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 Elementary Abstract Algebra:
Examples and Applications

Contributing editors:

Justin Hill, Chris Thron

Temple College / Texas A&M University-Central Texas

Incorporating source materials by

Thomas Judson (Stephen F. Austin State University)

Dave Witte Morris and Joy Morris (University of Lethbridge)
A. J. Hildebrand (University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign)

Additional contributions by

Holly Webb, David Weathers, Johnny Watts, and Semi Harrison

(TAMU-CT)

January 6, 2016

This book is offered under the Creative Commons license

(Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 2.0).
2

Material from ”Abstract Algebra, Theory and Applications” by Thomas

Judson may be found throughout much of the book. A current version of
”Abstract Algebra, Theory and Applications” may be found at:

abstract.ups.edu.

The Set Theory and Functions chapters are largely based on material from
”Proofs and Concepts”(version 0.78, May 2009) by Dave Witte Morris and
Joy Morris, which may be found online at:

https://archive.org/details/flooved3499, or
http://people.uleth.ca/~dave.morris/books/proofs+concepts.html

The material on induction was modified from LATEXcode originally

obtained from A. J. Hildebrand, whose course web page is at:
http://www.math.uiuc.edu/~hildebr/

Justin and Chris would like to express their deepest gratitude to Tom, Dave
and Joy, and A. J. for generously sharing their original material. They were
not involved in the preparation of this manuscript, and are not responsible
for any errors or other shortcomings.

Please send comments and corrections to: thron@tamuct.edu. You may also
request the LATEXsource code from this same email address.

YouTube videos are available: search on YouTube for the title of this book.

c 2013,2014, 2015 by Justin Hill and Chris Thron. Some rights reserved.
Portions c 1997 by Thomas Judson. Some rights reserved.
Portions c 2006-2009 by Dave Witte Morris and Joy Morris. Some rights
reserved.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or
any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no In-
variant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of
the license is included in the appendix entitled “GNU Free Documentation
License”.

ISBN: 978-1-312-85635-6
 Contents

1 Forward 1

2 In the Beginning 5
2.1 Prologue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Integers, rational numbers, real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.1 Operations and relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.2 Manipulating equations and inequalities . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.3 Exponentiation (VERY important) . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Test yourself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3 Complex Numbers 13
3.1 The origin of complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.1 A number that can’t be real (and we can prove it!) . . 13
3.1.2 Unreal, but unavoidable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.1.3 A mathematical revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.2 Arithmetic with complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2.1 Complex arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2.2 Comparison of integer, rational, real and complex ad-
dition properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2.3 Comparison of integer, rational, real and complex mul-
tiplication properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3
4 CONTENTS

3.2.4 Modulus and complex conjugate . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.3 Alternative representations of complex numbers . . . . . . . . 33
3.3.1 Cartesian representation of complex numbers . . . . . 33
3.3.2 Vector representation of complex numbers . . . . . . . 34
3.3.3 Polar representation of complex numbers . . . . . . . 35
3.3.4 Converting between rectangular and polar form . . . . 35
3.3.5 Multiplication and powers in complex polar form . . . 39
3.3.6 A Remark on representations of complex numbers . . 45
3.4 Applications of complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4.1 General remarks on the usefulness of complex numbers 47
3.4.2 Complex numbers, sine and cosine waves, and phasors 47
3.4.3 Roots of unity and regular polygons . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.4.4 Arbitrary nth roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.5 Complex roots of polynomial equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

4 Modular Arithmetic 64
4.1 Introductory examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.2 Modular equivalence and modular arithmetic . . . . . . . . . 66
4.3 Modular equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3.1 More uses of modular arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3.2 Solving modular equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.4 The integers mod n (also known as Zn ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.4.1 Arithmetic with remainders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.4.2 Cayley tables for Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.4.3 Closure properties of Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.4.4 Identities and inverses in Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.4.5 Inverses in Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.4.6 Other arithmetic properties of ⊕ and . . . . . . . . 94
4.4.7 Definition of a group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.5 Modular division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
CONTENTS 5

4.5.1 A sticky problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

4.5.2 Greatest common divisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.5.3 Computer stuff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.5.4 Diophantine equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.5.5 Multiplicative inverse for modular arithmetic . . . . . 114
4.5.6 Chinese remainder theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

