C I F I C The Battle of Midway, Sea
4–5 June 1942 R O M A N I A Sevastopol Novorossiisk
O C E A N
wo Jima Midway
Hawaiian G R E E C E
Palermo I T A L Y
Islands Izmir T U R K E Y
Athens
Mariana Sicily Adana
Wake Island Pearl Harbor, Tunis
Islands The Siege of Malta, I R A N
7 December 1941 Aleppo
Malta (April–August) 1942 Rhodes Mosul
Saipan Crete CYPRUS SYRIA
Guam TUNISIA (British) Nicosia
The Allied Invasion of iraq & Syria,
(Vichy) 8 June–14 July 1941
Operation “Crusader”: LEBANON
Cyrenaica recaptured, Mediterranean Sea
Beirut
18 November 1941– Damascus
Baghdad
Tripoli 21 January 1942 Crisis in Egypt:
Tobruk Gazala and Tobruk,
Benghazi 14–21 June 1942 I R A Q
Gilbert Jerusalem Amman
Islands PALESTINE Basra
ndia ALGERIA Alexandria
(Vichy) TRANSJORDAN
w Guinea Rabaul Cairo Suez Kuwait
Battle for the Solomons, Defeat in North Africa,
7 August–27 October 1942 24 March–17 June 1941
Moresby E G Y P T
The limit of Japanese expansion: SAUDI ARABIA
Battle of the Coral Sea, L I B Y A
5–7 May 1942 (Italian Empire)

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World War II
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OPERATIONS 1942—1944
he years 1942–1944 were the turning point

T of the war. In 1942 Japanese advances into

south-east Asia, Burma and the Pacific
islands created a large new area of Japanese
imperial rule. In Germany, following a slowdown

IRELAND
U N
Dublin

Cork
K I N
Rationing:
the War for Food

Battle of the North Cape:

the sinking of the Scharnhorst,
26–27 Dec. 1943 U N I O N O F S O V I E T Plymouth
S O C I A L I S T R E P U B L I C S
A t l a n t i c
E n g l i s h
GREAT
C A N A D A BRITAIN O c e a n Cherbourg
GERMANY
FRANCE The Big Three: Brest
ITALY The Teheran Conference,
The Casablanca Conference: 28 Nov.–1 Dec. 1943
“Unconditional Surrender”, J A PA N
14–24 Jan. 1943 Casablanca Teheran
U N I T E D S TAT E S C H I N A
SEE RIGHT The French Resistance
OF AMERICA
A T L A N T I C I N D I A Nantes
FRENCH WEST P A C I F I C
O C E A N
AFRICA O C E A N
F R

I N DI AN
B R A Z I L
Bordeaux
O C E AN
SEE BOTTOM RIGHT

A U S T R A L I A
Bilbao
Toulouse

L
SOUTH Eb
AFRICA ro

A
Do
ur

G
o

T U
Ta g u
s Madrid

R
P O Barcelona

GENERAL MAP KEY — TO SPREAD MAPS S P A I N

Military units Nationalities

Balearics
XXXXX
Army Group German
XXXX
Army Italian
Gibraltar
XXX
FAR EAST MAP KEY (British)
Japanese
Corps JAPANESE EMPIRE, SPAINISH MOROCCO
XX United States 1942 Algiers
Oran
Division
JAPANESE ALLIED
X British STATES
Brigade
Soviet LIMIT OF JAPANESE
III EXPANSION, 1942
Regiment
French
II Operation “Torch”,
8 Nov.–Feb. 1943
Battalion Romanian
I
Company Finnish EUROPE MAP KEY MOROCCO
A L G

Military types Vichy (named) AXIS STATE, 1942

Hungarian AXIS ALLIED

Infantry
STATES, 1942
Other (named)
Armour
AXIS OCCUPIED, 1942 A F R I C A
Airbourne
LIMIT OF AXIS EXPANSION
Mechanised EASTWARDS, 1942

14 WorldMags.net
 Operations 1942—1944
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of the German attack in the winter of 1941–2, a point on the Allies began to organise an effective invaded in 1943 and surrendered in September
renewed campaign in southern Russia brought defence and then begin a slow programme of of that year, and the Red Army reached into the
German forces to the Volga and the Caucasus offensives in the Pacific islands, in the North Ukraine by the end of 1943. By the middle of 1944
mountains. In North Africa by mid-1942 Axis African desert and deep inside Soviet territory the stage was set for the final desperate struggle
forces were deep in Egyptian territory. From this which pushed the Axis forces back. Italy was for Europe and the Far East.

S W E D E N Vladimir
Riga Moscow
I T E D L A T V I A
Dv S O V I E T
N o r t h DENMARK ina
B a l t i c L I T H U A N I A Dünaburg
Liverpool
S e a Ryazan
Manchester Tula
Copenhagen S e a
G D O M The Bombing of Hamburg: Wilna Smolensk
Birmingham
Operation “Gomorrah”,
24–25 Jul. 1943
REICHSKOMMISSARIAT U N I O N
Danzig Königsberg Mogilev Orel
The Secret War: Hamburg OSTLAND Tambov

Dnieper
spies, codes and EAST
NETHERLANDS Bremen PRUSSIA Briansk
a

deception Stettin Saratov

tul

London Amsterdam Minsk

Vi s

Rotterdam
Hanover Berlin
Portsmouth Defeat at Stalingrad,
C h a n n e l Kursk 19 Nov.– 2 Feb. 1943
Elbe Partisan War
Warsaw Brest Gomel
Brussels Oder The Battle of Kursk,
Lille The Battle for Stalingrad
Dambusters, Leipzig Lodz 5–13 Jul. 1943
BELGIUM 7 May 1943 GENERAL U K R A I N E 19 Aug.–19 Nov. 1942
Caen GOVERNMENT Don
Se

Frankfurt Wroclaw Kharkov Vo l g a

ine

G E R M A N E M P I R E Kiev
LUXEMBOURG Stalingrad
Paris
From Kharkov to Kiev:
Cracow REICHSKOMMISSARIAT the Red Army Breaks Through,
Metz Prague
Dni 23 Aug.– 6 Nov. 1943
Lo Stuttgart BOHEMIA Lemberg UKRAINE ep
er
ine

ire Strassburg The Soviet Counter-Stroke:

be
Danu
Rh

Dnepropetrovsk Operation “Uranus”,

19 Nov.– 24 Dec. 1942
SLOVAKIA Dni
Munich est
A N C E Vienna er Taganrog Rostov-on-Don

SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA Budapest

Debrecen Kherson
Nikolayev
H U N G A R Y
Lyons Chisinau Sea of
Azov
Odessa Perekop
Kerch
e
Rhôn

Trieste Black CRIMEA

Turin Po Timisoara Sea Novorossiisk
R O M A N I A Sevastopol
I

Genoa
C R O A T I A
T

Marseille

M O N G O L I A MANCHURIA
A

Corsica
L

Rome
C H I N A KO R E A J A PA N
The Battle for
Y

Anzio, 22 Jan.– Anzio Monte Cassino, Operation “Longshot”:

24 May 1944 17 Jan.–9 May 1943 the Chindits in Burma, Tokyo
8 Feb.–30 Apr. 1943
P A C I F I C
Nanking
Shanghai O C E A N
Naples Salerno
Iwo Jima Midway
Sardini a Taranto Kunming Formosa
Cagliari Hawaiian
I N D I A Japan’s War in China: Islands
BU R M A Hong Kong Operation “Ichi-Go”,
Italy: Invasion and Surrender, Mariana
18 April–Nov. 1944 Wake Island
3–8 Sep. 1943 Battle for India: Islands Island-Hopping in the Pacific:
s Imphal, SIAM The Gilbert and Marshall
Palermo 8 May–3 Jul.; Rangoon FRENCH Manila Saipan Islands, 20 Nov.–17 Feb. 1944
Messina Kohima, INDO- Guam
4 Apr.–22 Jun. 1944 PHILIPPINES Marshall
CHINA
Islands
Tunis Operation “Husky”: Saigon Truk
the Capture of Sicily,
9 Jul.–17 Aug. 1943 Ceylon
M ALAY STATES Operation “Cartwheel”:
The End of the Axis the war for New Guinea, Gilbert
in Africa: Tunisia, Singapore 30 Jun.–Mar. 1944 Islands
19 Feb.–13 May Malta Borneo
(British) Celebes Hollandia
1943
DUTCH EAST INDIES New Guinea Rabaul
Solomon
E R I A M e d i t e r r a n e a n Jakata Islands
T U N I S I A
S e a Timor Port Moresby
Mareth Guadalcanal,
I N D I A N O C E A N AUSTRALIA 12 Nov. 1942–8 Feb. 1943

Tripoli
Dera
N
TINE

Benghazi Second Alamein,

RDA

The Tide Turns in North Africa:

23 Oct.–4 Nov.1942 Alam Halfa, 13–30 Aug. 1942
S
PALE

SJO

Alexandria
TRAN

El Alamein Suez Canal

L I B Y A El Agheila E G Y P T
le
Ni

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World War II
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OPERATIONS 1944—1945
he last eighteen months of war saw the

T German and Japanese empires forced back

on all fronts. The invasion of northern
France in June 1944 opened up the path to the
heart of German resistance. In Italy progress was

