Advance Physics

Self-Learning Module
Quarter 4

Prepared by:

GEMMA U. PACAMALAN
 Lesson

RELATIVITY
1
What I Need To Know

At the end of this lesson, demonstrate understanding of the principles and concepts of
relativity.
1. Discuss the Special Theory of Relativity and its consequences
2. Calculate relativistic time and length of a moving object
3. Compare and contrast Newtonian Mechanics with Relativity
4. Cite evidences of the prediction of the General Theory of Relativity
5. Show the effect of gravitational fields on the propagation of light

What’s In

Last quarter, you learned the different concepts about radiation. Let us recall some important
terms by rearranging the jumbled letters to form the term being described. Write your answers in
a separate sheet of paper.

Description Term (jumbled letters)

1. E= mc2 BDIIGNN EEGNRY
2. The most ionizing radiation AAHLP ACEILPRT
3. Isotopes that continuously emit radiation ADEIIOOOPRSST
4. The time when activity and amount of the radioactive AFHL – EIFL
sample decreases by one-half
5. The spontaneous emission of radiation by AACDIIIORTTVY
radionuclides due to nuclear instability

What’s New

In 1905, a German American physicist Albert Einstein introduced how space and
time are affected by motion between an observer and what is being observed. The Special Theory
of Relativity proposes drastic revisions in the Newtonian concepts of space and time. It has made
wide—ranging changes in our understanding of nature. These changes are based on the two simple
postulates. The first postulate states that the laws of physics are all the same in all inertial frames
of reference. The second states that the speed of light in a vacuum is the same in all inertial frames.
These postulates have the following implications:
1. Events that are simultaneous for one observer may not be simultaneous for
another.
2. When two observers moving relative to each other measure a time interval or
length, they may not get the same results.

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 3. For the conservation principles of momentum and energy to be valid in all inertial
systems, Newton’s second law and the equations for momentum and kinetic energy have to
be revised.

Other consequences of Relativity will also be discussed in this module.

What Is It

Special Relativity
Motion is relative; The value of c in a free space is constant

When do we say that an object is moving? An object is moving when its position is changing
relative to something else or a frame of reference. Let us take this example:
As a passenger is walking along the aisle of a moving train at 1 km/h.
Frame of Reference Speed
His seat 1 km/h
Ground 60km/h (speed of the train)
Center of the earth 1 600 km/h (spinning)
Other galaxies Certain speed
The passenger in the example above moves relative to his seat inside the train; the train
moves relative to the earth; the earth moves relative to the sun; the sun moves relative to the
galaxy of stars; and so on. In each case, a frame of reference is part of the description of the
motion. To say that something is moving always implies a specific frame of reference.

1. How about you, are you moving relative to something while reading this module?
Justify your answer.

Inertial frame of reference

An inertial frame of reference is one in which Newton’s first law of motion holds. In such
a frame, an object at rest will remain at rest and an object in motion continues to move at constant
velocity if no net force acts on it. Special Theory of relativity treats problems that involve inertial
frames of reference.

The first postulate is the Principle of Relativity which states that the laws of physics are the
same in all inertial frames of reference. This postulate follows the absence of a universal frame of
reference. Like in our example above with a passenger inside a train, there is no frame of reference
that is still, everything is moving, therefore, motion is relative.

The second postulate is based on the results of many experiments which states that the speed
of light c in free space has the same value in all inertial frames of reference and is independent of
the motion of the source. Speed of light c in a vacuum is exactly equal to 299, 792, 458 m/s. We
often use the approximate value c = 2.998 x 108 m/s or 3.0 x 108 m/s. The speed of light in a vacuum
plays an important role in relativity. Let us analyze the example below:

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 2. If you happen to be in another spacecraft flying past the searchlight in the example
above and you also measure the speed of light, what value do you get?

The second postulate also implies that it is impossible for an observer in an inertial frame
to travel at the speed of light, c. This is the ultimate speed limit, that nothing can travel at or beyond
c.

Relativity of Simultaneity
In a given frame of reference, an event is an occurrence that has a definite position and time.
For example, when you say you wake up at 6am, you mean that two events, (your awakening, and
your clock showing 6am) occurred simultaneously. The concept of simultaneity is involved in
measuring time and time intervals. But the problem in measuring time intervals is the statement
below:
In general, two events that are simultaneous in one frame of reference need not be
simultaneous in a frame moving relative to the first frame. The time interval between 2 events may
be different in different frames of reference.
Let us study the thought experiment below:
Mavis is the passenger inside a train, Stanley is an observer on the platform outside the
train.

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 There is no basis for saying that Stanley is right and Mavis is wrong, or vice versa.
According to the principle of relativity, no inertial frame of reference is more correct than any other.
Each observer is correct in his own frame of reference. This means that simultaneity is not an
absolute concept, it depends on the frame of reference.
Let us learn how to compare time intervals in our next topic.

Time Dilation
A moving clock ticks slower than a clock at rest
Measurement of time intervals are affected by relative motion between the observer and
what is being observed. As a result, a clock that moves with respect to an observer ticks more slowly
than it does when at rest, and all processes (including those of life) occur more slowly to an observer
when they take place in a different inertial frame. This is called time dilation (to dilate is to become
longer).
∆𝑡𝑜 1
Time dilation ∆𝑡 = 2
or ∆𝑡 = 𝛾∆𝑡𝑜 where 𝛾 = 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

where: to = time interval on clock at rest to an observer = proper time

t = time interval on clock in motion relative to an observer
v = speed of relative motion
c = speed of light = 3.0 x 108 m/s

Sample problem:
A muon decays with a mean lifetime of 2.20 x 10-6 s as measured in a frame of reference in which
it is at rest. If a muon is moving at 0.990c ( about 2.97 x 108 m/s) relative to the earth, what will
you (an observer on earth) measure its mean lifetime to be?
Given: ∆to = 2.20 x 10-6 s
v= 0.990c or 2.97 x 108 m/s

Required: ∆𝑡 = ?

∆𝑡𝑜 2.20 x 10−6 s 2.20 x 10−6 s

Solution: ∆𝑡 = = =
√1−𝑣2
2
√1−(0.990c)
2 √1−(0.990)2
𝑐 𝑐2

∆𝑡 = 15.6 x 10-6 s

The mean lifetime of the muon in the earth’s frame (∆𝑡) is about 7x longer than in the
muon’s frame (∆𝑡𝑜 ). This has been verified experimentally, the first experimental confirmation of
the time dilation formula.

3. Verify our answer using the formula: ∆𝒕 = 𝜸∆𝒕𝒐 . Show your complete solution.

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Study the sample problem below and answer Question number 4.

4. If the speed of the spacecraft in the above example increases to 9 x 106 m/s, how many
seconds elapse on the spacecraft’s clock according to the observer on earth?

Length Contraction
Faster means shorter
Measurements of lengths and time intervals are affected by relative motion. The length L of
an object in motion with respect to an observer always appears to the observer to be shorter than its
length Lo when it is at rest with respect to the observer. The length Lo of an object at rest is called
its proper length. The length contraction is based on time dilation and the principle of relativity.
The relativistic shortening of distances is an example of the general contraction of lengths
in the direction of motion.

𝑣2 𝐿𝑜
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 √1 − or 𝐿= where: L = relativistic length. Lo = proper length
𝑐2 𝛾

Length contraction is most significant at speeds near that of light. A speed of 1000 km/s
seems fast to us, but it only results in a shortening in the direction of motion to 99.9994% of the
proper length of an object moving at this speed. On the other hand, something traveling at nine-
tenths (9/10) the speed of light is shortened to 44% of its proper length, a significant change.
Like time dilation, the length contraction is a reciprocal effect. To a person in a spacecraft,
objects on the earth appear shorter than they did when he/she was on the ground by the same factor
𝑣2
of √1 − 𝑐 2 that the spacecraft appears shorter to somebody at rest. The proper length Lo found in
the rest frame is the maximum length any observer will measure. Only lengths in the direction of
motion undergo contraction. Thus, to an observer, a spacecraft is shorter in flight than on the
ground, but it is not narrower.
Let us analyze the sample problem below:
A rectangular painting measures 1.00 m tall and 1.50 m wide. It is hung on the side
wall of a spaceship which is moving past the earth at a speed of 0.90c. A) What are the
dimensions of the picture according to the captain of the spaceship? B) What are the
dimensions as seen by an observer on earth?

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Solution:
A) The dimensions of the painting is still 1.00 m tall by 1.50 m wide because the
observer (captain) is in the same frame with the painting.
B) Only lengths in the direction of motion undergo contraction. Therefore only the
width of the painting will undergo length contraction, the height (1.00 m)
remains the same.
𝑣2 (0.9𝑐)2
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 √1 − 𝑐 2 = 1.50 𝑚 √1 − = 0.65 m
𝑐2
So the dimensions of the rectangular painting according to the observer on
earth is 1.00 m tall and 0.65 m wide.