5 Introduction to Cryptography 120

5.1 Private key cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.1.1 Shift codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.1.2 Affine codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.1.3 Monoalphabetic codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.1.4 Polyalphabetic codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.1.5 Spreadsheet exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.2 Public key cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.2.1 The RSA cryptosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.2.2 Message verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.2.3 RSA exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.2.4 Additional exercises: identifying prime numbers . . . . 142
5.3 References and suggested readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

6 Set Theory 151

6.1 Set Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.1.1 What’s a set? (mathematically speaking, that is) . . . 151
6.1.2 How to specify sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.1.3 Important sets of numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.1.4 Operations on sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.2 Properties of set operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.3 Do the subsets of a set form a group? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6 CONTENTS

7 Functions: basic concepts 172

7.1 The Cartesian product: a different type of set operation . . . 172
7.2 Introduction to functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.2.1 Informal look at functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.2.2 Official definition of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
7.2.3 Summary of basic function concepts . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.3 One-to-one functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.3.1 Concept and definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.3.2 Proving that a function is one-to-one . . . . . . . . . . 189
7.4 Onto functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.4.1 Concept and definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.4.2 Proving that a function is onto . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
7.5 Bijections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
7.5.1 Concept and definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
7.5.2 Proving that a function is a bijection . . . . . . . . . . 202
7.6 Composition of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.6.1 Concept and definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.6.2 Proofs involving function composition . . . . . . . . . 209
7.7 Inverse functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7.7.1 Concept and definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7.7.2 Which functions have inverses? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

8 Equivalence Relations and Equivalence Classes 218

8.1 Binary relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
8.2 Definition and basic properties of equivalence relations . . . . 228
8.3 Equivalence classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
8.4 Modular arithmetic redux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
8.4.1 The integers modulo 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
8.4.2 The integers modulo n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
8.4.3 Something we have swept under the rug . . . . . . . . 239
8.5 Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
CONTENTS 7

9 Symmetries of Plane Figures 247

9.1 Definition and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
9.2 Composition of symmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
9.3 Do the symmetries of an object form a group? . . . . . . . . 256
9.4 The dihedral groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
9.5 For further investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
9.6 An unexplained miracle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

10 Permutations 274
10.1 Introduction to permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
10.2 Permutation groups and other generalizations . . . . . . . . . 276
10.2.1 The symmetric group of n letters . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
10.2.2 Isomorphic groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
10.2.3 Subgroups and permutation groups . . . . . . . . . . . 280
10.3 Cycle notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
10.3.1 Tableaus and cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
10.3.2 Composition (a.k.a. product) of cycles . . . . . . . . . 286
10.3.3 Product of disjoint cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
10.3.4 Products of permutations using cycle notation . . . . 293
10.3.5 Cycle structure of permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
10.4 Algebraic properties of cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
10.4.1 Powers of cycles: definition of order . . . . . . . . . . 298
10.4.2 Powers and orders of permutations in general . . . . . 302
10.4.3 Transpositions and inverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
10.5 “Switchyard” and generators of the permutation group . . . . 309
10.6 Other groups of permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
10.6.1 Even and odd permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
10.6.2 The alternating group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
10.7 Additional exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
8 CONTENTS

11 Abstract Groups: Definitions and Basic Properties 324

11.1 Formal definition of a group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
11.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
11.2.1 The group of units of Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
11.2.2 Groups of matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
11.3 Basic properties of groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
11.4 Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
11.5 Cyclic groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
11.5.1 Cyclic groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
11.5.2 Cyclic subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
11.5.3 Subgroups of cyclic groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
11.6 Additional group and subgroup exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

12 Cosets and Factor Groups 363

12.1 Definition of cosets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
12.2 Cosets and partitions of groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
12.3 Lagrange’s theorem, and some consequences . . . . . . . . . . 372
12.3.1 Lagrange’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
12.3.2 Orders of elements, Euler’s theorem, Fermat’s little
theorem, and prime order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
12.4 Factor groups and normal subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
12.4.1 Normal subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
12.4.2 Factor groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
12.5 The simplicity of the alternating group . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

13 Group Actions 390

13.1 Basic definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
13.2 Group actions on regular polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
13.2.1 G-equivalence and orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
13.2.2 Stabilizers, stabilizer subgroups, and fixed point sets . 395
CONTENTS 9