Dublin
IRELAND

Liverpool
Cork Manchester

U N I T E D
K I N G D O M
Birmingham

The V-Weapons Campaign,

U N I O N O F S O V I E T 13 June 1944–29 March 1945
S O C I A L I S T R E P U B L I C S
Plymouth London
GREAT The Yalta Conference,
C A N A D A BRITAIN 5–11 February 1945 Portsmouth
GERMANY Dover
FRANCE A t l a n t i c
Yalta E n g l i s h C h a n n e l
Yugoslavia:
Liberation from Within, SEE RIGHT J A PA N O c e a n Cherbourg
1944–1945
U N I T E D S TAT E S C H I N A Lille
OF AMERICA P A C I F I C Rouen
A T L A N T I C D-Day, 6 June 1944
I N D I A Brest
O C E A N FR E N C H WE ST O C E A N Caen
Breakout: Operation “Cobra”,

Se
A FR IC A 25 July–25 August 1944

ine
Battle for Normandy, Paris
7 June–24 July 1944 The Liberation
I N DI AN of Paris,
B R A Z I L 19–25 August 1944
O C EAN
SEE BOTTOM RIGHT Lo
Nantes ire

A U S T R A L I A

SO UT H
AF RI CA
F R A N C E

Vichy

GENERAL MAP KEY — TO SPREAD MAPS Bordeaux

Lyons
Military units Nationalities
XXXXX
Army Group German Bilbao

e
Rhôn
Toulouse
XXXX
Army Italian
XXX
FAR EAST MAP KEY The End of Vichy France:
Japanese Eb Operation “Dragoon”,
ro
Corps JAPANESE EMPIRE, 14 August–14 September 1944
XX United States 1942
Division Marseille
JAPANESE ALLIED
X British STATES
Brigade
Soviet LIMIT OF JAPANESE S P A I N
III EXPANSION, 1942
Regiment Barcelona
French
II
Battalion Romanian
I
Company Finnish EUROPE MAP KEY
Military types Vichy (named) AXIS STATE, 1942

Hungarian AXIS ALLIED

Infantry
STATES, 1942
Other (named)
Armour
AXIS OCCUPIED, 1942
Airbourne
LIMIT OF AXIS EXPANSION
Mechanised EASTWARDS, 1942

16 WorldMags.net
 Operations 1944—1945
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slow up the narrow, mountainous peninsula. In the island. The army attacked through the Philippines,
east, Soviet armies pushed into Poland by August the US Navy through the islands of the central
1944, and into Germany itself by the start of 1945. Pacific, finally seizing Okinawa by June 1945
Berlin was captured in May. In the Pacific, Japanese and paving the way for possible invasion. Atomic
resistance had to be worn down slowly, island by bombs ended the war in the Pacific in August 1945.

Riga
Moscow
S W E D E N
L A T V I A
DENMARK

Dvin
a
B a l t i c
L I T H U A N I A Dünaburg
S e a
N o r t h Copenhagen

July Plot: Smolensk

S e a Wilna
the Coup that Failed,
20 July 1944 Königsberg
Danzig Rastenburg Mogilev
Hamburg The German Surrender,
7–11 May 1945 Operation “Bagration”,
EAST 22 June–19 August 1944

Dnieper
NETHERLANDS Bremen Lüneburg PRUSSIA

ula
Stettin
Vi s t
Liberation of thecamps: Bergen-Belsen,
Amsterdam 15 April 1945 Minsk
Rotterdam Operation “Market Garden”,
17–26 september 1944 Hanover Berlin
Defeat of the Luftwaffe,
March–September 1944
Soviet Advance on Germany:
Vistula–-Oder offensive, S O V I E T
Battle for Berlin, 12 January–2 February 1945
16 April–2 May 1945
G E R M A N Last days in Hitler's bunker,
1 April–2 May 1945
Warsaw Brest Gomel
Brussels The Western Advance From World War to The Warsaw Uprising,
into Germany: from the Cold War, 1945–1949 Oder 1 August–2 October 1944
BELGIUM Rhine to the Elbe,
Leipzig
Lodz
U N I O N
El

7 March–25 April 1945

be

Wroclaw
LUXEMBOURG Behind Barbed Wire:
the Fate of the POWs GENERAL
Frankfurt Kiev
The Battle of the Bulge, GOVERNMENT
16 December 1944–
7 February 1945 E M P I R E Prague Cracow
Dnie
Metz Nuremberg per
Liberation of the
The War Crimes Trials, BOHEMIA
ine

Camps: Auschwitz,
Stuttgart 1945–1949 Lemberg
Rh

Strassburg 27 January 1945

be U K R A I N E
Danu
Dnepropetrovsk
SLOVAKIA
Munich Dni
Vienna est
er
H U N G A R Y
AUSTRIA R O M A N I A
SWITZERLAND Budapest Debrecen

MONGOLIA MANCHURIA

J A PA N The Japanese Surrender,

Milan P A C I F I C
C H I N A KOREA 14 August–2 September 1945
Trieste
Turin The Atomic Bombs,
Hiroshima Tokyo O C E A N
6–9 August 1945 The Firebombing of Tokyo,
Po Nagasaki 9–10 March 1945
Nanking
Genoa Shanghai Iwo Jima,
Victory in Italy, 19 February–26 March 1945
Okinawa, Iwo Jima
1 April–2 May 1945 Midway
23 March–30 June 1945 Okinawa
I

Kunming
Hong Kong
T

I N D I A BURMA
Formosa
Battle of the Philippine Sea, Hawaiian
Victory in Burma, 19–21 June 1944 Mariana Wake Island
Islands
A

January– SIAM Islands

28 August 1945 Rangoon FRENCH Manila Saipan The Marianas: Defence to the Death,
INDO- PHILIPPINES 15 June–10 August 1944
Guam
L

Corsica Stalemate in Italy,

CHINA
The Battle of Leyte Gulf,
5 June–31 December 1944 Saigon 23–26 October 1944 Truk
Y

Marshall
Ceylon Islands
Rome The Recapture of the Philippines
MALAY STATES 20 October 1944–14 August 1945
Gilbert
Anzio Islands
Singapore
Borneo Hollandia
Celebes
DUTCH EAST INDIES New Guinea Rabaul
Solomon
Naples Jakata Islands
Sardinia Timor Port Moresby

I N D I A N O C E A N
AUSTRALIA
Cagliari

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World War II
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FORGING THE PEACE
28 JUNE 1919 10 JANUARY 1920 1 DECEMBER 1925 10 SEPTEMBER 1926 29 OCTOBER 1929 9 JULY 1932
Treaty of Versailles League of Nations Locarno Treaty Germany is admitted Wall Street Crash Lausanne conference

1919 – 1929 signed by German

delegation in Paris.
opening session. signed conirming
the post-war
settlement in
to the League
of Nations.
triggers worldwide
economic slump.
suspends German
reparation payments.

Western Europe.

he formal end of hostilities in the First BELOW: The building assigned to the League of Nations in Geneva.

T World War on 11 November 1918 left

Europe shattered by four years of the
bloodiest conflict in history: more than 8,000,000
The assembly moved to Switzerland in 1920, meeting here with 38 member states.

had been killed; twice as many maimed; millions

more the victims of starvation or disease brought
on by wartime conditions. There existed at its
conclusion a widespread popular desire that this
really would be “the war to end war”.
The settlement arranged by the victorious
Allies at Versailles between 1919 and 1920 was
supposed to build the foundations of a durable
peace. The principles behind the settlement were
first declared by the American President Woodrow
Wilson in January 1918 in the form of Fourteen
Points. The most important of them committed
the Allies to allowing those nationalities of
Europe previously dominated by the pre-war
dynastic empires of Germany, Austria-Hungary
and Russia to establish independent nation For all the idealism of the victor powers, the at their treatment. Germany was treated with
states. Wilson hoped that all Europe’s states settlement was far from ideal. Self-determination extreme severity: areas of East Prussia and Silesia
would adopt a democratic form of rule. There was was difficult to organize in practice because were handed over to Poland; the Saar industrial
also a commitment to of the extensive ethnic mixing in region was internationalized; the Rhineland
international collaboration central and eastern Europe. Many provinces were demilitarized; Germany was
through what became Europeans ended up living under allowed only a tiny 100,000-man armed force
known as the League of the rule of a quite different ethnic for internal security; and a bill of reparations,
Nations, whose members majority: Germans in Czechoslovakia finally settled at 132 billion gold marks, would
were to pledge themselves and Poland; Hungarians in Romania; have required Germany to pay out to the Allies
to the principle that all Ukrainians in Poland. Britain, France until 1980. Disarmed, impoverished and shorn
future conflicts between and Italy refused to extend “self- of territory, Germany had more reason than any
them should be resolved determination” to their colonial other power to overturn the Versailles Settlement
by negotiation rather than empires. Britain and France took at the first opportunity.
through war. over control of former German and
Turkish territory as mandates from
the League, but then treated them as
simple additions to their empires. The
ABOVE: German statesman Gustav defeated powers, Germany, Austria,
Stresemann who, as German Foreign
Hungary and Bulgaria, all lost territory
Minister between 1924 and 1929, tried
to pursue a policy of “fulilment” of the as a result of the settlement and
terms of the Treaty of Versailles. remained embittered and resentful

ABOVE: Lloyd George,
Georges Clemenceau and
Woodrow Wilson at the
Versailles Conference, 1919.
THE “PEACEMAKERS”
The victorious powers met in Paris in the first half of 1919 to decide the fate
of the defeated nations, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey. The
discussions were dominated by Britain, France and the United States. Russia,
recently plunged into revolution, was not invited despite the great losses
suffered at German hands during the war. Italy and Japan were also victors, but
felt cheated by the results of the conference. Italy failed to get the territory
promised to her as the price of joining the war in 1915. Japan resented the second-
class status accorded her as a non-white power. The final settlement, signed on ABOVE: A brigade of the new Red Army parades through Kharkov
28 June 1919 at the Palace of Versailles, sowed the seeds of future crisis. in 1920 during the Russian Civil War, which ended with Communist
victory a year later.