5. A meter stick is moving with a speed of 0.6c. Find the contraction of length relative
to an observer on earth.

The Twin Paradox

A longer life, but it will not seem longer
We are now in a position to understand the famous relativistic effect known as the twin
paradox. This paradox involves two identical clocks, one of which remains on earth while the other
is taken on a voyage into space at the speed v and eventually is brought back. It is customary to
replace the clocks with the pair of twins Dick and Jane, a substitute that is perfectly acceptable
because the process of life – heartbeats, respiration, and so on – constitute biological clocks of
reasonable regularity.
Dick is 20 years old when he takes off on a space voyage at a speed of 0.8c to a star 20 light-
years away. To Jane, who stays behind, the pace of Dick’s life is slower than hers by a factor of
𝑣2 (0.8𝑐)2
√1 − = √1 − = 0.60 = 60%. To Jane, Dick’s heart beats only 3 times for every 5 beats of
𝑐2 𝑐2
her heart; Dick takes only 3 breaths for every 5 of hers; Dick thinks only 3 thoughts for every 5 of
hers. Finally Dick returns after 50 years have gone by according to Jane’s calendar, but to Dick the
trip was taken only for 30 years. Dick is therefore 50 years old, but Jane, who stayed home, is 70
years old.
Where is the paradox? If we consider the situation from the point of view of Dick in the
spacecraft, jane on earth is in relative motion relative to him at a speed of 0.80c. Should not Jane
then be 50 years old when the spacecraft returns, while Dick is then 70-the precise opposite of what
was concluded above?
But the two situations are not equivalent. Dick changed from one inertial frame to a different
one when he started out, when he reversed direction to head home, and when he landed on earth.
Jane, however, remained in the same inertial frame during Dick’s whole voyage. The time dilation
formula applies to Jane’s observations of Dick’s, but not to Dick’s observations of her.
To look at Dick’s voyage from his prospective, we must take into account that the distance
L he covers is shortened to 1 light-year = distance
traveled by light in 1 year
𝑣2 (0.80𝑐)2
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 √1 − = 20 light − years √1 − = 12 light-years.
𝑐2 𝑐2
To Dick, time goes by at the usual rate, but his voyage to the star has taken L/v = 15 years and his
return voyage another 15 years, for a total of 30 years. Dick’s life span has not been extended to
him, because regardless of Jane’s 50 years of waiting, he has spent only 30 years on the roundtrip.
The nonsymmetric aging of the twins has been verified by experiments in which accurate
clocks were taken on an airplane trip around the world and then compared with identical clocks that
had left behind. An observer who departs from an inertial system and then returns after moving
relative to that system will always find his or her clocks slow compared with clocks that stayed in
the system.

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 “Relativistic Mass”
The use of relativistic mass has its supporters and detractors. Some are quite strong in their
opinions. But in this module, we deal mostly with individual particles, so we will sidestep the
controversy and consider mass as a constant for each particle, independent of its state of motion.
Anyway, according to Einstein, “the idea of relativistic mass is not good because no clear definition
can be given. It is better to introduce no other mass concept than the ‘rest mass’ m”.

Doppler Effect
Why the universe is believed to be expanding
Doppler Effect in electromagnetic waves is an important consequence of relativity. From
your previous lessons in physics, Doppler effect is the apparent change in the frequency of a wave
due to the relative motion of the source and the observer. Study the diagram below to understand
Doppler effect in light. The light source (star) moves to the left.

When the light source (like a star) approaches the observer, the observed frequency f increases (f >
fo, where fo is the original frequency of the emitted light). This is referred to as blue shift. This can
be proven by the equation:

When the light moves away from the observer, the observed frequency f decreases( f < fo) based on
the equation below. This is referred to as red shift.

With light, unlike sound waves, there is no distinction between motion of source and the
motion of the observer, only the relative velocity of the two is significant.
The Doppler Effect in light is an important tool in astronomy. Stars emit light of certain
characteristic frequencies called spectral lines, and motion of a star toward or away from the earth
shows up as a Doppler shift in these frequencies. The spectral lines of distant galaxies of stars are
all shifted toward the low-frequency (red) end of the spectrum and hence are called RED SHIFTS.
Such shifts indicate that the galaxies are receding from us and from one another. The speed of
recession are observed to be proportional to distance, which suggests that the entire universe is
expanding. This proportionality is called Hubble’s Law.

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 The expansion apparently begun about 13 billion years ago when a very small, intensely hot
mass of primeval matter exploded, an event usually called the Big Bang. The matter soon turned
into the electrons, protons, and neutrons of which the present universe is composed of. Individual
aggregates that formed during the expansion became the galaxies of today. Present data suggest
that the current expansion will continue forever.

Relativistic Momentum
In classical mechanics linear momentum p = mv. It is conserved in a system of particles not
acted upon by outside forces. When an event such as collision or an explosion occurs inside an
isolated system, the vector sum of the momenta of its particles before and after the event are equal.
This is called the Law of Conservation of Momentum. The conservation of momentum is a valid
physical law, therefore, it must be valid in all inertial frames of reference. The derived formula of
relativistic momentum is given as:

The conservation of momentum is valid in special relativity. When the speed v of an object is very
much less than the speed of light, p = mv. In definition, m is the proper mass or rest mass of the
particle or object, its mass measured at rest relative to an observer.
Let us study the data on the sample problem below:

6. Show the complete solution in getting the value of the electron’s momentum when 𝛾 =
7.09.

The graph below shows the difference between the relativistic momentum and Newtonian
momentum. Relativity sets a speed limit, that is the speed of light c. According to the theory,
nothing can travel faster than light. Whereas, in Newtonian prediction, there is no speed limit being
set, therefore the momentum increases as the speed increases. But this does not happen. It gives
correct results only at speeds much lower than the speed of light c.

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Other consequences of special relativity are the following:

1. Relativity of Newton’s Second Law of Motion

The equation above is applicable in linear accelerators (used in medicine as well as in

nuclear and elementary-particle Physics) the net force and the velocity of the accelerated particle
are along the same straight line. But for much of the path in most circular accelerators, the particle
moves in uniform circular motion at constant speed. Then the net force and velocity are
perpendicular to each other. Hence the equation becomes:

7. Read more about Linear and Circular Accelerators used in medicine, and nuclear
and elementary-particle physics.

2. Relativistic Kinetic Energy, KE

The derived equation for relativistic kinetic energy is shown below.

The equation predicts that as the speed v of a particle approaches the speed of light
c, the kinetic energy approaches infinity as shown in the graph below. The graph below also shows
the difference between Relativistic KE and Newtonian KE = 1/2mv2.

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 8. Based on the graph above, at what speeds does the Newtonian KE predict correct
results?

Total Energy, Rest Energy, and Momentum of a particle

The equation above is the general formula in getting the relativistic energy E of a particle.
Where mc2 is the rest energy of the particle/object; and p is its momentum. A particle/object at rest
has a zero momentum (p = 0), therefore, the energy that is being left is its rest energy as derived
below.

How about the particles with zero mass (m = 0), like photons (particles of light)? Do they possess
energy, too? Yes! Study how the energy of a massless particle is being derived below.

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 9. An electron (m = 0.511 MeV/c2), and a photon (m=0) both have momenta of 2.00
MeV/c. Find the total energy of each.

What’s More

Correspondence Principle

Based on the concepts discussed above, it seems that the laws of Newtonian Mechanics
have been destroyed. Are the laws of Newtonian Mechanics wrong? Of course NOT. These laws
are not wrong, they are only incomplete. They are approximately correct only at speeds much
smaller than the speed of light c. Thus, relativity does not completely destroy the laws of Newtonian
mechanics but generalizes them. Newton’s Laws rest on a very solid base of experimental evidence,
and it would be very strange to advance a new theory that is inconsistent with this evidence. The
new theory must account for the verified results of the old theory. The old and new theories must
correspond, they must overlap and agree in the region where the results of the old theory have been
fully verified. This is called the Correspondence Principle.
10. In terms of momentum and kinetic energy, at what instances where relativity and
Newtonian mechanics correspond or the same?

General Theory of Relativity

Gravity is a warping of spacetime
Inertial (non accelerating, uniformly moving) frames of reference has been used in our
discussion of relativity. Can the principle of relativity be extended to noninertial (accelerating
constantly) frames of reference as well?
For example: in a space station in orbit around the earth. (The space station is
accelerating towards the center of the earth. It is a noninertial frame). Objects in the space station
seem to be weightless (floating), but without looking outside the station, there is no way to
determine whether gravity has been turned off or whether the space station and all its contents are
accelerating towards the center of the earth. These considerations form the basis of Einstein’s
General Theory of relativity published in 1915.
The General theory of relativity includes the effects of accelerations on what we observe.
Its essential conclusion is that, the force of gravity arises from a warping of spacetime around a
body of matter. As a result, an object moving through such a region of space (like the space station
in the example above) in general follows a curved path rather than a straight one, and may even be
trapped there. The central principle of the general relativity is the principle of equivalence which
states that:
An observer in a closed laboratory cannot distinguish between the effects produced by a
gravitational field and those produced by an acceleration of the laboratory.