13.2.3 Counting formula for the order of polyhedral rota-

tional symmetry groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
13.2.4 Representing G in terms of stabilizer subgroups . . . . 399
13.3 Examples of other regular polyhedral rotation groups . . . . . 401
13.3.1 The tetrahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
13.3.2 The octahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
13.3.3 The dodecahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
13.3.4 Soccer ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
13.4 Euler’s formula for regular polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
13.5 Closing comments on polyhedral symmetry groups . . . . . . 413
13.6 Group actions on subgroups and cosets . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
13.7 Conjugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

14 Algebraic Coding 430

14.1 Error-Detecting and Correcting Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
14.1.1 Maximum-Likelihood Decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
14.1.2 Block Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
14.2 Group codes and linear codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
14.3 Linear Block Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
14.4 Code words and encoding in block linear codes . . . . . . . . 448
14.4.1 Canonical Parity-check matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
14.4.2 Standard Generator Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
14.4.3 Error detection and correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
14.5 Efficient Decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
14.5.1 Decoding using syndromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
14.5.2 Coset Decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
14.6 Additional algebraic coding exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
14.7 References and Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
10 CONTENTS

15 Isomorphisms of Groups 466

15.1 Preliminary examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
15.2 Formal definition and basic properties of isomorphisms . . . . 470
15.3 More Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
15.4 More properties of isomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
15.5 Classification up to isomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
15.5.1 Classifying cyclic groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
15.5.2 Characterizing all finite groups: Cayley’s theorem . . 484
15.6 Direct Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
15.6.1 External Direct Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
15.6.2 Classifying abelian groups by factorization . . . . . . . 490
15.6.3 Internal Direct Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493

16 Homomorphisms of Groups 498

16.1 Preliminary examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
16.2 Definition and several more examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
16.3 Proofs of homomorphism properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
16.4 The First Isomorphism Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512

17 Sigma Notation 515

17.1 Lots of examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
17.2 Sigma notation properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
17.3 Nested Sigmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
17.4 Common Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
17.5 Sigma notation in linear algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
17.5.1 Applications to matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
17.5.2 Levi-Civita symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
17.6 Summation by parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
CONTENTS 11

18 Polynomials 544
18.1 Polynomials of various stripes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
18.2 Polynomial rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
18.3 The Division Algorithm for Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
18.4 Polynomial roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
18.5 Proof that U (p) is cyclic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562

19 Appendix: Induction proofs–patterns and examples 564

19.1 Basic examples of induction proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
19.2 Advice on writing up induction proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
19.3 Induction proof patterns & practice problems . . . . . . . . . 566
19.4 Strong Induction, with applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
19.5 More advice on induction and strong induction proofs . . . . 573
19.6 Common mistakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
19.7 Strong induction practice problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
19.8 Non-formula induction proofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
19.9 Practice problems for non-formula induction . . . . . . . . . . 578
19.10 Fallacies and pitfalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578

20 Hints 582
20.1 Hints for “Complex Numbers” exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
20.2 Hints for “Modular Arithmetic” exercises . . . . . . . . . . . 583
20.3 Hints for “Introducction to Cryptography” exercises . . . . . 584
20.4 Hints for “Set Theory” exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
20.5 Hints for “Functions: basic concepts” exercises . . . . . . . . 585
20.6 Hints for “Equivalence Relations and Equivalence Classes”
exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
20.7 Hints for “Symmetries of Plane Figures” exercises . . . . . . 586
20.8 Hints for “Permutations” exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
20.9 Hints for “Abstract Groups: Definitions and Basic Proper-
ties” exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
12 CONTENTS

20.10Hints for “Cosets” exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587

20.11Hints for “Group Actions” exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
20.12Hints for “Algebraic Coding” exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
20.13Hints for “Isomorphisms” exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
20.14Hints for “Homomorphism” exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
20.15Hints for “Sigma Notation” exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
20.16Hints for “Polynomial Rings” exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590

Index 591
 1

Forward

To the student:

Many students start out liking math. Some like it well enough that they
even want to teach it. However, when they reach advanced math classes
(such as abstract algebra), they feel bewildered and frustrated. Their text-
books talk about mathematical concepts they’ve never heard of before, which
have various properties which come from who knows where. In lectures, the
prof. pronounces oracles (a.k.a theorems) and utters long incantations called
“proofs” , but it’s hard to see the point of either.