18 WorldMags.net
 Forging the Peace
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The League of Nations was also flawed from the
start. The American Senate rejected the Versailles
Treaty in 1920, and the League opened its sessions
in 1920 without the world’s richest and potentially
most powerful state, while Russia and Germany
were excluded from the League. The organization
was dominated by Britain and France, but it
was never clear how the cluster of small states
represented in the League could really prevent
future conflicts, and general war-weariness meant
that it was never really tested in the 1920s. In 1926,
Germany was finally admitted, but remained
resentful of the failure of other states to disarm
as they had promised under the terms of the
covenant of the League. These resentments were
exacerbated by the problems of economic revival
after the war; a brief American-led boom in the
mid-1920s masked a deeper economic malaise. movement in Germany led by Adolf Hitler ABOVE: Anxious shareholders stand outside the New York Stock
Hyper-inflation in Germany, Austria and the states had become the largest party in the German Exchange on 24 October 1929, a few days before the disastrous
Wall Street Crash which precipitated the world slump.
of eastern Europe peaked in 1923–24, leaving an parliament, arguing for an end to reparations and
embittered and impoverished middle class whose the overturning of the Versailles settlement. In
savings were wiped out. Trade failed to reach Japan the slump provoked another nationalist
pre-war levels and even victor countries in Europe backlash and, in 1931, army leaders launched a
were saddled with high war debts. Economic crisis campaign in northern China to seize economic
provoked social unrest and political polarization resources to aid the Japanese economy. The
which made it difficult to maintain democracy. League did nothing to halt the economic slide or
In Italy, Benito Mussolini, leader of a new radical the emergence of a violent nationalism, and by the
nationalist Fascist Party, was made premier in 1930s war was once again a strong possibility.
1922 and had created a one-party dictatorship by
1926. In 1923, a coup brought a military dictator in
Spain, General Primo de Rivera; three years later BELOW: The veteran British paciist George Lansbury pictured
in 1929. He helped to lead the widespread anti-war movement in
the Polish Marshal Pilsudski led an army coup Britain in the 1920s and 1930s.
in Poland. The newly-created Soviet Union was a
one-party state almost from the start.
The shift to authoritarian rule was accelerated ABOVE: Signing the Kellogg-Briand Pact outlawing war, Paris, 27
by the economic slump that followed the Wall August 1928. Although Germany, Italy, Japan and the USSR signed
Street Crash in October 1929. The crisis of the the Pact they all resorted to war in the 1930s.

capitalist system was the worst the world had

seen, throwing more than 40 million out of work
worldwide. Within four years, a mass nationalist

BELOW: Turkish troops camped near Smyrna in September 1922

at the height of the Graeco-Turkish war over control of western
Turkey, eventually won by the Turks. Turkey’s independence was
established by the Treaty of Lausanne in August 1923.

GERMAN DISARMAMENT
The Versailles settlement was supposed to
produce a general disarmament even among the
victorious powers. As the principal defeated
protagonist, Germany was compelled to disarm.
Its main arms and aircraft factories and naval
dockyards were destroyed or converted to
peacetime production. The large numbers of
aircraft left over in 1919 were scrapped (shown
above); German frontier fortifications were blown
up. The German fleet had to be surrendered to the
British even before the treaty was signed. Although
Britain and France did reduce their military forces
and budgets, they failed to honour the pledge to
produce universal disarmament, provoking strong
resentment at Germany’s unequal treatment, and
encouraging a wave of German nationalism.

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World War II
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JAPAN’S WAR IN CHINA
FEBRUARY 1933 FEBRUARY 1936 25 NOVEMBER 1936 29 JULY 1937 13 DECEMBER 1937 20 AUGUST 1939 12 OCTOBER 1940
The League of Nations “The February Anti-Comintern Pact Japan occupies Japan attacks the Soviet forces The Imperial Rule
30 NOVEMBER 1939 censures Japan Incident” – Young signed between Beijing and US gunboat Panay attack Japanese Assistance Association
12 MARCH 1940 for occupation of
Manchuria following a
army oicers
murder opponents
Germany and Japan
to unite in combatting
begins an eight
year war with
on the Yangtse River
creating a temporary
in Mongolian-
Manchurian
is founded to force
political parties into a
League mission under of militaristic the Moscow-based China. crisis in US-Japanese border incident single nationalist bloc.
Lord Lytton. nationalism in Tokyo. Communist International. relations. at Nomanhan.

etween 1931 and the end of the Second

B World War in 1945, the Japanese army

fought a vicious and intermittent war on
the Chinese mainland. The whole 14-year war
cost China more than 15 million civilian deaths.
Japan’s war for Asia was the last act of an epoch of
violent imperialism and among the most savage.
Hidden away from the glare of world publicity, the
Japanese occupiers indulged in continuous and
systematic atrocities against the populations
under their control.
Japan had been an imperial power since the
nineteenth century, annexing present-day
Taiwan in 1895 and Korea in 1910. In May 1915,
Japan began to encroach on Chinese sovereignty
as China collapsed into political chaos, its
territory fought over by competing warlords. In
the 1920s a Japanese army – the Kwantung – was
stationed in the northern Chinese province of
Manchuria to safeguard Japanese economic
interests. The military leadership was keen to
Japanese Empire, 1930 Attempted Japanese northern state puppet regime, 1935 Extent of Japanese advance to 1939
increase Japan’s imperial influence in China, and
Occupied by Japan, 1931 Japanese advances, 1937–39
BELOW: Japanese soldiers ire from behind sandbag defences
in the attack on the Chinese port city of Shanghai in autumn 1937
following a major amphibious assault on the coastline.

LEFT: Two
Japanese soldiers
stand guard on
top of a train in
Manchuria in
December 1931
to warn of the
approach of
Chinese bandit
forces following
the seizure of
the province in
September
that year.

CHIANG KAISHEK (1887–1975)

At the end of the First World War, China was in chaos. The
Manchu dynasty had been overthrown in 1912 and much of
China was ruled by rival independent warlords. In 1924, the main
LEFT: A 1935
nationalist movement, the Guomindang, established a regime
postage stamp
based at Canton, but which controlled very little. By 1926, a
from Manchukuo
young army officer, Chiang Kaishek, had emerged as the leading
(Manchuria)
Guomindang figure and he began a decade of reunification. His
showing Pu Yi,
early alliance with the Chinese communists was broken in 1927
the last Manchu
when he destroyed the party in China’s eastern cities. Step by
Emperor and the
step, he forced warlords to accept Nationalist rule from the new
puppet ruler of
Chinese capital at Nanjing, and by 1936 was undisputed leader of
the new Japanese-
around two-thirds of the country.
dominated
territory.