This principle is illustrated in our example above. The people inside the space laboratory cannot
distinguish whether their weightlessness is due to the absence of gravitational field of the earth, or
due to their acceleration towards the center of the earth. This is so because the effect of gravitational
field is similar or equivalent to the effects of acceleration.

11
The figure below illustrates the warping of spacetime due to the sun. The earth revolves around the
sun due to this warp.

https://www.storyblocks.com/video/stock/animated-visualization-of-the-effect-of-gravity-on-space-time-version-2-r7d4n0z9eizpfuuuk

The general theory of relativity has passed several experiments, including those proposed by
Einstein:
1. Understanding the rotation of the axes of planet Mercury’s elliptical orbit.
Mercury’s orbit has the peculiarity that its perihelion shifts (precesses) about
1.6º/century, as evidence for an undiscovered planet vulcan whose orbit was supposed to lie
inside that of mercury.

https://faculty.etsu.edu/gardnerr/planetarium/relat/conseq.htm

2. The apparent bending of light rays from distant stars when they pass near the sun
Light rays that graze the sun should have their paths bent toward it by 0.005º - the
diameter of a dime (a silver coin, 1/10 of a dollar) seen from a mile away. Confirmed in
1919 by photographs of stars that appeared in the sky near the sun during an eclipse
expedition of Arthur Eddington.

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 https://towardsdatascience.com/einsteins-gravity-theory-and-the-bending-of-light-by-the-sun-1e796626dc19

Another phenomenon explained by the general relativity is the Gravitational lensing.

Light and radio waves from a source such as quasar (the nucleus of a young galaxy,
brighter than 100 billion stars but is no larger than the solar system) are deviated by a massive
object such as a galaxy so that they seem to come from 2 or more identical sources. Study
the picture below. If you are the observer on earth, what you see are two identical bright
stars in the sky at their apparent positions. The actual position of the very bright star is at
the back of the galaxy as shown in the picture.

https://www.thedailystar.net/news/dark-matter-gordian-knot-of-cosmology
11. Do you think all the stars you see at night are in their real positions? Justify your
answers.

3. Gravitational Redshift
A photon emitted from an extremely massive source will lose energy as it escapes. This
results to a decrease of the photon’s frequency and red shifted as it moves away from the
strong gravitational field. This is called gravitational redshift. Study the illustration below.

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 4. The general theory of relativity is also applied in investigating the formation and evolution
of stars, black holes, and studies of the evolution of the universe.

Below is a picture of a blackhole.

10 April 2019 https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-47873592

The first ever image of a black hole located in a distant galaxy called M87.
A blackhole is a place in space where gravity pulls so strong that nothing, not even a photon
of the visible light, can escape from it. As a result, it appears black and invisible. Only high energy
photons like that of X-rays can escape from it. Stars revolve around it differently than other stars
due to its powerful gravitational field as shown in its warping of spacetime below.

https://gmsciencein.com/2018/08/14/black-hole-story/

5. Gravitational waves
Einstein predicted that something special happens when two bodies—such as planets or
stars—orbit each other. He believed that this kind of movement could cause ripples in space. These
ripples would spread out like the ripples in a pond when a stone is tossed in. Scientists call these
ripples of space gravitational waves.

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 Gravitational waves are invisible. However, they are incredibly fast. They travel at the
speed of light (186,000 miles per second). Gravitational waves squeeze and stretch anything in their
path as they pass by.
In 2015, scientists detected gravitational waves for the very first time. They used a very
sensitive instrument called LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory). These
first gravitational waves happened when two black holes crashed into one another. The collision
happened 1.3 billion years ago. But, the ripples didn’t make it to Earth until 2015!
https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/gravitational-waves/en/
Below is an illustration of gravitational waves:

https://www.space.com/gravitational-waves-future-discoveries.html

6. The General theory of relativity also plays an important role in the global positioning system
(GPS), which make it possible to determine your position on the earth’s surface.

https://ventsmagazine.com/2020/08/02/gps-a-brief-guide-to-global-positioning-system/

12. Read more interesting facts about blackhole, gravitational waves, GPS, and other
evidences of the predictions of general theory of relativity.

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 What I Have Learned

I. Special Relativity
Motion is relative; The value of c in a free space is constant

Two Postulates of Special Relativity:

1. The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference. (Principle of
Relativity)
2. The speed of light c in free space has the same value in all inertial frames of reference
and is independent of the motion of the source.

Consequences of the Special Relativity

1. Relativity of Simultaneity
Two events that are simultaneous in one frame of reference need not be simultaneous in
a frame moving relative to the first frame. The time interval between 2 events may be
different in different frames of reference.

2. Time Dilation
A moving clock ticks slower than a clock at rest
∆𝑡𝑜 1
Time dilation: ∆𝑡 = 2
or ∆𝑡 = 𝛾∆𝑡𝑜 where 𝛾 = 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

where: to = time interval on clock at rest to an observer = proper time

t = time interval on clock in motion relative to an observer
v = speed of relative motion
c = speed of light

3. Length Contraction
Faster means shorter
𝑣2 𝐿𝑜
𝐿 = 𝐿 𝑜 √1 − 𝑐 2 or 𝐿= where: L = relativistic length. Lo = proper length
𝛾

4. Doppler Effect
Why the universe is believed to be expanding
When the light source (like a star) approaches the observer, the observed frequency f
increases (f > fo, where fo is the original frequency of the emitted light). This is referred
to as blue shift. This can be proven by the equation below.

When the light moves away from the observer, the observed frequency f decreases( f <
fo) based on the equation below. This is referred to as red shift.

16
5. Relativistic Momentum

6. Relativity of Newton’s Second Law of Motion

7. Relativistic Kinetic Energy, KE

8. Total Energy, Rest Energy, and Momentum of a particle

17
 II. General Theory of Relativity
Gravity is a warping of spacetime
Principle of equivalence: An observer in a closed laboratory cannot distinguish between
the effects produced by a gravitational field and those produced by an acceleration of the
laboratory.

Evidences of the prediction of general relativity:

1. Understanding the rotation of the axes of planet Mercury’s elliptical orbit.
2. The apparent bending of light rays from distant stars when they pass near the
sun
3. Gravitational Redshift
4. Gravitational lensing
5. Gravitational Waves
6. GPS
7. Formation and evolution of stars, black holes, and studies of the evolution of the
universe

What I Can Do

Watch the following short videos, and complete the table below. Use a separate sheet
of paper to answer. Item number 1 is already done for you.
Video 1. Simultaneity: https://www.miniphysics.com/simultaneity-and-relativity-of-time.html
Video 2. Time Dilation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uy7rrrCQh2w

Video 3.The Elegant Universe: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4yyb_RNJWUM&list=PL-

PGCPZQf29fts5pdaV0F0-fooJDHqcTj&index=16

Term Concept/Description Based on Relativity

1. Motion Relative, there is no universal frame of reference
2. Speed of light
3. Simultaneity
4. Time
5. Length
6. Momentum
7. Energy
8. Doppler effect in light
(blue shift and redshift)
9. Gravity
10. Gravitational waves

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 INSERTION A: WORKSHEET 1
Prepared by: Mr. ERIC B. PASION

Worksheet 1 in Physics (Relativity)

Name: ___________________________ Section: ___________ Score: ___________

Complete the Statements: Choose the term that correctly completes the statement.

There are _______________ (two, three) postulates of the special theory of

relativity. The postulates say that the laws of physics is _____________ (varied,
valid) in every inertial frame of reference and the speed of light in vacuum is
_____________ (constant, changing). It means to say that the speed of light is
_____________ (dependent, independent) to the motion of the source.

Matching type: Match the variables in column A to their description in column B.

An item may have two answers.