If the above paragraph describes you, then this book is meant for you!

There’s a good reason why higher math classes are bewildering for most
students. I believe that we math instructors tend to take too much for
granted.1 We’ve forgotten that we are able to understand abstractions be-
cause we have concrete examples in the back of our minds that we keep
referring back to, consciously or subconsciously. These examples enable us
to fit abstract ideas in with specific behaviors and patterns that we’re very
familiar with. But students who don’t have a firm hold on the examples
have nothing to hold on to, and are left grasping (and gasping) for air.
To be sure, most students have previously been exposed to various im-
portant examples that (historically) gave rise to abstract algebra. These
examples include the complex numbers, integers mod n, symmetries, and so
on. They can give definitions and do some computations according to the
1
My dad always says that math is excruciatingly difficult to learn, but once you get it
it’s excruciatingly difficult to see why others can’t understand it like you do.

1
2 CHAPTER 1 FORWARD

rules. But they haven’t been given a chance to internalize these examples.
They can kind of follow along, but they don’t really “speak the language”.
Our hope is that after reading this book students will be able to say,
“I’ve seen complex numbers, permutations and other such things before,
but now I understand what makes them tick. I also see they have some very
deep similarities with each other, and with other mathematical objects that
I’m familiar with.”
This is actually a very good time to be learning abstract algebra. Long
the province of specialists and puzzle enthusiasts, abstract algebra has re-
cently made impressive showings on the center stage of modern science and
technology. Two areas where abstract algebra has made strong contribu-
tions stand out particularly: information processing and physics. Coding of
information is at the heart of information technology, and abstract algebra
provides all of the methods of choice for information coding that is both
reliable (impervious to errors) and private. On the other hand, many of the
recent advances in physics is due to understanding of physical symmetries
and the groups that produce them. We try as much as possible to make
connections with these two areas, and hope to do so increasingly in future
editions.
Enjoy the book, and send us your comments!

To the instructor
This book is not intended for budding mathematicians. It was created
for a math program in which most of the students in upper-level math classes
are planning to become secondary school teachers. For such students, most
if not all published abstract algebra texts are totally incomprehensible, both
in style and in content. Faced with this situation, we decided to create a
book that our students could actually read for themselves. In this way
we have been able to dedicate class time to problem-solving and two-way
interaction rather than rehashing the same material in lecture format.
Some instructors may feel that this book doesnt cover enough, and ad-
mittedly it falls short of the typical syllabus. But in far too many abstract
algebra classes, the syllabus is covered and the students retain nothing. We
feel it is much better to cover less but have the material stick. We have also
avoided an “abstract” treatment and instead used specific examples (com-
plex numbers, modular arithmetic, permutations, and so on) as stepping
stones to general principles. The unhappy fact is that many students at this
level have not yet mastered these important basic examples, and it is useless
 3

to expect them to grasp abstractifications of what they dont understand in

the first place. Furthermore, these are the just the basic examples that will
be most useful to them in their future career as high school teachers.
The book is highly modular, and chapters may be readily omitted if
students are already familiar with the material. Some chapters (“In the
Beginning” and “Sigma Notation”) are remedial. Other chapters cover top-
ics that are often covered in courses in discrete mathematics, such as sets,
functions, and equivalence classes. (Much of this material is taken from the
Morris’ book, with some amplifications.) We have found from experience
that students need this re-exposure in order to gain the necessary facility
with these concepts, on which so much of the rest of the book is based.
Whenever possible we have introduced applications, which may be omit-
ted at the instructor’s discretion. However, we feel that it is critically impor-
tant for preparing secondary teachers to be familiar with these applications.
They will remember these long after they have forgotten proofs they have
learned, and they may even be able to convey some of these ideas to their
own students.
Additional resources
This is the Information Age, and a mere textbook is somewhat limited
in its ability to convey information. Accordingly, as we continue to use the
book in our classes, we are continuing to build an “ecosystem” to support
the book’s use:

• The latest version of the book (and any accessory materials) may be
found at the TAMU-CT Mathematics Department web page (go to
www.tamuct.edu and search for “Mathematics Resources”).

• An electronic version of the book is available online: the link may be

found on the “Mathematics Resources” page cited above.