20 WorldMags.net

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the rise of Chinese nationalism – directed at the
Japanese presence – and the catastrophic effects
of the 1929 world slump on Japan’s economic
prospects were used as excuses for the Japanese
army, largely independent of the government in
Tokyo, to embark on a programme of military
expansion in Asia.
In September 1931, the Kwantung Army staged
a clumsy fake attack on a Japanese-controlled
railway near Mukden in Manchuria, and the
incident was then used to justify the rapid
Japanese occupation of much of the province.
The incumbent Chinese warlord, Chang Hsueh-
liang, was driven out and a new puppet state of
Manchukuo created in 1932, nominally ruled
by the “last emperor” Pu Yi, while Manchuria’s
rich mineral and food supplies were brought
under Japanese control. Although they were a
member of the League, Japan’s aggression was not
reversed by the other powers, and in 1933 Japan
left the organization.
Over the next three years, Japan’s army
pushed into northern China, taking control of
the provinces of Jehol, Chahar and Hopeh, and
BELOW: Communist leaders Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai during
the Long March of Chinese Communists in 1934 to the Chinese
interior province of Yan’an. Around 100,000 trekked the 5,000
miles to escape Chinese Nationalists.
BELOW: The destruction of the railway station in Shanghai
during the Japanese attack in 1937. The Japanese used bombing
indiscriminately in China, including poison gas.
Japan’s War in China
THE “RAPE OF NANKING”
On 13 December 1937, the Japanese army captured
Chiang Kaishek’s capital at Nanjing. What followed
was one of the most horrific episodes in the long
Sino-Japanese conflict. Japanese forces were
allowed weeks of uninhibited violence against the
defenceless population while their commander,
General Iwane Matsui, proved powerless to stop
them. Post-war estimates suggest that between
260,000 and 350,000 Chinese were murdered,
most of them amid scenes of terrible cruelty. All
90,000 Chinese soldiers taken prisoner were
killed, some in beheading competitions. Tens of
thousands of Chinese women of all ages were raped
and then killed. The Japanese army, Matsui told an
American journalist a few days later, was “probably
the most undisciplined army in the world”.
RIGHT: Japanese soldiers using stripped and bound Chinese
men as live targets for bayonet practice after the capture of
the Chinese capital in December 1937.
stationing one of their garrisons in the old imperial serious threat to the Japanese invaders. By 1939,
capital city of Beijing. Japan dominated most major cities and arteries of
Growing Chinese resistance sucked the Japanese communication, from the southern Yangtze River
army into further aggression: a small incident at to the northern province of Inner Mongolia.
the Marco Polo Bridge near Beijing on 7 July rapidly The sudden expansion of Japanese imperial
escalated. On 27 July, the Japanese prime minister, power destroyed the unified Chinese state Chiang
Prince Konoye, declared that Japan was now going Kaishek had tried to create. It brought Japan into
to create a “New Order” in Asia. Within weeks, a conflict with Western powers, which tolerated
full-scale war began between Chinese Nationalist Japanese aggression only because there was no
and Communist forces and the Japanese army effective way of expelling Japan’s army except
of occupation, which ended only with Japan’s at the cost of a major war that they had neither
surrender eight years later. Using the railways the will nor resources to begin. When Japanese
and river valleys, Japanese forces spread rapidly expansion did pose a direct threat to Soviet
into central China, capturing Shanghai in October interests in Mongolia, two short campaigns
1937, the Chinese Nationalist capital Nanjing in resulted, at Changkufen in 1938 and at Nomonhan
December – after which Chiang Kaishek retreated in 1939, both won by the Soviet Red Army. Japan’s
to a new capital at Chungking – and Canton on the government and armed forces preferred to look
south China coast in October 1938. Communist south to the oilfields and minerals of old European
guerrillas under Mao Zedong dominated the empires for the next stage of the construction of
remoter regions of northwest China, but posed little the Asian New Order.
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ITALY’S WARS
15 JULY 1933 14–15 JUNE 1934
Four-Power Pact signed Hitler and
1935–1939 in Rome between Italy,
Britain, France and
Germany fails to operate
Mussolini meet
for the irst time
in Venice.
as a means of ending
European tension.
taly was the second League state in the 1930s
I to violate the organization’s commitment
to peace and “collective security”. The
Italian Fascist dictator, Benito Mussolini,
dreamed of creating a new Roman Empire in the
Mediterranean and Africa as an expression of the
dynamism of the revolutionary Fascist movement.
Once the Fascist regime had been consolidated
by the early 1930s, Mussolini tried to turn these
aspirations into reality. Italy was in his view one of
the “have-not” powers denied economic resources
and colonies by what Mussolini called the richer
“plutocratic” powers of the West.
In 1934 he began to plan for an Italian invasion
of the independent East African state of Abyssinia
(Ethiopia). After he had, as he believed, won tacit
approval from Britain and France – the main
African imperial powers – Mussolini launched an
attack on 3 October 1935 with three army corps
of almost half a million men under the command
of General Emilio De Bono. The campaign
against poorly armed Ethiopian troops was slow
and in November De Bono was replaced with
Marshal Pietro Badoglio, after which the pace
quickened. To clear resistance, Italian aircraft
dropped mustard-gas bombs on Ethiopian villages
and soldiers. The decisive battle took place on
22
11 APRIL 1935 MARCH 1936 OCTOBER 1936 6 NOVEMBER 1938 22 MAY 1939
Agreement to League agree Rome-Berlin Mussolini Pact of Steel signed
create “Stresa
Front” of Italy,
Britain and
oil sanctions
against Italy,
provoking
“Axis” established. introduces anti-
Semitic laws
into Italy.
between Mussolini
and Hitler pledging
each to help the
France to keep widespread other if attacked by
the peace. protest in Italy. a third.
RIGHT: An Abyssinian
soldier practises
wearing a gas mask in
Addis Ababa in October
1935 in anticipation of
Italian gas attacks.
ITALO BALBO (1896–1940)
Italian Fascism liked to emphasize its modernity,
and air power was the ideal instrument for
demonstrating its propaganda claims for the power,
speed and heroism of the Fascist revolution. No
Fascist leader better exemplified this identification
with the air than the flamboyant Italo Balbo.
Fascist leader in the Italian city of Ferrara, he was
promoted to Air Minister between 1929 and 1933
before becoming Governor of Libya, Italy’s North
ABOVE: Abyssinians in November 1935 in the captured African colony, in 1934 and Commander-in-Chief
province of Tigre are forced to show their support for Mussolini, of Italy’s North African forces in 1937. He was a
the “Great White Father”. skilful pilot and undertook a number of famous
long-distance flights, the best known in 1933 from
Rome to Chicago and New York. On 28 June 1940,
LEFT: Members of the Italian Thirteenth two weeks after Italy declared war on Britain, the
Motorized Regiment parade past Princess plane he was piloting was shot down by Italian anti-
Maria José of Savoy after being presented aircraft fire over the Libyan port of Tobruk.
with their new colours on 1 February 1936.
Mussolini wanted Italian forces to appear
thoroughly modern as beitted the
31 March 1936 at Mai Ceu on the road to the
new Fascist dictatorship.
Ethiopian capital of Addis Ababa, where some
30–35,000 Ethiopian soldiers faced a mixed Italian
and colonial force of 40,000. Heavy artillery and
machine-gun fire left 8,000 Ethiopians dead
against total Italian casualties of 1,273.
After Mai Ceu, the road to the capital was open.
On 5 May 1936, the Italian army under Badoglio
entered Addis Ababa. Four days later, Mussolini
announced to an ecstatic crowd in Rome the
creation of the new Italian empire in Africa. The
result was Italy’s international isolation: the
League voted for trade and oil sanctions against
Italy; but oil was still supplied by the United
States, which was not a League member, and by
Romania, which defied the ban. Mussolini now
moved closer to Hitler’s Germany, and in October
1936 the two states signed an informal agreement
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usually known as the “Rome–Berlin Axis”. In
November 1937, Italy also joined the German–
Japanese Anti-Comintern Pact, so creating the trio
of expansionist states that was to fight the Second
World War under the general title of the “Axis”.
In July 1936, army rebels in Spain launched an
attempted coup against the republican regime in
Madrid. At first Mussolini, who was sympathetic
to the rebel leader, Colonel Francisco Franco, sent
some limited assistance, but from December 1936
a full military force was sent to Spain, complete
with tanks, artillery and aircraft, to help the
nationalist cause. Italian propaganda made a great
deal of Italian victories in Spain, but the conquest
of Malaga in February 1937 was achieved against a
weak and disorganized republican force.
The next month, at Guadalajara, Italian forces
suffered a humiliating defeat. With 36,000 men,
81 tanks and 160 artillery pieces against a weak
republican defensive line, the Italian commander
Roatta attacked on 8 March. The Italian line broke
and by 18 March retreated, a catastrophic blow
to their prestige from which the Italian forces
didn't recover. Mussolini continued to aid Franco
– over 75,000 Italians served in Spain – but the
nationalist victory by March 1939 owed more to
Franco’s new Spanish army than it did to their
Italian assistance.
Mussolini saw a victory for Franco in Spain as
essential for his own ambitions. In February 1939,
he told Fascist leaders that Italy had to control
the Mediterranean, which meant defeating or
expelling the British and French. The first step
was taken on 7 April, when Italian forces invaded
and occupied the Balkan state of Albania.
A few weeks later, Mussolini asked Hitler for a
more solid agreement between them. The “Pact
of Steel”, which was signed on 22 May 1939,
irrevocably tied Italy to standing side by side
with Germany in any future showdown with the
Western powers.
BELOW: A poster from the Spanish Civil War calls on
supporters of the republican government to “Rise against
the Italian Invasion in Spain”.
Italy’s Wars
RIGHT: The
Garibaldi
Brigade march
to Guadalajara,
March 1937.
ITALY IN THE
SPANISH CIVIL WAR
Italians fought on both sides in the Spanish Civil
War. To aid Franco’s nationalist rebels Mussolini
sent General Mario Roatta and 75,000 soldiers,
airmen and militia. By 1938, there were more than
300 Italian aircraft in Spain. On the republican
side, brigades of Italian anti-Fascists were formed,
which fought against fellow Italians as part of
the wider European civil war between fascism,
communism and democracy. The most famous was
the “Garibaldi Brigade” named after the legendary
guerrilla fighter Giuseppe Garibaldi, who had
helped to create the Italian nation in 1860–61.

BELOW: The Italian dictator Benito Mussolini addresses crowds

from the balcony of the Palazzo Venezia in Rome. This became his
favourite place for announcing major victories to the Italian public.

ABOVE: Italian troops occupy the Balkan state of Albania by

bicycle on 7 April 1939, overthrowing the regime of King Zog, who
led irst to Paris and then to London.

RIGHT: Medal awarded to

Italian troops who took part in ABOVE: A woman donates jewellery to Mussolini’s “Gold for the Fatherland” initiative. The gold was melted down to form bars and
the Ethiopian Campaign. distributed to banks.

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GERMANY DESTROYS VERSAILLES
30 JANUARY 1933 27 FEBRUARY 1933 24 MARCH 1933 16 OCTOBER 1933 18 JUNE 1935 2 AUGUST 1936 18 OCTOBER 1936 4 FEBRUARY 1938
Hitler appointed A ire in the “Enabling Bill” Germany Anglo- Hitler fuses Four-Year Plan Hitler assumes

1933–1938 German Chancellor

by President
Hindenburg.
Reichstag (German
Parliament) is
blamed on a
allows Hitler and
his cabinet to rule
without reference
withdraws from
the League of
Nations because
German Naval
Agreement
allows Germany
the oice of
President and
Chancellor and
launched to
prepare Germany
for war.
Supreme
Command of
the German
“Communist plot”. to parliament. of failure of other limited naval declares himself Armed Forces.
powers to disarm. rearmament. as Führer.