A B
1. to A. relativistic length
2. t B. relativistic time
3. v C. proper length
4. c D. proper time
5. L E. Velocity of the relative motion
6. Lo F. Speed of light
G. Time of clock at rest to observer
H. Time of clock in motion to observer
I. Length of object at rest to observer
J. Length of object in motion to observer

Modified True or False: Each item has two statements. Check ( ✔)the statement/s
which are correct and ( X ) if wrong. If the second statement is a reason for the first
statement, draw also a star (★) under column C. If not, draw a circle (◯).
✔ ★
item Statement or or
X ◯
1. Time is not absolute
Time is relative to the motion of the observer and the event being observed
2. Length of object in motion appear longer to observer at rest
Length contraction occurs only along the direction of motion
3 Accelerating reference frames are inertial reference frames
Inertial reference frames is one in which Newton’s Law of Inertia is valid
4 A moving clock is seen to tick slower by an observer on the ground.
Doppler shift is the change in frequency of wave in motion
5. Blue shift is observed when the source is moving away from the observer
When source is moving towards the observer, the wavelength shortens
6. Relativistic momentum becomes infinite as v approaches c
The particles speed never quite reaches the speed of light.
 INSERTION A: WORKSHEET 1
Prepared by: Mr. ERIC B. PASION

Guided Problem Solving:

1. A spacecraft moving past earth at a constant speed that is 0.92c. The astronaut
measures the time interval as 1.0 second. What is the time interval to an earth
observer?
Given: Solution:
to = ___________
v = ___________
Formula: Answer:
∆"!
∆" =
"
%1 − ( "
)

2. An astronaut measures the length of his spacecraft to be 81m. What is the length of
the spacecraft as seen by an observer on earth if the spacecraft travels at 0.95c.
Given: Solution:
Lo = ___________
v = ___________
Formula: Answer:
("
* = *! +1 −
)"

3. An electron (mass = 9.11 x 10-31 kg) moves at 0.999 999 999 7c. What is its relativistic
momentum?
Given: Solution:
m = ___________
v = ___________
Formula: Answer:
-(
,=
"
%1 − ("
)

4. What is the rest energy of an electron (mass = 9.11 x 10-31 kg) that is accelerated from
rest to a speed of 0.9995c?
Given: Solution:
m = ___________
c = ___________
Formula: Answer:
. = -) "

5. What is the relativistic energy of an electron (mass = 9.11 x 10-31 kg) that is
accelerated from rest to a speed of 0.9995c?
Given: Solution:
m = ___________
c = ___________
Formula: Answer:
-) "
.=
"
%1 − ( "
)
 INSERTION B: WORKSHEET 2
Prepared by: Mr. ERIC B. PASION

Worksheet in Physics (Relativity)

Name: ____________________________________Grade and Section: _______________

PART 1. SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY SCORE:

Level of Difficulty: Easy ___ /4
Directions: Identify statements as TRUE or FALSE. If false, change the underlined word to
make it correct.

1. The laws of physics are the same for all observers moving uniformly at constant
acceleration.
2. If two observers travelling toward one another at constant velocity perform
identical experiment, they will get identical results.
3. The speed of light in vacuum is constant.
4. The speed of light after it has left a source is dependent on the motion of the
source.

PART 2. TIME DILATION SCORE:

Level of Difficulty: Moderate ___ /13
Directions: Solve the problem below. Show complete solution by following the guided
process.

Problem:

A law enforcement officer in an intergalactic “police car” turns on a flashing red light
and sees it generate a flash of 1.5 seconds. A person on earth measures that the time
between flashes is 2.5 seconds. How fast is the “police car” moving relative to earth?
T police car = 1.5 seconds

T observer = 2.5 seconds

Given:

Proper Time:

Relativistic Time:

Speed of Light, c:

Relativistic Time Formula:

epasion
 INSERTION B: WORKSHEET 2
Prepared by: Mr. ERIC B. PASION

Derivation of Formula for velocity, v

Study and complete the derived formula:

!!
1. Cross multiply !1 − and D t
"! !! ∆ &"
!1 − =
from the general formula. "! ∆&

2. Square both sides of the equation to #

eliminate square root &# ∆ -'

) *1 − = .
'# ∆-

Write answer here.

3. Transpose v2/c2 and (Dto/Dt)2 on

opposite sides of the equation. Write answer here.

4. Get square root of both sides of the Write answer here.

equation.

5. Extract %& # ⁄' # Write answer here.

6. Transpose c to the opposite side of

the equation.
∆ -' #
& = ' *1 − / 0
∆-

Solution
Use derived formula and show complete solution (5POINTS)

epasion
 INSERTION B: WORKSHEET 2
Prepared by: Mr. ERIC B. PASION

PART 3: DOPPLER EFFECT SCORE:

Level of Difficulty: Easy ___ /6
Directions: Encircle the word which makes the statement correct. Refer to the figure below.

would be towards the (blue, red). If the

The Doppler shift is expressed as
wavelength change. If the source is moving
towards the observer, the wavelength
(lengthens, shortens) and the color shift
source is moving away from the observer,
the wavelength (decreases, increases) and
the color shift would be towards the (blue,
red).
In terms of frequency change, when
the observer is moving perpendicular to a
line between him and the light source, the
observed frequency is always (higher,
lower) than the source frequency. When the
observer is receding from the light source,
the observed frequency is (higher, lower)
than the source frequency.

PART 4: RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM SCORE:

Level of Difficulty: Easy ___ /6
Directions: Refer to the diagram on the right to complete the statement. Choose the answer
from the word pool.

1. The formula for relativistic momentum is

_______________
2. As the particles speed approaches the speed of light, the
momentum becomes ______________.
3. When the momentum is very large, the particles speed
never quite reaches the speed of ______________.
4. When the speed is large, a particle responds to forces and
impulses as if its mass had ______________.
5. As the particle’s speed increases, the acceleration caused
by a given force continuously ______________.
6. As the speed approaches c, the acceleration approaches
___________ (no matter how great a force is applied).

WORDPOOL
Decreases Increases Infinite 2 Very small
1=
3&
Decreased Increased Light 1 = 23& Zero

epasion
 INSERTION B: WORKSHEET 2
Prepared by: Mr. ERIC B. PASION

PART 5: ENERGY AND MOMENTUM SCORE:

Level of Difficulty: Moderate ___ /4
Directions: Match the formula in column B to the concept in column A.

Column A Column B

1. Relationship between total energy and A. 4 = 56

momentum

2. Energy of a particle at rest B. 4 = 76(

3. Energy of a particle with zero mass C. 4( = (76( )( + (56)(

4. Energy of a particle with zero momentum

PART 6: GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY SCORE:

Level of Difficulty: Difficult ___ /7
Directions:
Match the principles, theory, concepts, phenomena in column B to their statement in column A.
A choice may be used twice or not at all.

A B
1. A star whose density is so great that the A. Black Holes
escape velocity exceeds the speed of
light.
2. A photon from a star has lower B. Correspondence Principle
frequency as it reaches earth due to loss
in energy as it leaves the field of the star.
3. Light and radiowaves from a quasar are C. General Theory of Relativity
deviated by a massive object like galaxy
to that they seem to come from two
identical sources.
4. In the vicinity of a given point, a D. Gravitational Lensing
gravitational field is equivalent to an
accelerated frame of reference without
gravitational field.
5. The idea that the newer and more E. Gravitational Red Shift
general theory must make the same
predictions as the older theory.
6. The force of gravity arises from the F. Principle of Equivalence
warping of spacetime.
7. An object moving around a body of G. Special Theory of Relativity
matter follows a curved path rather than
a straight one.

epasion
Lesson
PARTICLE PROPERTY OF A WAVE
2
What I Need To Know

At the end of this lesson, understand the basic concepts underlying the property of
waves
1. Discuss the particle nature of light
2. Discuss the significance of the Planck’s constant
3. Calculate the energy of a photon
4. Calculate the work function of a metal
5. Explain the Photoelectric effect
6. Calculate the kinetic energy after ejection from metals of collision with a
photon
7. Cite practical applications of the photoelectric effect
8. Explain how x-rays are produced

What’s In

Let us recall what you have learned in Lesson 1.

True or False. Write P if the statement is true. If the statement is false,

change the underlined word/phrase to make it true.
1. Simultaneity is a variant concept.
2. Gravity is a warping of spacetime.
3. Time and length are non-relativistic.
4. There is no universal frame of reference, therefore motion is
relative.
5. Gravitational lensing is one of the proven predictions of general
relativity.

19
 What’s New

Particle Nature of Light

To start with, let us recall the different theories explaining the nature of light, including
those from ancient times.
Proponent Theory/Nature of light
1. Plato and Euclid Light consisted of streamers emitted by the eye
2. Pythagoras Light emanated from luminous bodies in the form of very fine
particles
3. Empedocles Light is composed of high speed waves of some sort
4. Isaac Newton Corpuscular Theory/Light is a stream of particles called corpuscles
5. Christian Wave Theory/ light is made up of waves vibrating up and down
Huygens perpendicular to the direction of the wave propagation
6. James Clerk Light is an electromagnetic phenomenon, It is simply an EM
Maxwell radiation with a frequency range from 4.3 x 1014 Hz to 7.0 x 1014 Hz.
7. Albert Einstein Dual nature of light (as a wave and as a particle)
At present, light is believed to have a dual nature. It is propagated as a wave (Electromagnetic), and
emitted and absorbed as particles. These particles are called quanta or photons. The Quantum
Theory supports this idea. Read and study the following to have an idea about Quantum Physics.