• A comprehensive set of short video presentations of the book’s content

may be found on YouTube (search for the book’s title).

• An “Instructor’s Supplement” is available upon request: email the

editor (C.T.) from a verifiable faculty email address.

• Any instructor wishing to customize the material or extract certain

portions may email the editor (C.T.) to request the LaTeX source
code. We have received freely from others, so we are happy to freely
give.
4 CHAPTER 1 FORWARD

Acknowledgements
In our preparation of this text, we were fortunate to find via the web
some extraordinarily generous authors (Tom Judson, Dave Witte Morris
and Joy Morris, A. J. Hildebrand) who freely shared their material with
us. Thanks to them, we were able to put the first version of this textbook
together within the span of a single semester (not that we’re finished – this
is a living book, not a dead volume). We hope that other instructors will
similarly benefit from the material offered here.
Several Master’s students at Texas A&M-Central Texas have made con-
tributions to the book as part of a projects course or thesis. The original
version was Justin Hill’s Master’s thesis. Holly Webb wrote the Group
Actions chapter and David Weathers wrote parts of “In the Beginning”,
“A Sticky Problem”, ”Sigma Notation” and “Polynomials“ as part of their
coursework.
Others have made contributions to both content and format. Johnny
Watts our “math technician” helped with technical details. Khoi Tran con-
tributed his excellent exercise solutions.

Above all we want to acknowledge the One to whom all credit is ulti-
mately due. “Unless the LORD builds the house, the builders labor in vain.
Unless the LORD keeps the city, the watchman is wakeful in vain. It is
vanity to rise up early, stay up late, and eat the bread of sorrows, for He
gives sleep to those He loves.” (Psalm 127:1-2)
 2

In the Beginning

Let’s start at the very beginning

A very good place to start
When you read you begin with A B C
When you sing you begin with Do Re Me

(Oscar Hammerstein, The Sound of Music)

2.1 Prologue

If Maria had been the Trapp children’s math tutor, she might have con-
tinued: “When you count, you begin with 1 2 3”. Ordinarily we think of
the “counting numbers” (which mathematicians call the natural numbers or
positive integers) as the “very beginning” of math.1

It’s true that when we learn math in school, we begin with the counting
numbers. But do we really start at the “very beginning”? How do we know
that 1 + 1 = 2? How do we know that the methods we learned to add,
multiply, divide, and subtract will always work? We’ve been taught how to
factor integers into prime factors. But how do we know this always works?
Mathematicians are the ultimate skeptics: they won’t take “Everyone
knows” or “It’s obvious” as valid reasons. They keep asking “why”, break-
ing things down into the most basic assumptions possible. The very basic
assumptions they end up with are called axioms. They then take these
1
A famous mathematician once said, “God made the integers; all else is the work of
man.” (Leopold Kronecker, German mathematician, 1886)

5
6 CHAPTER 2 IN THE BEGINNING

axioms and play with them like building blocks. The arguments that they
build with these axioms are called proofs, and the conclusions of these
proofs are called propositions or theorems.
The mathematician’s path is not an easy one. It is exceedingly difficult
to push things back to their foundations. For example, arithmetic was used
for thousands of years before a set of simple axioms was finally developed
(you may look up “Peano axioms” on the web).2 Since this is an elementary
book, we are not going to try to meet rigorous mathematical standards.
Instead, we’ll lean heavily on examples, including the integers, rationals,
and real numbers. Once you are really proficient with different examples,
then it will be easier to follow more advanced ideas.3
This text is loaded with proofs, which are as unavoidable in abstract
mathematics as they are intimidating to many students. We try to “tone
things down” as much as possible. For example, we will take as “fact” many
of the things that you learned in high school and college algebra–even though
you’ve never seen proofs of these “facts”. In the next section we remind you
of some of these “facts”. When writing proofs or doing exercise feel free to
use any of these facts. If you have to give a reason, you can just say “basic
algebra”.
We close this prologue with the assurance that abstract algebra is a
beautiful subject that brings amazing insights into the nature of numbers,
and the nature of Nature itself. Furthermore, engineers and technologists
are finding more and more practical applications, as we shall see in the
coming chapters.