BELOW: German troops march across a bridge over the Rhine in Cologne on 7 March 1936 in deiance of the Versailles Treaty natural resources. Like Japan and Italy, Germany
which had insisted on the demilitarization of the German Rhineland provinces.
regarded itself as a victim of the international
economic and political system. Hitler was
dedicated to the idea that the “master race”, in
other words the Aryan Germans, should win its
rightful place through conquest. “Empires are
made by the sword,” wrote Hitler in 1928.
Hitler was too shrewd a politician to act
too quickly and so rearmament was carefully
concealed while he consolidated his domestic
position. Only in 1935 did Hitler feel confident
enough to declare Germany’s formal rejection
of Versailles: on 16 March 1935 conscription was
re-introduced in Germany, and the new German
Air Force officially created. The following March,
at the height of the crisis over the Italian invasion
of Abyssinia, Hitler decided to remilitarize the
Rhineland provinces along the French frontier,
an action proscribed under the 1919 Treaty.
On 7 March 1936, German troops re-entering
the prohibited zone faced no international

hen Hitler was appointed German from office and prohibiting marriage or sexual

W Chancellor on 30 January 1933 at

the head of a Nationalist coalition
government, it was by no means evident that he
relations from occurring between Jews and so-
called “Aryan” Germans.
One of Hitler’s first ambitions was to rearm
would survive in that post very long. Within a Germany in defiance of the Versailles settlement.
year, he had brought about a national revolution He had no definite plans for war or conquest
under his personal dictatorship: a one-party state in 1933, but he wanted to tear up the Treaty,
was created; civil rights suspended; a secret police absorb the German minorities in neighboring
(the Gestapo) created; and the first concentration countries into the new German state, and at some
camps inaugurated. Any opponents of the regime point to create what was called “living space”
were imprisoned or forced abroad. The first race (Lebensraum) in eastern Europe on which to
laws were passed in 1933–35, driving German Jews settle German colonists and to exploit the region’s
GENERAL WERNER VON
BLOMBERG (1878–1946)
ADOLF HITLER (1889–1945) General Werner von Blomberg was appointed
Defence Minister by President Hindenburg at the
Adolf Hitler was born in Braunau am Inn, a small town in the Austrian same time as Hitler was offered the chancellorship.
provinces of the Habsburg Empire. He tried unsuccessfully to enrol at the Hitler kept him on after 1933 and in 1935 his title
Vienna Academy of Art before moving to Munich in 1913 to avoid the Austrian was changed to Minister of War. He played a
army draft. In 1914, he volunteered for the German army, won the Iron Cross major part in rebuilding Germany’s armed forces
First Class, and emerged in 1918 embittered by the German defeat, the blame after the long period of enforced disarmament
for which he placed on communists and Jews. Hitler became leader of the under the terms of the Versailles settlement, and
small National Socialist German Workers’ Party in 1921 and two years later represented Hitler’s Germany at the coronation of
staged a coup in Munich against the Bavarian government. Imprisoned for King George VI in 1937. Leading National Socialists
a year, he wrote Mein Kampf and emerged to re-establish leadership of the were jealous of his influence and schemed to
Party. In 1933, despite having won only one-third of the vote in the November remove him from office. In February 1938, he was
1932 election, Hitler was appointed Chancellor. He became supreme leader or forced to resign after his new wife was exposed as
Führer in 1934, and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces in 1938. a former pornographic model.

24 WorldMags.net

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BELOW: HItler makes his way to the speaker’s podium during the
1934 Nazi Party Rally in Nuremberg. He is lanked by members of
the Sturm Abteilung (SA).
ABOVE: “The whole people say Yes on 10 April.” A German poster
to encourage support for a national plebiscite on the union of
Austria and Germany. It was claimed that 99 per cent said “yes”.
ABOVE: Prisoners in the notorious Sachsenhausen concentration camp on 6 January 1939. By the end of the 1930s there were 21,500
prisoners in the camps.
Germany destroys Versailles
ABOVE: An election campaign meeting in Graz, Austria on 1 April 1938. On Hitler’s right sit Arthur Seyss-Inquart, later ruler of the occupied
Netherlands, and Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS and the concentration camp system.
obstruction. Buoyed up by this success, Hitler
began to look outside the borders of the German
state or “Reich”. In July 1936, he offered his help to
the Spanish rebel leader Franco, who needed the
use of planes to move his forces from Morocco to
the mainland.
A small number of aircraft and pilots, the
Condor Legion, fought alongside the Spanish
nationalists. On 26 April 1937, German planes
bombed and destroyed the Basque city of
Guernica, an act which came to symbolize the
WorldMags.net
horrors of what was now called “total war”, a
conflict waged against civilians as well as soldiers.
On 5 November 1937, Hitler called his military
commanders together to tell them of his plans
to unite his Austrian homeland with Germany
in the near future, and to take action against
Czechoslovakia, the only remaining democratic
state in eastern Europe, and home to exiled
opponents of the Hitler regime. In March
1938, after months of agitation by Austrian
National Socialists, the Austrian Chancellor
Kurt von Schuschnigg was compelled under the
circumstances to accept the entry of German
forces or risk bloodshed. On 13 March, the
Anschluss, or union, of Austria with Germany
was completed, and the enlarged state was now
called “Greater Germany”. Austrian opponents
of Anschluss were murdered or imprisoned and
Austrian Jews driven from their professions.
Throughout the period in which Hitler
destroyed Versailles, the other major states
did very little. Hitler took Germany out of the
League in October 1933. Over the next four years
Germany’s growing economic and military
strength was viewed with mounting alarm by
democratic Europe, but although efforts were
made to find some way of blunting the German
threat by recognizing her grievances, no real
concessions were made that could satisfy Hitler.
By 1938 his run of “bloodless victories”
produced a wide popular consensus at home.
What Hitler wanted now was a small successful
war to bloody his troops and prepare for the
struggle for “living space”.
25
World War II
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ARMING FOR WAR IN THE 1930s
FEBRUARY 1932
Disarmament
1930–1939 Conference
convenes at
Geneva but fails to
reach any general
agreement.
f the 1920s were years of disarmament
I and cuts in military budgets, the 1930s
saw rearmament on a scale that dwarfed
the arms race before the First World War. This
process took place across the developed world,
and it began even before the threat from Japan,
Italy and Germany became a serious one. World
military spending was, by 1934, almost twice what
it had been in the mid-1920s and the trade in arms
also almost doubled between 1932 and 1937. The
build-up of new military forces was a consequence
of the breakdown of the world economy and the
collapse of the League of Nations as an instrument
of collective security, leading to the possession of
military power once again being seen as the key to
political survival.
At the heart of this arms race lay the massive
military build-up in Germany and the Soviet
Union. By the end of the 1930s, both countries
were close to becoming the world’s military
superpowers. Germany in 1938 devoted 17 per
cent of its national income to military spending,
while Britain and France spent only 8 per cent.
In 1939, the Soviet Union had the largest number
of aircraft and tanks of any major power. German
rearmament began even before Hitler came to
power, with the so-called “black rearmament”
carried out in secret by the German army, but real
expansion was possible only after 1933. After three
years of careful preparation and reconstruction, in
1936 Hitler ordered a rapid acceleration of military
preparations. In October 1936, a Four-Year Plan
ABOVE: A Soviet poster shows an urgent Stalin summoning
aircraft from a Soviet factory in 1935. By 1932 the dictator had
thrown his support behind a gigantic programme of rearmament.
26
16 MARCH 1935 MARCH 1936 1938–9 JANUARY 1939
Hitler announces British German West Wall Hitler launches
German
rearmament and
reintroduction of
government
launches “four-
year plan” for
(“Siegfried Line”)
fortiications built
along the German–
“Z-Plan” for
large-scale naval
rearmament.
conscription. rearmament. French border.
ABOVE: The interior of an assembly hall in March 1936 which was part of the vast Krupp works in Essen, where many of the German
army’s heavy guns and armoured vehicles were produced.
was established with the air-force commander
Hermann Göring in charge. The plan was to build
up the material resources needed for war inside
Germany to avoid the threat of blockade. By 1939,
two-thirds of industrial investment in Germany
went on war-related projects; one-quarter of the
industrial workforce was working for the military.
Stalin launched the rearmament of the Soviet
Union in 1932, before Hitler came to power,
since the Soviet leadership was convinced that,
according to Marxist theory, the economic crisis
would usher in a new age of capitalist wars. Like
Germany, the Soviet Union focused on building
up the raw material and machinery base needed
to produce finished armaments. The Third
Five-Year Plan – started in 1938 – projected an
MARSHAL MIKHAIL
TUKHACHEVSKY
(1893–1937)
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, a number of
young officers from the former tsarist army were
rapidly promoted to build up the newly formed
Communist Red Army. Mikhail Tukhachevsky
made his mark in the 1920s with new ideas about
fast, mobile warfare conducted by thousands of
tanks and armoured vehicles. He was appointed
Chief of Armaments in 1932 to oversee the Soviet
Union’s rearmament drive, and in 1936 was made
Deputy Defence Commissar. Perhaps jealous of
Tukhachevsky’s popular reputation and evident
ambition, Stalin authorized his arrest and trial in
June 1937. He was executed on 11 June along with ABOVE: The French Socialist premier Leon Blum at a mass rally
seven other top military commanders. for peace in Paris in September 1936. Blum’s government in fact
authorized a 14-billion-franc arms programme the same month.
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increase in military spending of 40 per cent a
year; two-thirds of industrial investment went to
fuel the new military machine. Both Hitler and
Stalin thought in terms of large-scale and long-
distance war, and in January 1939 Hitler approved
a “Z-Plan” for a new ocean-going battle fleet; four
years before this, Stalin had approved work on
a similar Soviet flotilla, which by 1939 involved
plans for 15 battleships against the six projected
by the German Navy.
The military build-up in Britain and France
was more modest, though both countries
already possessed a large military establishment
even before the onset of rearmament. Britain
began expanding its armed forces in 1934, and
accelerated the programme in 1936. Emphasis
was put on creating a large new modern air
force, and the RAF received around 40 per cent
Arming for War in the 1930s
of expenditure, so that by 1939 Britain was
producing almost as many aircraft as Germany.
In France, emphasis was put in the 1930s on
the construction of a solid defensive wall – the
Maginot Line – to face the German threat and
provide France with real security against attack.
In 1936, the French government authorized a large
three-year rearmament programme, and began
to build some of the best tanks and aircraft of the
time. Political problems and disputes with labour
held up progress, but France, like Britain, was
better armed for conflict in 1939 than the myth
of “too little, too late” suggests. Only the United
States remained aloof from the arms build-up.
Geographically secure and with a powerful
pacifist lobby, there was no pressure to arm in the
1930s and its soldiers went on manoeuvres with
dummy tanks.
MODERNIZING
BRITAIN’S ARMY
The idea of using tank forces as the armed fist of
the army, striking in mass against the enemy’s
front line was developed in the inter-war period
by two British military thinkers, Captain Basil
Liddell Hart and Major-General John Fuller. Efforts
were made to develop a fast modern tank and to
organize armoured divisions, but there was much
conservative resistance to the idea. By 1939,
Britain had only one armoured division ready for
the war in Europe, and British tanks failed to match
the standards set by the other major land armies.
Here light Mark V and Mark VIA tanks of the 9th
Queen’s Royal Lancers are on manoeuvre in 1937.