20
 1. What is the most accepted and modern theory about the nature of light?

Lesson 2 of this module discusses the particle nature of light. The wave nature of light will
be discussed in Lesson 3.

What Is It

In the early 18th century, Newton’s prism experiment had proven that light travel as a shower
of particles (corpuscles). This was used as a strong evidence of their group to support the particle
nature of light. Many experiments have been done to prove and explain further the said theory. In
this module, Photoelectric Effect and X-rays Production are being discussed as evidences that light
wave has a particle nature.

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
One of the evidences of the particle nature of light is the Photoelectric Effect. This was
published by Albert Einstein in March 1905. According to Einstein: Light is a beam of particles
whose energies are related to their frequencies according to Planck's formula. When that beam is
directed to a metal, the photons collide with the atoms. If a photon's frequency is sufficient to knock
off an electron, the collision produces the photoelectric effect. As a particle, light carries energy
proportional to the frequency of the wave; as a wave it has a frequency determined by the particle's
energy. Einstein won the 1921 Nobel Prize in physics for this work.
https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200501/history.cfm#:~:text=This%20became%20known%20as%20the,first%20saw%20a
%20magnetic%20compass.
The diagram below shows photoelectric effect.

21
 Incident visible light rays of a certain frequency f, strike the surface of the target material.
Electrons are released from the target and are attracted to the Cathode. These released electrons are
called photoelectrons.
Electrons near the surface of the metal absorb enough energy to overcome the attraction of
the positive ions in the metal and escape into the surroundings. The input minimum amount of
energy an individual electron has to gain to enable it to escape from a particular surface is called
work function.
Work function, ∅
∅ = ℎ𝑓𝑜
Where: h = Planck’s constant = 6.626 x 10-34 Js or 4.136 x 10-15 eVs
fo = threshold frequency

Threshold frequency, fo, or critical frequency of light, is the minimum frequency of light required
to let an electron escape from the surface.
The table below shows some metals and their respective work functions.

Metal Symbol Work function

in eV
Cesium Cs 1.9
Potassium K 2.2
Sodium Na 2.3
Lithium Li 2.5
Calcium Ca 3.2
Copper Cu 4.7
Silver Ag 4.7
Platinum Pt 6.4

2. Which among the metals in the table above needs the highest energy to release
photoelectrons? Which metal needs the least?
3. Compute for the work function of a certain metal whose threshold frequency is
6.04 x 1014 /s. What is the name of that certain metal?

To pull an electron from a metal surface generally takes about half as much energy as needed
to pull an electron from a free atom (ionization energy) of that metal.
Example: Cesium
ionization energy = 3.9 eV
work function = 1.9 eV

The energy of the incident photons hf is equal to the sum of the maximum kinetic energy KE of
the photoelectrons and the work function ∅ of the metal. In equation:

𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 + ∅
Therefore:
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − ∅ = ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑓𝑜

So, the formula in computing the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is:

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ (𝑓 − 𝑓𝑜 )

4. Ultraviolet light is directed to a potassium surface. If the energy of the photons, hf, is
3.5 eV, find the maximum kinetic (KEmax) energy of the photoelectrons.

Electron energies and work functions are usually expressed in electron volts (eV).
1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 Js (Joule second)
22
Results of the photoelectric effect experiment:
1. There is no time interval between the arrival of light at a metal surface and the
emission of photoelectrons.
However, because the energy in an EM wave is supposed to be spread across the
wave fronts, a period of time should elapse before an individual electron accumulates
enough energy to leave the metal.
Example: Sodium Na surface
A 10-6 W/m2 of EM energy is needed to obtain a detectable photoelectron current.
A layer of sodium, 1 atom thick and 1m2 in area contains about 1019 atoms. Each atom
receives 10-25 W or 10-25 J/s which is equal to 6.2 x 10-7 eV/s, (1 eV = 1.602x10-19 J). The
work function of Sodium is 2.3 eV, t = 2.3 eV/6.2 x 10-7 eV/s = 3 684 600 s = 42.65 days
before a electrons starts to escape from the metal surface.
Therefore: Electromagnetic waves energy is concentrated in photons and not spread
out, there should be no delay in the emission of photoelectrons.

2. A bright light yields more photoelectrons than a dim one of the same frequency, but
the energy of the photoelectrons remains the same.
On the contrary, the EM theory of light predicts that the more intense the light, the
greater the energy of the photoelectrons.
Therefore, All photons of frequency f have the same energy, so changing the
intensity of a monochromatic light beam will change the number of photoelectrons but not
their energies.

3. The higher the frequency of the light, the more energy the photoelectrons have.
The higher the frequency f, the greater the photon energy hf, and so the more energy
the photoelectrons have.

Practical applications of Photoelectric Effect

Some of the practical applications of Photoelectric effect are photocell, photoconductive
devices, and solar cells.
Photocell is usually a vacuum tube with two electrodes. One is a photosensitive anode
which emits electrons when exposed to light and the other is an cathode which is maintained at a
positive voltage with respect to the anode. Thus when light shines on the anode, electrons are
attracted to the cathode and an electron current flows. The current can be used to operate a relay,
which might turn a motor on to open a door or ring a bell in an alarm system. Photocells are also
useful as exposure meters for cameras.
Photoconductive effect (photoconductivity) is the increase in electrical conductivity of
certain nonmetallic materials such as cadmium sulfide when exposed to light. This effect can be
quite large so that a very small current in a device suddenly becomes quite large when exposed to
light.
Solar cells, usually made from specially prepared silicon, act like a battery when exposed
to light. Individual solar cells produce voltages of about 0.6 volts but higher voltages and large
currents can be obtained by appropriately connecting many solar cells together.
https://science.jrank.org/pages/5169/Photoelectric-Effect-Applications.html

23
 What’s More

X-Rays Production

The photoelectric effect provides a convincing evidence that photons of light can transfer
energy of electrons. Is the inverse process also possible? That is, can part or all of the kinetic energy
of a moving electron be converted into a photon?
In 1895, long before the work of Einstein and Planck, Wilhelm Röntgen found that a highly
penetrating radiation, known as X-rays now, are produced when fast electrons strikes a metal
surface. This is exactly the inverse process of photoelectric effect - the X-rays production.

5. What image is considered as one of the most famous images in photographic history
taken on December 22, 1895? Who and what made this possible?

Since x-rays are emitted by accelerated charges, it is clear that x-rays are electromagnetic
waves. Like light, x-rays are governed by quantum relationships in their interaction with
matter. Thus we can talk about x-ray photons or quanta, and the energy of an x-ray photon
is related to its frequency f and wavelength 𝜆 in the same way as for photons of light,
ℎ𝑐
E = hf = 𝜆 . The wavelength of x-rays ranges from 10-12 to 10-9 m.
24
 X – rays are produced when rapidly moving electrons that have been accelerated through a
potential difference of the order of 103 to 106 V strike a metal surface. The diagrams below
shows how x-rays are produced.

The following are two distinct processes involved in x-ray production.

1. Bremsstrahlung (German for “breaking radiation”)
In this process some electrons are slowed down or stopped by the target, and part
or all of their KE is converted directly to a continuous spectrum of photons, including x-
rays. The diagram below shows the process.

An electron has a charge –e and gains KE eVAC when accelerated through a potential increase of
VAC. The most energetic photon, highest frequency( 𝑓max ) and shortest wavelength (𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 ), is
produced when all the electron’s kinetic energy goes to produce one photon. That is:

ℎ𝑐
𝑒𝑉𝑎𝑐 = ℎ𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛
25
 2. The second process gives peaks in x-rays spectrum at characteristic frequencies
and wavelengths that do depend on the target material. Other electrons, if they
have enough KE, can transfer that energy partly or completely to individual atoms
w/in the target. When they decay back to their ground levels, they may emit x-ray
photons.

Sample problem:
Electron in an x-ray tube are accelerated by a potential difference of 10.0 KV. If an
electron produces one photon on impact w/ the target, what is the minimum
wavelength of the resulting x-rays?

ℎ𝑐
𝑒𝑉𝑎𝑐 =
𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛

ℎ𝑐
𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑒𝑉𝑎𝑐
Using h = 6.626 x 10-34 Js
Given: Vac = 10.0 KV
c = 3.00 x 108 m/s (speed of light)
e = 1.602 x 10-19 C (charge of an electron)

(6.626 𝑥 10−34 𝐽𝑠)(3.00 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠

𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
(1.602 𝑥 10−19 𝐶)(10.0 𝑥 103 𝑉)

𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.24 x 10-10 m = 0.124 nm

Using h = 4.136 x 10-15 eVs

(4.136 𝑥 10−15 𝑒𝑉𝑠)(3.00 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠
𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑒(10.0 𝑥 103 𝑉)

𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.24 x 10-10 m = 0.124 nm

The following are the characteristics of x-rays:

All substances are more or less transparent to these rays.
X-rays ravel in straight lines unaffected by electric and magnetic fields.
X-rays affect photographic plates and can cause the phosphorescent substances
to glow.
The faster the original electron, the more penetrating the resulting x-rays, and the
greater the number of electrons, the greater the intensity for the x-ray beam.