2.2 Integers, rational numbers, real numbers

We assume that you have already been introduced to the following number
systems: integers, rational numbers, and real numbers.4 These number sys-
tems possess the well-known arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. The following statements hold for all of these
number systems.
2
The same is true for calculus. Newton and Leibniz first developed calculus around
1670, but it was not made rigorous until 150 years later.
3
Historically, mathematics has usually progressed this way: examples first, and axioms
later after the examples are well-understood.
4
This section and the following were written by David Weathers (edited and expanded
by C.T.)
2.2 INTEGERS, RATIONAL NUMBERS, REAL NUMBERS 7

Warning There are number systems for which the following properties do
NOT hold (as we shall see later). So they may be safely assumed ONLY for
integers, rational numbers, and real numbers. ♦

2.2.1 Operations and relations

We assume the following properties of these arithmetic operations:

(a) Commutative: When two numbers are added together, the two numbers
can be exchanged without changing the value of the result. The same
thing is true for two numbers being mulitiplied together.

(b) Associative: When three or more numbers are added together, chang-
ing the grouping of the numbers being added does not change the value
of the result. The same goes for three or more numbers multiplied to-
gether. (Note that in arithmetic expressions, the “grouping” of numbers
is indicated by parentheses.)

(c) Distributive: Multiplying a number by a sum gives the same result as

taking the sum of the products.

(d) Order : Given two numbers, exactly one of these three are true: either
the first number is greater than the second, or the second number is
greater than the first, or the two numbers are equal.

(e) Identity: Addition by 0 or multiplication by 1 result in no change of

original number.

(f) The sum of two positive numbers is positive. The sum of two negative
numbers is negative.

(g) The product of two nonzero numbers with the same sign is positive. The
product of two numbers with different signs is negative.

(h) If the product of two numbers is zero, then one or the other number
must be zero.

Exercise 1.
8 CHAPTER 2 IN THE BEGINNING

(a) For the properties a,b,c,e above, give (i) a specific example for addition,
using numbers, and (ii) a general statement for multiplication, using
variables. For example, for property (a) (the commutative property) a
specific example would be 3 + 5 = 5 + 3, and a general statement would
be x · y = y · x.

(b) For properties d,f,g,h above, give a specific example which illustrates
the property using numbers.

Exercise 2.

(a) Give an example (using numbers) that shows that subtraction is not
commutative .

(b) Give an example (using numbers) that shows that division is not asso-
ciative.

Exercise 3. Suppose a > b, b ≥ 0 and ab = 0. What can you conclude

about a and b? Use one (or more) of the properties we have mentioned to
justify your answer. ♦

Exercise 4. Which of the above properties must be used to prove each of

the following statements?

(a) (x + y) + (z + w) = (z + w) + (x + y)

(b) (x · y) · z = (z · x) · y)

(c) (a · x + a · y) + a · z = a · ((x + y) + z)

(d) ((a · b) · c + b · c) + c · a = c · ((a + b) + a · b)

Note that the associative property allows us to write expressions without

putting in so many parentheses. So instead of writing (a + b) + c, we may
2.2 INTEGERS, RATIONAL NUMBERS, REAL NUMBERS 9

simply write a + b + c. By the same reasoning, we can remove parentheses

from any expression that involves only addition, or any expression that
involves only multiplication: so for instance, (a · (b · c) · d) · e = a · b · c · d · · · e.
Using the associative and distributive property, it is possible to write any
arithmetic expression without parentheses. So for example, (a · b) · (c + d)
can be written as a · b · c + a · b · d. (Remember that according to operator
precedence rules, multiplication is always performed before addition: thus
3 · 4 + 2 is evaluated by first taking 3 · 4 and then adding 2.)

Exercise 5. Rewrite the following expressions without any parentheses, us-

ing only the associative and distributive properties. (Don’t use commutative
in this exercise!)

(a) (((x + y) + (y + z)) · w) − 2y · w

(b) 0.5 · ((x + y) + (y + z) + (z + x))

(c) ((((((a + b) + c) · d) + e) · f ) + g) + h

Exercise 6. For parts (a–c) of the preceding exercise, now apply the com-
mutative property to the results to simplify the expressions as much as
possible. ♦

Exercise 7. Evaluate the following expressions by hand (no calculators!).