BELOW: British troops cross a drawbridge into a fort on the BELOW: Prototype of the Supermarine Spitire single-seater
Maginot Line in November 1939. The French fortiications were ighter in 1936. The aircraft became the standard RAF ighter and
begun in the late 1920s and completed only by the outbreak of war. played a key role in the Battle of Britain.

BELOW: Soviet military motorcyclists

parade through Leningrad before
the coming of war in 1941. The
Soviet Union had the largest
armed forces in the
world by the 1940s.

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World War II
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THE MUNICH CRISIS
13 MARCH 1938 20–21 MAY 1938 28 MAY 1938 11 JULY 1938 28 AUGUST 1938 9 NOVEMBER 1938
Austria united “Weekend Crisis” Hitler orders Japanese and Runciman Mission German pogrom
28–30 with Germany sees Czech armed forces to Soviet forces spark draws up plans against the Jews
SEPTEMBER 1938 in a Greater
German Reich.
mobilization
against a possible
prepare “Case
Green” for
frontier clash at
Changkufeng, on
for Sudeten
autonomy.
on the “Night of
Broken Glass”.
German strike. invasion of the Manchurian
Czechoslovakia. border.

fter Hitler had taken over his Austrian

A homeland in March 1938, he began

to make preparations to seize
Czechoslovakia on the pretence that he was
helping fellow Germans oppressed by Czech rule
in the Sudeten areas of northern Czechoslovakia.
On 28 May, following the “Weekend Crisis” of
20/21 May, when the Czech government, fearing
an imminent German invasion, ordered the
mobilization of its forces, Hitler told his military
commanders to plan a short, sharp war against
the Czechs for the autumn of 1938. “I am utterly
determined,” he said, “that Czechoslovakia should
disappear from the map.”
Hitler thought he could isolate the Czechs and
reach a quick military solution before the other
powers intervened. The military planning went
ahead, reflecting Hitler’s anxiety to wage a small,

ABOVE: Neville Chamberlain marches past an SS guard of honour at Oberwiesenfeld airport on his way
to the Munich Conference on 29 September 1938 surrounded by National Socialist Party leaders.

G E R M A N Y
Dresden Breslau
Od
ABOVE: Adolf Hitler signing the Munich Agreement in the early hours of 30 September 1938 after a S U er
P O L A N D
D E
dozen hours of negotiation. Behind him are Chamberlain and Mussolini, to his left Daladier. T
E
Elbe N
L
S U

Prague A Krakow
Pilsen N
P R OT E C TO R AT E
D E

EDUARD BENEŠ (1884–1948)

OF BOHEMIA Dni
est
T E

A N D M O R AV I A er
German
N

The Czech politician at the heart of the Munich A Brno plebiscites,

L

D an N 1938
ub
crisis was a statesman of wide experience. Beneš e D S L O V A K I A
Kassa
had been active in the Czech independence Passau German military
occupation, 1938
movement during the First World War and Linz RUTHENIA
Vienna Bratislava
was rewarded in 1918 with the post of Foreign
Minister in the newly independent Czechoslovak Salzburg
Danube
Debrecen
Republic. In 1935, he became the country’s Budapest
president, by which time Czechoslovakia was the A U S T R I A ROMANIA
Graz H U N G A R Y
only genuinely democratic state left in central
and eastern Europe. In 1938, he realized that
his country was vulnerable to German pressure Munich Agreement, October–December 1938 Annexations, 1939
and had little confidence that his allies would
support him. He went into exile abroad in Czechoslovakia, To Germany To Poland To Germany
October 1938 and returned to be president again early 1938 Independent
To Hungary Czechoslovakia,
between 1945 and his death three years later. Dec. 1938 To Hungary