6. Give at least two (2) practical applications of x-rays.

Significance of the Plank’s Constant h

Max Planck’s constant h, is being used in this module. This is one of the
fundamental physical constants used in the mathematical formulations of quantum mechanics,
which describes the behavior of particles and waves on the atomic scale, including the particle
aspect of light. The significance of Planck’s constant in this context is that radiation, such as light
and x-ray, are emitted, transmitted, and absorbed in discrete energy packets, or quanta, determined
by the frequency of the radiation and the value of Planck’s constant. The energy E of each
quantum or each photon, equals Planck’s constant h times the radiation frequency f or
26
simply E = hf. The value of h in meter-kilogram-second units is defined as exactly 6.62607015 ×
10−34 joule second.
https://www.britannica.com/science/Plancks-constant

What I Have Learned

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
When a light beam is directed to a metal, the photons collide with the atoms. If a photon's
frequency is sufficient to knock off an electron, the collision produces the photoelectric effect.
The diagram below shows photoelectric effect.

Work function, ∅
∅ = ℎ𝑓𝑜
Where: h = Planck’s constant = 6.626 x 10-34 Js or 4.136 x 10-15 eVs
fo = threshold frequency

The energy of the incident photons hf is equal to the sum of the maximum kinetic energy
KE of the photoelectrons and the work function ∅ of the metal. In equation:

𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 + ∅
Therefore:
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − ∅ = ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑓𝑜

So, the formula in computing the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is:

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ (𝑓 − 𝑓𝑜 ).

X-Rays Production
In 1895, long before the work of Einstein and Planck, Wilhelm Roentgen found that a highly
penetrating radiation, known as X-rays now, is produced when fast electrons strikes a metal surface.
This is exactly the inverse process of photoelectric effect, the X-rays production.

27
 What I Can Do

Three pics, one concept. Study the pictures below, and answer the questions that follow.

Questions
1. What concept about the nature of light is depicted in the three pictures above?
2. Who is being confronted by the policeman in picture number 3? Justify your answer in 1
to 2 sentences.
3. Give two (2) evidences of the particle property of a wave.

28
 INSERTION C: WORKSHEET 3
Prepared by: Mr. ERIC B. PASION

Worksheet in Physics
(Particle Property of a Wave)
Name: ____________________________________Grade and Section: _______________

PART 1. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT SCORE:

Level of Difficulty: Easy ___ /7
Directions: Choose the word/s from the word pool which complete/s the statements below.

Photoelectric Effect is the enforced expulsion of ______________ from a metal surface. This
phenomenon occurs when the surface of the metal is irradiated with ____________. For this
to occur, the electromagne=c wave must possess sufficiently _______________.

No emission occur when the frequency of light falls below the cut-off frequency which
depends on the type of ____________. This characteris=c is called _________________.

The maximum kine=c energy of the emiFed electron in Photoelectric Effect is dependent to
light frequency but independent to light ___________. The emission happens ____________.

Electron Proton Electromagnetic Radiation Low Frequency

High Frequency Particle Metal Surface Blackbody radiation

Work Function Intensity Instantaneously Gradually

PART 2. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT SCORE:

Level of Difficulty: Moderate
___ /16
Directions: Study the figure and answer the questions.

! = #$
!
where $ =
"
#!
therefore ! =
"
 INSERTION C: WORKSHEET 3
Prepared by: Mr. ERIC B. PASION

A. Complete the Table.

Question Answer
1. Work Function of the metal (potassium) eV
2. Energy of 700 nm incident photon (EM wave) eV
3. Energy of 550 nm incident photon (EM wave) eV
4. Energy of 400 nm incident photon (EMwave) eV
5. Speed of the ejected electron by 700 nm incident m/s
photon
6. Speed of the ejected electron by 550 nm incident m/s
photon
7. Speed of the ejected electron by 400 nm incident m/s
photon

B. Show how the answers are computed using the given formula on the figure.

Variable to be Constants and Formula Solution (3 points each)

computed

Planck’s Constant
Frequency of = 6.626 x10-34 Js
light with = 4.136 x10-15 eVs
energy of
1.77 eV 1 eV = 1.6 x10-19 J

E = hf

Frequency of
light with c = 3.0 x108 m/s
wavelength of
550 nm f=c/λ
(550 x 10-9 m)

Energy of Planck’s Constant

photon with = 6.626 x10-34 Js
wavelength of = 4.136 x10-15 eVs
400 nm
(400 x 10-9 m) 1 eV = 1.6 x10-19 J

E = hc / λ
 INSERTION C: WORKSHEET 3
Prepared by: Mr. ERIC B. PASION

PART 3. X-RAY PRODUCTION SCORE: ___ /5

Level of Difficulty: Moderate

Directions: Study the figure and briefly explain the process of x-ray production.

PART 3. X-RAY PRODUCTION SCORE: ___ /6

Level of Difficulty: Easy

Match the descriptions in column A to the terms in column B.

A B
1. Has the same mass as the particle but A. Antiparticle
has opposite charge. B. Antineutrino
2. Antiparticle of electron discovered by C. Electron
Carl Anderson D. Hadron
3. Antiparticle of neutrino. E. Neutron
4. Components of proton and neutrons. F. Proton
5. Hadron composed of 2 up quark and 1 G. Quark
down quark
6. Hadron composed of 2 down quark and
1 up quark

PART 4. UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE SCORE: ___ /5

Level of Difficulty: Moderate

Directions: Complete the statement of the uncertainty principle

It is impossible to know both the exact

________________ and _________________
of an object at the same time.
 Lesson
WAVE PROPERTY OF PARTICLE
3

What I Need To Know

At the end of this lesson, demonstrate understanding of the wave property of particles
1. Distinguish anti-particle and a particle
2. Discuss the wave property of particles
3. Calculate the wavelength of a moving object
4. Discuss the significance of uncertainty principle

What’s In

Before we start with Lesson 3, let us recall the concepts you learned in Lesson 2.
Match Column A with Column B. Write the letter of the correct answer.

Column A Column B
1. Max Planck A. h = 4.136 x 10-15eVs
2. Albert Einstein B. Worked on Photoelectric effect
3. Photoconductivity C. One of the applications of photoelectric effect
4. X-rays production D. One of the evidences that a wave has a particle property
5. Photoelectric effect E. Photons are released from a target metal when electrons strike it
F. Usually made from specially prepared silicon, act like a battery
when exposed to light.

What’s New

In this part of the module, we are going to learn the wave property of particles. But before
that, let us familiarize ourselves with the different elementary and fundamental particles in nature.
Elementary particles
They are used more loosely to include some subatomic particles that are composed of other
particles
Fundamental Particles
These are particles that cannot be broken further.
They provide the basic units that make up all matter and energy in the universe.
The diagram below shows the known elementary particles in nature; the picture shows the
scientists who discovered the neutron, proton, and electron.
29
Elementary particles are classified into Leptons and Hadrons. The table below shows the 6 leptons.

Lepton Symbol Antiparticle Mass

(MeV/c2)
Electron e- e+ 0.511

e-neutrino ʋe ʋe Very small

Muon μ- μ+ 106

μ-neutrino ʋμ ʋμ Very small

Tau τ- τ+ 1777

τ-neutrino ʋτ ʋτ Very small

30
Antiparticle - has the same mass as the particle but has opposite charge
Examples:
1. Electron – 1st elementary particle that
was discovered by JJ Thomson, 1897
Positron – antiparticle of electron
discovered by Carl Anderson, 193

2. Neutrino – a particle;
spin: left-handed screw
antineutrino – antiparticle of neutrino;
spin: right-handed screw

Muon are made up most of the cosmic ray secondary particles at sea level. Tau is discovered
in 1975. It decays into electrons, muons, or pions along with appropriate neutrinos. Read
some facts about Muons below:

1. What are the fundamental particles among the smallest things in the universe
based on the picture above?
2. What is an antiparticle? What is the charge of the antiparticle of electron?

31
 Hadrons are classified into Baryon and Meson. Baryons consist of 3 quarks, about 120 types
are known, and proton is the lightest baryon. Mesons consist of a quark and an antiquark. The
following tables show the Baryons and Mesons.

Class Particle Symbol Antiparticle Mass

(MeV/c2)

Baryons Nucleon

Proton p p 938.3

Neutron n n 939.6
Lambda χ0 χ0 1 116

Sigma Ʃ+ Ʃ+ 1 189
Ʃ0 Ʃ0 1 193
Ʃ- Ʃ- 1 197
Xi ≡0 ≡0 1 315
≡- ≡+ 1 321
Omega Ω- Ω+ 1 672

Class Particle Symbol Antiparticle Mass

(MeV/c2)

mesons Pion π+ π- 140

π0 Self 135
π- π+ 140
Kaon K+ K- 494
K0s K0s 498
K0L K0L 498
Eta η0 Self 549
η’ Self 958

32
What are Quarks?
Quarks are the building blocks of Quark Symbol Mass (GeV/c2) Charge (e)
protons and neutrons, which in turn are the
building blocks of atomic nuclei.
Scientists’ current understanding is that Up u 0.3 +2/3
quarks are indivisible—they cannot be
broken down into smaller components. Down d 0.3 -1/3
They are the fundamental particles in the
Hadron family. The table shows the 6
known quarks. Strange s 0.5 -1/3

Charmed c 1.5 +2/3

Top t 174 +2/3

Bottom b 4.3 -1/3

Hadron Quark Charge, e

Content The table shows the compositions of some
Hadrons according to Quark Model.
π+ ud +2/3+1/3=+1

K+ us +2/3+1/3=+1

p+ uud +2/3+2/3-1/3=+1

n0 ddu -1/3-1/3+2/3=0

Ω- sss -1/3-1/3-1/3= -1

There are other particles in nature to be discovered, like the news last March 13 below.

33
 What Is It

After knowing some of the particles and antiparticles above, we are now ready to discuss
the wave property of a particle.
In Lesson 2, light and other electromagnetic waves/radiation act like particles. Emission (x-
ray production) and absorption (photoelectric effect) of photons demonstrate their particle behavior.
In this part of the module, Lesson 3, we’ll discuss the wave property of particles.

de Broglie Waves (Matter waves)

A moving body behaves in certain ways as though it has a wave nature
Louis de Broglie, proposed that moving objects have wave as well as particle characteristics.
A photon of light of frequency f has a momentum

ℎ𝑓 ℎ
𝑝= =
𝑐 𝜆
since 𝜆𝑓 = 𝑐. The wavelength of a photon is therefore specified by its momentum according to the
relation
ℎ
𝜆= 𝑝.
ℎ
De Broglie suggested that 𝜆 = is completely a general one that applies to material particles as
𝑝
well as to photons. The momentum of a particle of mass m and velocity v is 𝑝 = 𝛾𝑚𝑣, and its de
Broglie wavelength is
ℎ
𝜆 = 𝛾𝑚𝑣.

The greater the particle’s momentum, the shorter its wavelength. In the equation, 𝛾 is the relativistic
1
factor 𝛾= 2
.
√1−𝑐2
𝑣
As in the case of EM waves, the wave and particle aspects of moving bodies can never be
observed at the same time. We therefore cannot ask which is the correct description. All that can
be said is that in certain situations a moving body resembles a wave and in others it resembles a
particle.

Sample problem:
1. Find the de Broglie wavelengths of (a) a 45-g golf ball with a velocity of 30 m/s, and (b) an
electron with a velocity of 107 m/s.
(a) Since the speed v≪ c, then 𝛾 = 1. Hence
ℎ 6.63 𝑥 10−34 𝐽𝑠
𝜆= = 𝑚 = 4.8 x 10-34 m.
𝑚𝑣 (0.046 𝑘𝑔)(30 𝑠 )
The wavelength of the golf ball is so small compared with its dimensions that we would not
expect to find any wave aspects in its behavior.
(b) Again v≪ c, then 𝛾 = 1, and mass of an electron is 9.1 x 10-31 kg,

ℎ 6.63 𝑥 10−34 𝐽𝑠
𝜆= = 𝑚 = 7.3 x 10-11 m.
𝑚𝑣 (9.1 𝑥 10−31 𝑘𝑔)(107 𝑠 )
The dimensions of atoms are comparable with this figure – the radius of the hydrogen
atom, for instance, is 5.3 x 10-11 m. It is therefore not surprising that the wave character of moving
electrons is the key to understanding atomic structure and behavior.

34
 2. Find the kinetic energy of a proton whose de Broglie wavelength is 10-15 m, which is roughly
the proton diameter.
A relativistic calculation is needed unless pc for the proton is much smaller than the proton
rest energy of Eo = 0.938 GeV. To find out:
𝑚
ℎ𝑐 (4.136 10−15 𝑒𝑉𝑠)(2.998 𝑥 108 )
𝑝𝑐 = (𝛾𝑚𝑣)𝑐 = 𝜆 = 𝑠
= 1.240 x 109 eV or 1.240 GeV.
10−15 𝑚
Since pc > 𝐸𝑜 a relativistic calculation is required. So use the equation:
𝐸 2 = 𝐸𝑜 2 + 𝑝2 𝑐 2 (from relativistic energy). Then
𝐸 = √𝐸𝑜 2 + 𝑝2 𝑐 2 = √(0.938 𝐺𝑒𝑉)2 + (1.2340 𝐺𝑒𝑉)2 = 1.555 𝐺𝑒𝑉
The corresponding kinetic energy is
KE = E – Eo = 1.555 GeV – 0.938 GeV = 0.617 GeV = 617 MeV.

Electron Microscope
The wave nature of moving electrons is the basis of the electron microscope, the first of
which was built in 1932. Electrons have wavelengths very much shorter than those of visible light
and are easily controlled by electric and magnetic fields because of their charge. The electron
microscope can produce sharp images at over 10 million times magnifications. The electron beam
in an electron microscope is focused by magnetic fields. Below are samples of images taken using
an electron microscope.
Human tongue

Red ant head

Hydrogen atom https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7I7Hq6ikPWM
https://www.electropages.com/blog/2020/05/four-things-you-need-know-about-electron-microscopes

3. Give at least one proof that particles like electron has a wave property.

4. What information about electrons are shown in the picture above?

Waves of probability
In water waves, the quantity that varies periodically is the height of the water surface. In
sound waves, it is pressure. In light waves, electric and magnetic fields vary. What is it varies in
the case of matter waves?
The quantity whose variations make up matter waves is called the wave function, 𝜓 (the
Greek letter psi). The value of the wave function associated with a moving body at the particular x,
y, z in space at the time t is related to the likelihood of finding the body there at that time. The
probability of that something be in a certain place at a given time must lie between 0 ( the object is
definitely not there) and 1 (the object is definitely there).

35
 The wave function 𝜓 itself, however, has no direct physical significance. However the
square of the absolute value of the wave function | 𝜓 |2 has. This is known as probability density:
The probability of experimentally finding the body described by the wave function 𝜓 at the
point x, y, x, at the time t is proportional to the value of | 𝜓 |2 there at t.

A large value of | 𝜓 |2 means the strong possibility of the bodies presence, while a small value of
| 𝜓 |2 means the slight possibility of its presence. As long as | 𝜓 |2 is not actually 0 somewhere,
however, there is a definite chance, however small, of detecting it there. This interpretation was
first made by Max Born in 1926.

What’s More

Uncertainty Principle
We cannot know the future because we cannot know the present
Let us regard a moving particle as a wave group. This implies that there are fundamental
limits to the accuracy with which we can measure such particle properties as position and
momentum.
To make it clear what is involved, let us look at the wave group below:

The particle that corresponds to this wave group may be located anywhere within the group
at a given time. The probability density | 𝜓 |2 is maximum in the middle of the wave group , so the
particle is most likely to be found there. Nevertheless, we may still find the particle anywhere that
| 𝜓 |2 is not actually 0.
The narrower its wave group as shown below, the more precisely a particle’s position can
be specified.

However, the wavelength of the waves in a narrow pocket is not well defined; there are no enough
ℎ
waves to measure 𝜆 accurately. This means that since 𝜆 = 𝛾𝑚𝑣, the particle’s momentum 𝛾𝑚𝑣 is
not a precise quantity.

On the other hand, a wide wave group as shown below, has a clearly defined wavelength.
The momentum that corresponds to this wavelength is therefore a precise quantity. But where is

36
the particle located? The width of the wave group is now too great for us to be able to say exactly
where the particle is at a given time.

Thus we have the uncertainty principle:

It is impossible to know both the exact position and exact momentum of an object at the
same time. If we know everything about where a particle is located (the uncertainty of position is
small), we know nothing about its momentum (the uncertainty of momentum is large), and vice
versa.

This principle, which was discovered by Werner Heisenberg in 1927, is one of the most significant
of physical laws. Below is the equation of Uncertainty principle:
ℎ
∆𝑥 ∆𝑝 ≥ 4𝜋

This equation states that the product of the uncertainty ∆𝑥 in the position of an object at some
instant and the uncertainty ∆𝑝 in its momentum component in the x direction at the same instant is
ℎ
equal to or greater than 4𝜋 .
If we arrange matters so that ∆𝑥 is small, corresponding to a narrow wave group, then ∆𝑝 will be
large. If we reduce ∆𝑝 in some ways, a broad wave group is inevitable and ∆𝑥 will be large.
Since we cannot know exactly both where a particle is right now and what its momentum
is, we cannot say anything definite where it will be in the future or how fast it will be moving then.
We cannot know the future for sure because we cannot know the present for sure.