28 WorldMags.net

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victorious war. In February, he had scrapped the
War Ministry and taken over supreme command
of the armed forces himself. The fight against the
Czechs was a way of making his mark as a military
leader, and an opportunity to improve Germany’s
economic and strategic position in central Europe.
The crisis could not be isolated: as pressure built
up on the Czech government to make concessions
to the Sudeten German minority, Britain and
France both acted to try to find a negotiated
political solution. France had treaty obligations
to help the Czech state, and the Soviet Union was
also committed to intervening, as long as France
did so too.
In neither state was there much enthusiasm
for the prospect of war. Britain, meanwhile, had
no treaty obligations, but the Prime Minister,
Neville Chamberlain, hoped to use his influence
to bring about a negotiated settlement as part
of his strategy of “appeasement” of Germany. In
August 1938, the British politician Lord Runciman
was sent on a League of Nations mission to the
Sudetenland and returned arguing that major
concessions should be made by the Czech
government to the German community.
Hitler stuck to his guns. German leaders
attacked the Czechs in the press and on the
platform. By the beginning of September, it
seemed likely that Hitler would launch the
military campaign in the near future. To avert
this, on 15 September Chamberlain took the
dramatic step of flying to meet Hitler at his
mountain retreat at Berchtesgaden. Chamberlain
conceded the need for self-determination, while
Hitler promised not to make war on the Czechs,
but he had no intention of honoring his word.
Chamberlain flew again to meet the German
leader on 22 September at Bad Godesberg, and
ABOVE: A weeping woman salutes the German occupation of
the Sudeten German area in October 1938. For many Sudeten
inhabitants occupation meant liberation; for Jews and socialists it
meant persecution.
this time the atmosphere was quite different, with
Hitler insisting that he would occupy the Sudeten
areas no later than 1 October. Chamberlain
returned home to a cabinet now determined not
to concede. France and Britain both prepared for
war and on 26 September, Chamberlain sent his
personal envoy, Sir Horace Wilson, to see Hitler
and on the following day he made it absolutely
clear that German violation of Czech sovereignty
would mean war.
On 28 September, Hitler, with great reluctance,
gave in. Under pressure from his party leaders and
aware that German public opinion was strongly
against a European war, he accepted Mussolini’s
ABOVE: French premier Edouard Daladier is greeted by
enthusiastic crowds on his return to Paris on 30 September 1938.
“The blind fools” was his reaction to their welcome.
WorldMags.net
The Munich Crisis
KONRAD HENLEIN
(1898–1945)
The Germans who inhabited the so-called
“Sudeten” provinces of Czechoslovakia were
former German subjects of the Habsburg
empire. Many wanted to live in a larger
German state and they formed the Sudeten
German Party to campaign for autonomy
and to agitate for union with Germany. Their
leader was the former bank clerk Konrad
Henlein. By 1938, the party had 1.3 million
members out of a population of only three
million. Henlein co-operated secretly with
the Hitler government in 1938, refusing the
concessions made by the Czech government
and increasing tension in the province. He
became the first Gauleiter (district leader)
of the Sudetenland in 1939, and committed
suicide at the end of the war.
suggestion of a summit conference in Munich,
to which the Soviet Union was not invited. Hitler
was sulky and ill at ease throughout the Munich
discussions, which ended on 30 September with
an agreement for the cession of the Sudeten
areas to Germany and a timetable for German
occupation. Unlike Japan in Manchuria and
Italy in Abyssinia, Hitler’s plan for a short war of
conquest was frustrated. Munich is usually seen
as a humiliating defeat for the British and French,
but in reality it was a defeat for Hitler’s plan for
war. His frustration was to make it impossible to
negotiate away the next crisis in 1939 over the
City of Danzig.
ABOVE: Commemorative medallion struck to mark
Chamberlain’s success at the Munich Conference in 1938.
LEFT: Hungarian cavalry and light
tanks on their way towards the town
of Beregozasr on 1 October 1938.
Hungary occupied and annexed areas
of southern Czechoslovakia following
the Munich Conference.
29
Another random document with
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when I was poor; but were I to become rich and successful, they
would receive me with open arms, and introduce my wife and myself
to circles as exclusive and as far beyond the stray third-rate noble
paupers who prey on your—your good-nature and—pardon me—
your ignorance as the moon is above the earth. I speak plainly.”
“You do, sir, and with a vengeance!” said Mr. West, a little
overawed by the other’s imperious manner, for Mr. Wynne had said
to himself, why should he be timid before this man, who at most was
a bourgeois, whose father—best not seek to inquire into his history—
whose forefathers had gone to their graves unwept, unhonoured,
and unsung, whilst he, Laurence Wynne, though he boasted of no
unearned increment, was descended from men who were princes at
the time of the Heptarchy!
“You value good birth, I see, Mr. West,” holding out his hand as if
to convey the fact that he had scored a point. “And you value
success. I am succeeding, and I shall succeed. I feel it. I know it—if
my health is spared. I have brains, a ready tongue, an indomitable
will; I shall go into Parliament; think what a vast field of possibilities
that opens out! Which of your other would-be sons-in-law aims at
political life? Look at Levanter, the reputation he would bring you.”
Laurence shuddered as he spoke. “Do not all honest men shun him?
What decent club would own him? Look at Montycute, what has he
to offer, but his ugly person, his title, and his debts? He and others
like him propose to barter their wretched names and, as they would
pretend, the entrée to society—not for your daughter’s personal
attractions, of which they think but little, but her fortune, of which
they think a great deal!”
“Young man, young man!” gasped Mr. West, inarticulately, “you
speak boldly—far too boldly.”
“I speak the sacred truth, and nothing but the truth,” said Wynne,
impetuously. “I offer myself, my talents, my career, my ancient
lineage, and unblemished name for your daughter. As to her fortune,
I do not want it; I am now an independent man. Give me your
answer, sir—yes or no.”
 Many possibilities floated through Mr. West’s brain as he sat for
some moments in silence revolving this offer. Levanter and
Montycute were all that this impetuous young fellow had described.
He had good blood in his veins; he was handsome, clever, rising,
whilst they were like leeches, ready to live upon him, and giving
nothing in exchange but their barren names. This man’s career was
already talked of; he could vouch for one success, which had
agreeably affected his own pocket, and, with the proverbial gratitude,
he looked in the same direction for favours to come. He had an
eloquent tongue, a ready pen, and a fiery manner that carried all
before it. He would go into the House, he would (oh! castle-building
Mr. West) be one of the great men—Chancellor of the Exchequer—
some day. He shut his eyes—he saw it all. He saw his son-in-law
addressing the House, and every ear within its walls hanging on his
words. He saw himself, a distinguished visitor, and Madeline among
the peeresses.
Laurence Wynne, keen and acute, was convinced that some
grand idea was working in his companion’s mind, and struck while
the iron was hot.
“May I hope for your consent, sir?” he asked quickly.
“Well, yes, you may, if you can win her. You are welcome, as far as
I am concerned. Yes!” holding out his rather short, stubby hand, with
one big diamond blazing on his little finger. “It’s time she was settled,
and I’m afraid she will never be what she was, as regards her looks.
I did hanker after a ready-made title, but one can’t have everything! I
like you. You are tolerant of an old man’s whims; you don’t laugh at
me under my own roof, and think I don’t see it like some young cubs;
you are a gentleman, and I give you Maddie and welcome, now that I
have talked it over; but the hitch, you will find, will be the girl herself.
She is, as you may see, utterly broken down and altered, and in no
mind to listen to a love-tale; but, well or ill, I must tell you honestly
that I would not give much for your chance.”
“What would you say, sir,” said Laurence, now becoming a shade
paler, “if I were to tell you that I had won her already?”
Mr. West looked at him sharply.
 “The deuce you have! And when?”
“More than three years ago.”
“What! before I came home? when she was at Harpers’? Were
you the half-starved fellow that I heard was hanging about? Oh,
never!”
“I don’t think I was half-starved, but I was most desperately in love
with her.”
“Oh, so it’s an old affair?”
“Yes, an old affair, as you say, Mr. West. And you have given me
Madeline if I can win her, have you not?—that is a promise?”
“Yes,” rather impatiently. “I never go back on a promise.”
“Well, now,” leaning forward and resting his head on his hand, and
speaking more deliberately, “I am going to tell you something that I
am certain will surprise, and I fear will incense you; but you will hear
me out to the end. We have been married for more than three
years!” He paused—not unnaturally nervous—awaiting the result of
this tardy announcement.
“Why! what—what—what the devil do you mean?” stammered Mr.
West, his little eyes nearly starting from their sockets. “What do you
mean, sir? I—I don’t believe you, so there!—don’t believe a word of
it!” breathing hard.
“If you will only listen to me patiently, you will believe me. I am
going to tell you many things that you ought to have been made
acquainted with long ago.”
Mr. West opened his mouth. No sound came. He was speechless.
And his son-in-law proceeded very steadily. “Four years ago you
were said to be bankrupt, if not dead. Mrs. Harper gave you no law
when your bills were not paid. You have never heard that Madeline,
from being the show-pupil and favourite, sank to be the shabby
school drudge—half-fed, half-clothed, and not paid for the work of
two governesses. This went on for a whole year. I saw her at a
breaking-up affair, when she played all night for her schoolfellows to
dance. I fell in love with her then. Miss Selina hated us both, and, to
satisfy her hate and malice, managed—one night in the holidays—to
leave us both behind at Riverside, late for the last train. We had all
been to the theatre. The affair was planned. We waited where we
were desired to wait, and lost the train. Next morning I called to
explain to Miss Harper; but Madeline’s character was gone—she
was turned out, dismissed without mercy. She had no friends, no
salary, no reference. I had, at least, bread-and-cheese—so I took her
to London and married her.”
He stopped and looked at Mr. West, who was livid, and who cried
out in a loud, strange voice—
“Go on, sir—go on—and get it over, before I go mad!”
“I was poor. We lived in lodgings; but we were very happy. After a
time poverty and sickness knocked at our door. I had typhoid fever. It
was an unhealthy season, and I nearly died. I have sometimes since
thought that it would have been well if I had died, and thus cut the
Gordian knot, and released Madeline. However, I hung on, a
miserable, expensive, useless invalid. In the middle of all this a child
was born.”
Mr. West started out of his chair; but subsequently resumed it.
“It was a boy——”
“A boy! Where is it?” demanded his listener, fiercely.
“You shall hear presently,” said his son-in-law, gravely. “Madeline
was the kindest of wives, nurses, mothers.”
“Madeline—my Madeline?” said her father, in a tone of querulous
incredulity and shrill irritation.
“We had no money—none. I had kept aloof from many
acquaintances since I married, and my relations dropped me with
one consent. We pawned all we had, save the clothes on our backs.
We were almost starving. In those days Madeline was a model of
courage, cheerfulness, endurance, and devotion. When I recall those
days, I can forgive her much.”
“Forgive her! Madeline pawning clothes! Madeline starving!” cried
her father, so loudly that a sleepy cabin-steward looked in.
 Mr. Wynne signed to him to go away, and continued, “Ay, she was.
We could barely keep the wolf out. Then came your letter to the
Harpers, and they advertised for Madeline. She saw the message,
and pawned her wedding-ring to go to them. And they, never
dreaming that she was married, received her with rapture as Miss
West. She had no tell-tale ring, and Mrs. Harper heard that she had
been in a shop in London, in the mantle department. In an evil
moment Madeline saw your letter wherein you spoke very strongly
against a poor love affair, and possible marriage. So, in desperation,
and to get money and bread for her child and for me, she deceived
you. Later on, when the influence of wealth and power and luxury ate
their way into her soul, she still deceived you—and forgot us. I must
speak the truth.”
Mr. West nodded.
“She put off the dreaded day of telling you all, and I was out of
patience. She would not allow me to break the news. You remember
one evening that I called in Belgrave Square, and we went to look at
a picture together? It was then that I made my last appeal.”
“She gave you up, then?” he asked abruptly.
“She did.”
“And the child?” eagerly. “My grandson, my heir!”
“You remember the great ball you gave last June?”
“Of course—of course,” irritably. “It will not be forgotten in a hurry.”
“He died that night,” said Mr. Wynne, slowly.
“Eh! what did you say? Nonsense!”
“He died of diphtheria. Madeline came too late to see him alive. It
was from the child she caught the infection. Yes, I believe she kissed
him. He was a lovely boy—with such a bright little face and fair hair.
We kept him at a Hampshire farmhouse. Many a time I told Madeline
that the very sight of him would soften you towards us; but she would
not listen. She made promises and broke them. She feared you too
much.”
 “Feared me!”
“Since his death, I have had nothing to say to her; but I heard that
she was very ill in London; and I used to find how she was going on
from various people, including yourself, as you may remember. I
thought my heart was steeled against her, but I find it is not. I am
ready to make friends. I heard accidentally that she was in a most
critical state—that day I saw you at the club—and I threw up all my
briefs and business and took a passage.”
“And so she is your business in Sydney?”
“She—she is most woefully changed. When I first saw her under
the lamp, I—I—I—cannot tell you——” He paused, and drew in a
long, slow breath, which said much.
“Poor girl! No wonder she looks as if she had seen great troubles.
I wonder she is alive. Well, I’ll not add to them! She treated me
badly; but she has treated you worse. And afraid of me! Why, every
one knows that my bark is worse than my bite—in fact, I have no
bite. And you stuck to her when she had no friends! Oh what a
treacherous old serpent was that Harper—harridan. Steady payment
for nine years. And to treat my daughter so! And I actually gave that
sour old maid a present for her kindness to Maddie. They did not
know you were married to her?”
“No; scarcely any one know.”
“And what’s to be done! How is it to be declared, this marriage.
How is the world to be told that Madeline has been humbugging
them for the last two years as Miss West?”
“The wedding can easily be put in the paper as having taken place
in London, with no date. It will only be a nine-days wonder. We can
send it from the first place we touch at.”
“Ah, you are a clever fellow, Wynne. Hallo! the lights are going out,
and we shall be in darkness.”
“But you are no longer in darkness respecting me.”
“Well, I feel in a regular fog. And so you’re my son-in-law!”
 “Yes; there is no doubt about that.”
“It’s odd that I always cottoned to you.”
“You will not be harsh with Madeline, will you?”
“Do you take me for a Choctaw Indian, sir? I’ll say nothing at
present. Board ship is no place for scenes. She’s very shaky still,
though better.”
“Yes, I think she is a shade better now she is on deck all day.”
“It was an awful pity about the little boy, Wynne, and——”
Here the electric light suddenly went out, and Mr. West had to
grope his way as best he could to his own cabin. He lay awake for
hours, listening to the seas washing against the side of his berth,
thinking—thinking of what he had been told that night, thinking of
Madeline and Wynne in a new light, and thinking most of all of the
little fair-haired grandchild that he had never seen.
 CHAPTER XLIII.
HEARTS ARE TRUMPS.