H-Bar
The quantity h/2𝜋 appears often in modern physics because it turns out to be the basic unit
of angular momentum. It is therefore customary to abbreviate h/2𝜋 by the symbol ℏ (h-bar).

ℎ
ℏ= 2𝜋
= 1.054 x 10-34 Js

The uncertainty principle in terms of ℏ is:

ℏ
∆𝑥 ∆𝑝 ≥
2

Another form of the uncertainty principle concerns energy and time. We might wish to
measure the energy E emitted during the time interval ∆𝑡 in an atomic process.

ℏ
∆𝐸 ∆𝑡 ≥
2

37
The above equation states that the product of the uncertainty ∆E in an energy measurement and
ℏ
uncertainty ∆t in the time at which the measurement is made is equal to or greater than 2. This result
can be derived in other ways as well and is a general one not limited to EM waves.

Significance of the Uncertainty Principle

Plank’s constant h is so small that the limitations imposed by the uncertainty principle are
significant only in the realm of the atom. On such a scale, however, this principle is of great help
in understanding many phenomena.
Sample problems:
1. A typical atomic nucleus is about 5.0 x 10-15 m in radius. Use the uncertainty principle to
place a lower limit on the energy an electron must have if it is to be part of a nucleus.
Letting ∆𝑥 = 5.0 𝑥 10−15 𝑚
ℏ 1.054 𝑥 10−34 𝐽𝑠
∆𝑝 ≥ ≥ ≥ 1.1 𝑥 10−20 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠
2∆𝑥 (2)(5.0 𝑥 10−15 𝑚)
If this is the uncertainty in a nuclear electron’s momentum, the momentum p itself must be at least
comparable in magnitude. An electron with such a momentum has a kinetic energy KE many times
greater than its rest energy mc2. We can use KE = pc here to a sufficient degree of accuracy.

KE = pc ≥ (1.1 x10-20 kg m/s)(3.0 x 108 m/s) ≥ 3.3 x 10-12 J

Since 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J, the kinetic energy of an electron must exceed 20 MeV if it is to be
inside a nucleus. Experiments show that electrons emitted by certain unstable nuclei never have
more than a small fraction of this energy, from which we conclude that nuclei cannot contain
electrons.

2. A hydrogen atom is 5.3 x 10-11 m in radius. Use the uncertainty principle to estimate the
minimum energy an electron can have in this atom.
∆𝑥 = 5.3 𝑥 10−11 𝑚

ℏ 1.054 𝑥 10−34 𝐽𝑠
∆𝑝 ≥ ≥ ≥ 9.9 𝑥 10−25 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠
2∆𝑥 (2)(5.3 𝑥 10−11 𝑚)

An electron whose momentum is of this order of magnitude behaves like a classical particle, and
its kinetic energy is

𝑚 2
𝑝2 (9.9 𝑥 10−25 𝑠 )
𝐾𝐸 = ≥ ≥ 5.4 𝑥 10−19 𝐽
2𝑚 (2)(9.1 𝑥 10−31 𝑘𝑔)
which is 3.4 eV. The kinetic energy of an electron is the lowest energy level of a hydrogen atom is
actually 13.6 eV.

5. How do scientists proved mathematically that electrons are found outside the
nucleus of an atom?

The pictures show the modern image of an atom.

There are two regions: the nucleus where the
proton and neutron are found, and the electron
Hydrogen atom
cloud around the nucleus where you might find
an electron. The electron is behaving like a wave.

38
Read the article below to understand uncertainty principle better.
It is difficult to measure the precise air pressure in a tire, because the very act of measuring
allows some of the air to escape before the measurement is taken. The air pressure in the tire
changes before it can be measured, making it impossible to measure the exact air pressure in the
tire at.the exact moment when you wish to measure it. The exact air pressure in the tire is uncertain.
The idea that the act of measuring something can alter the measurement itself has direct
application in the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle for subatomic particles. The Principle says
that the position and the velocity of an object cannot both be measured exactly at the same time.
At the size of objects seen in everyday life, such as a car, the Uncertainty Principle has no
real application. We can accurately measure both the speed and the location of a car. Because of
the car’s relatively large size, measurement devices such as a speedometer don’t alter the result.
But at the subatomic level, electrons and other tiny particles can easily be altered in velocity
or location by measurement itself. Any attempt to precisely measure the velocity of an electron
will knock it about in an unpredictable way, simply because of the connection in nature between
particles and waves in subatomic dimensions. Every particle has a wave associated with it. In the
case of a simple wave, the electron has a well-defined momentum that is determined by the
wavelength. This momentum can be used to determine the electron’s velocity. However, we cannot
determine the position of the electron because it is equally likely to be at any of the wave’s crests
or troughs. We can determine the velocity, but not the position. We can determine the position,
but not the velocity. Hence, the uncertainty
https://www.britannica.com/video/186244/video-overview-uncertainty-principle-Heisenberg

6. Modified True or False. Write A if only statement a is true. Write B if only

statement b is true. Write C if both statements are true. Write D if both
statements are false.
a. Matter waves are observable only when dealing with very small particles like
electrons and photons.
b. The wave property of a particle is significant in studying the behavior of
subatomic particles.

39
 What I Have Learned

Elementary particles
They are used more loosely to include some subatomic particles that are composed of other
particles
Fundamental Particles
These are particles that cannot be broken further.
They provide the basic units that make up all matter and energy in the universe.

Antiparticle - has the same mass as the particle but has opposite charge
Examples:
1. Electron – 1st elementary particle that
was discovered by JJ Thomson, 1897
Positron – antiparticle of electron
discovered by Carl Anderson, 193

2. Neutrino – a particle;
spin: left-handed screw
antineutrino – antiparticle of neutrino;
spin: right-handed screw

de Broglie Waves (Matter waves)

A moving body behaves in certain ways as though it has a wave nature
Louis de Broglie, proposed that moving objects have wave as well as particle characteristics.
The de Broglie wavelength is
ℎ
𝜆 = 𝛾𝑚𝑣.

40
Waves of probability
The quantity whose variations make up matter waves is called the wave function, 𝜓 (the
Greek letter psi). The value of the wave function associated with a moving body at the particular x,
y, z in space at the time t is related to the likelihood of finding the body there at that time.
The wave function 𝜓 itself, however, has no direct physical significance. However the
square of the absolute value of the wave function | 𝜓 |2 has. This is known as probability density:
The probability of experimentally finding the body described by the wave function 𝜓 at the
point x, y, x, at the time t is proportional to the value of | 𝜓 |2 there at t.
A large value of | 𝜓 |2 means the strong possibility of the bodies presence, while a small value of
| 𝜓 |2 means the slight possibility of its presence. As long as | 𝜓 |2 is not actually 0 somewhere,
however, there is a definite chance, however small, of detecting it there.

Uncertainty principle:
It is impossible to know both the exact position and exact momentum of an object at the
same time. If we know everything about where a particle is located (the uncertainty of position is
small), we know nothing about its momentum (the uncertainty of momentum is large), and vice
versa.

This principle, which was discovered by Werner Heisenberg in 1927, is one of the most significant
of physical laws.
Below is the equation of Uncertainty principle:
ℎ
∆𝑥 ∆𝑝 ≥ 4𝜋
The uncertainty principle in terms of ℏ is:
ℏ
∆𝑥 ∆𝑝 ≥
2

Another form of the uncertainty principle concerns energy and time. We might wish to measure
the energy E emitted during the time interval ∆𝑡 in an atomic process.

ℏ
∆𝐸 ∆𝑡 ≥
2

What I Can Do
I. Watch the short videos below to have a clearer understanding of the wave
property of a particle. This will also help you explain the pictures in part II.

1. Quantum Mechanics and the Schrödinger Equation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O6g-7rUgrdg

2. The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Part 1: Position/Momentum and Schrödinger's Cat

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7jY5Q6u65uo&list=TLPQMDUwNjIwMjEy9FPvyTi
n5w&index=2

41
 II. Study the pictures below and explain what is being asked below.

Hydrogen atom under

an Electron microscope

2. Explain briefly why 1. Explain briefly the modern picture of an

Schrödinger’s cat, de Broglie atom as shown above.
cat, and Heisenberg cat look
like what they are in the
picture above.

42
 References

Beiser, A. Concepts of Modern Physics. 6th edition. McGraw-Hill. New York.

Serway, R. and Vuille,C. College Physics. 7th Edition.Boston.MA, USA:Brooks/Cole

Cengage Learning.

Young, N.D., Freedman, R.A. Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics: with Modern
Physics. 12th Edition. San Francisco. Pearson Addison Wesley. 2008.

45