The night of the conversation in the smoking-room, when Mr. West

scrambled below in the dark—not knowing, as he subsequently
explained it, whether he stood on his head or his heels—was the
occasion of a curious incident in Miss West’s cabin. Each day as she
grew stronger and better, recovering energy and appetite, Mrs.
Leach became worse, and the weather to correspond. She sustained
existence on Brand’s essence and champagne, and counted the
hours until they were in the Mediterranean—not that even the
tideless sea can be reckoned on in October. Mrs. Leach felt
miserably ill, peevish, and envious; and when Madeline came down
to go to bed, she asked her to get her a bottle out of her dressing-
bag—“something to make her sleep.”
“Shall I hand the bag up to you?”
“No, no, it’s open. A long, greenish bottle—in the pocket next the
blotter.”
Yes, the bag was not locked; the contents were in great confusion
—combs, pins, handkerchiefs, note-paper. It was not so easy to
discover the little green bottle. In turning out the loose articles,
Madeline came upon a letter addressed, in Mrs. Kane’s scrawl, to
“Miss West, care of Mrs. Harper, Streambridge,” forwarded to
Belgrave Square, and from Belgrave Square to Brighton. Some one
had kindly saved her the trouble of opening it, presumably the lady in
the top berth and the owner of the bag.
“Well, have you not found it yet? Dear me, how slow you are!” she
exclaimed fretfully.
“Oh yes. I’ve found it.”
 “Then do be quick. I feel as if I should die from this nausea and
weakness.”
Fortunately the little bottle turned up at this instant, and Madeline
(having closed the bag and secured her letter) handed it up to Mrs.
Leach, who next demanded “eau de Cologne, a handkerchief,
another shawl, a tumbler, and some hairpins.”
It was some time before she was at rest behind her curtains. The
positions were reversed, and Madeline, the invalid on land, was not
the invalid at sea. At last she sat down to read her letter. She had
had no communication with Mrs. Kane since she had been at
Harperton, from whence she had sent her a ten-pound note. Luckily
for her, Mrs. Kane never saw the society papers, and had no idea
that her late lodger had blossomed out into a society beauty, much
less that she lived in London, otherwise undoubtedly she would have
had the pleasure (?) of a visit from her correspondent. The letter
said:—
“2, Solferino Place.

“Dear Madam,
“I hope, in remembrance of old times, you will excuse my writing;
but I am very hard set just at present, and would feel obliged if you
could spare me a small matter of twenty pounds, Kane being out of
employment since Easter Monday. I hope Mr. Wynne and your dear
baby are well. The baby must be a fine big fellow by this time—two
last winter—and a great amusement. Has your pa ever found out the
trick as you played—how, when he thought you was snug at school,
you were a whole year living in London in this house?
“I hope you won’t disappoint me regarding the money, as having
your own interests to consider as well as I have mine.
“Yours affectionately,
“Eliza Kane.”
The postmark on the envelope was dated two days before they
had left Brighton. And this was what Mrs. Leach meant by her hints
and looks. This stolen letter was to be her trump card.
 The next morning, when Madeline left her cabin, she was met by
Laurence. He was, as usual, waiting, hanging about the passage
and companion-ladder. At last a tall, slight figure in black appeared,
a figure that walked with a firmer and more active step, and that no
longer crawled listlessly from cabin to deck. It was Madeline, with a
faint colour in her face, she accosted him eagerly.
“Oh, Laurence!” she began, “I have something to tell you. Come
into the music-room; it is sure to be empty.”
And then, in a few hurried sentences, she unfolded her discovery
and placed Mrs. Kane’s nice little letter in his hands.
“Of course, now I shall speak. Of course, I seem a miserably
mean, cowardly creature! It is only when forced by circumstances
that I open my lips at last. Mrs. Leach has long guessed that I had a
secret and a past—but, strive as she would, she could never find out
anything definite.”
“This is very definite,” said Laurence, dryly.
“It is, indeed. I could not understand her intense scorn for me
latterly. Laurence, I meant to have told my father immediately after—
after last June, but I was ill; and then, as I used to lie thinking,
thinking, I said to myself, I may as well carry the secret to the grave,
for now the child is gone, and Laurence is gone, what is the use of
speaking?”
“But you see that Laurence is not gone!” he exclaimed
expressively; “and we will let bygones be bygones instead. I am
before both you and Mrs. Leach. I told your father last night. He took
it, on the whole, surprisingly well! I have not seen him this morning,
though. He won’t allude to it at present. Board ship is no place for
scenes, he says; and I am entirely of his opinion; so, my dear, you
need not look so ghastly. Now, come along on deck. We shall soon
sight Tarifa. Ah! here is Mr. West at last.”
The music-room was pretty full as the little man came slowly
towards the pair, who sat apart on a couch at the end of it. He looked
unusually solemn, and he had discarded his ordinary blue bird’s-eye
tie for a black one. He avoided his daughter’s glance, and fixed his
attention on her mourning-gown, as he said—
“Well, how are you to-day, Madeline, my love?”
“I feel better—much better.”
“That is good news! Then come on deck and see the Spanish
coast?”
He sat next to her—their steamer chairs placed closely side by
side—in silence for a long time, smoking, and apparently buried in
thought; then, as he suddenly noticed Wynne’s signet-ring on her
wedding finger, he leant forward, took her fragile hand in his—it
trembled, for he held it long and contemplated it intently—and at last
released it with surprising gentleness.
“Madeline,” he said, “I know you’ve had enough trouble. I’m not
going to say one word; but I’m greatly cut up about what happened—
last summer;” and Madeline drew her veil over her face to hide her
streaming tears.

After they had crossed the notorious Gulf of Lyons, Mrs. Leach
appeared, with languid airs, expecting attention, solicitude, and
sympathy. Alas! for expectations. What a change was here! Mr. West
was entirely engrossed with Madeline, and was positively curt and
gruff (he had heard the history of the letter in the bag); and when at
last she found an opportunity of talking to him privately, and began
with little preamble about “dear Maddie—such a marvellous sailor—
so much better—getting away from some dreadful hold on her—and
influence—seems to have transformed her into a new creature!” Mr.
West looked at the speaker keenly. The sea-breeze is searching,
and the southern sun pitiless. Ten days’ sickness had transformed
Mrs. Leach into an old creature! She was fifty-five or more, with her
sunken cheeks, and all those hard lines about her mouth and eyes.
What did they signify?
 “Do I see Mr. Wynne on board?” she asked, with a tragic air
—“over by the boats? How strange, how audacious!”
“Do you think so? He is Madeline’s husband, and a great friend of
mine.”
Mrs. Leach gasped! The wind had been taken out of her sails.
“Then you know all about it?”
“Yes, I know all about it,” said Mr. West collectedly.
“You have not known it for long—not when we sailed?”
“No, not quite as long as you have, Mrs. Leach”—looking at her
expressively.
“What do you mean?”
“I mean, for one thing, that I obtained my information through a
legitimate channel; that, as you are such a victim to the sea, it will be
only humane to land you at Naples. It would be cruel to take you on
to Melbourne; and Madeline has a companion entirely to her taste in
Laurence Wynne.”
“And oh what a tale for London!” she exclaimed with a ghastly
sneer. “I am feeling the motion a good deal—perhaps you will be
kind enough to assist me to get below? I find I must lie down.”
To tell the truth, she had been completely bowled over—thanks to
a strong breeze and a strong opponent.
Mrs. Leach landed at Naples and enjoyed an exceedingly pleasant
winter in Rome—due to a handsome cheque which she had received
from Mr. West, nominally as a return for her kind interest in his
daughter, and really as a golden padlock for her lips.
Mr. West, once in Sydney, contrived to pull a good many chestnuts
out of the fire, and returned to England as wealthy as ever,
purchased the old estate of the Wynnes, and restored the half-ruined
house in a style in keeping with its ancient name.
Madeline and her husband spend a great deal of their time at
Rivals Wynne, though their headquarters are in London, and some
day the old home will descend to the old race. The children are
beautiful; another little Harry is the picture of the one that is lost, but
not forgotten, as fresh white wreaths upon a certain grave can testify.
Mr. Clay, the rector, has seen Mrs. Wynne placing them there with
her own hands. She made no secret of it now.
“It is the grave,” she explained, “of our eldest little boy. I will bring
his brother and sister here by-and-by.”
The rector, when he takes strangers round the churchyard, and
points out the most noticeable tombstones, halts for a good while
before a certain marble cross, and relates the story of a mysterious
young couple who visited the grave separately, but who now come
together, with other children in their train.
Mr. Laurence Wynne continues to “rise.” He is in Parliament, and a
man of such note that Mr. West no longer casts a thought on
Madeline’s lost coronet. Lord Montycute has married a rich widow
twenty years older than himself. Lord Tony is happily settled, and
Lady Tony and Madeline are fast friends. Lady Rachel is little
Madeline’s godmother. She is a pretty child, sufficiently spoiled by
her father, but ruined by her doting grandpapa. She is an imperious
little person, but obedient and docile with her mother. It is only poor
grandpapa whose miserably scanty locks she puts into curl papers,
whom she drives about in a pair of long red reins, and whom she
rules with a rod of iron.

THE END.

PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES

AND SONS, LIMITED,
LONDON AND BECCLES.
 Transcriber’s Notes
Punctuation errors and omissions have been corrected.
Page 41: “this parpicular” changed to “this particular”
Page 76: “inperturbably” changed to “imperturbably”
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