(a) 3 · 4 + 5 + 6 · 2

(b) 3 + 4 · 5 · 6 + 2

(c) 1 + 2 · 3 + 3 · 4 · 5 + 5 · 6 · 7 · 2

♦
10 CHAPTER 2 IN THE BEGINNING

2.2.2 Manipulating equations and inequalities

Following are some common rules for manipulating equations and inequal-
ities. Notice there are two types of inequalities: strict inequalities (that
use the > or < symbols) and nonstrict inequalities (that use the ≥ or ≤
symbols).

(A) Substitution: If two quantities are equal then one can be substituted
for the other in any true equation or inequality and the result will still
be true.

(B) Balanced operations: Given an equation, one can perform the same op-
eration to both sides of the equation and maintain equality. The same is
true for inequalities for the operation of addition, and for multiplication
or division by a positive number.

(C) Multiplying or dividing an inequality by a negative value will reverse

the inequality symbol.

(D) The ratio of two integers can always be reduced to lowest terms, so that
the numerator and denominator have no common factors.

Exercise 8. Give specific examples for statements (A–D) given above. You
may use either numbers or variables (or both) in your examples.. For (A)
and (B), give one example for each of the following cases: (i) equality, (ii)
strict inequality, (iii) nonstrict inequality. ♦

2.2.3 Exponentiation (VERY important)

Exponentiation is one of the key tools of abstract algebra. It is essential

that you know your exponent rules inside and out!

(I) Any nonzero number raised to the power of 0 is equal to 1. 5

(II) A number raised to the sum of two exponents is the product of the
same number raised to each individual exponent.
5
Technically 00 is undefined, although often it is taken to be 1. Try it on your
calculator!
2.3 TEST YOURSELF 11

(III) A number raised to the power which is then raised to another power
is equal to the same number raised to the product of the two powers.

(IV) A number raised to a negative exponent is equal to the reciprocal of

the number raised to a positive .

(V) Taking the product of two numbers and raising to a given power is
the same as taking the powers of the two numbers separately, then
multiplying the results.

Exercise 9. For each of the above items (I–V), give a general equation
(using variables) that expresses the rule. For example one possible answer
to (II) is: xy+z = xy · xz . ♦

Exercise 10. Write an equation that shows another way to express a num-
ber raised to a power that is the difference of two numbers. ♦

2.3 Test yourself

Test yourself with the following exercises. If you feel totally lost, I strongly
recommend that you improve your basic algebra skills before continuing with
this course. This may seem harsh, but I only mean to spare you agony. All
too often students go through the motions of learning this material, and in
the end they learn nothing because their basic skills are deficient. If you
want to play baseball, you’d better learn how to throw, catch, and the ball
first.

Exercise 11. Simplify the following expressions. Factor whenever possible

(a) 24 42 a5 a3
(d) ·
a7 a
39
(b) (e) x(y − 1) − y(x − 1)
93
 7  6
5 9
(c)
9 5

♦
12 CHAPTER 2 IN THE BEGINNING

Exercise 12. Same instructions as the previous exercise. These examples

are harder. (Hint: It’s usually best to make the base of an exponent as
simple as possible. Notice for instance that 47 = (22 )7 = 214 .)

(a) 61/2· 21/6 · 33/2 · 21/3 (d) 23 · 34 · 45 · 2−5 · 3−4 · 4−3

8 1
6
(b) (93 )(47 ) 21 12
x(x − 3) + 3(3 − x)
5
(c) 45 · 23 · 21 · 41


3 (e)
(x − 3)2

Exercise 13. Same instructions as the previous exercise. These examples

are even harder. (Hint: Each answer is a single term, there are no sums or
differences of terms.)

a5 + a3 − 2a4 (3x + 9x )(1 − 3x )

(a) (d) )
(a − 1)2 1 − 9x
(b) ax b3x (ab)−2x (a2 b)x/2
3x2 − x 2x
(c) (x + y −1 )−2 (xy + 1)2 (e) +
x−1 1−x

Exercise 14. Find ALL real solutions to the following equations.

(a) x2 = 5x (d) 3−x = 3(32x )

√ √ (e) 165 = x4
(b) (x − 7)(x + 7) = 2
1
(c) 24+x = 4(22x ) (f) − 1 = −1/10
1 + 1/x

♦
 3

Complex Numbers

horatio: O day and night, but this is wondrous strange!

hamlet: And therefore as a stranger give it welcome. There are more
things in heaven and earth, Horatio, Than are dreamt of in your
philosophy.

(Source: Shakespeare, Hamlet, Act 1 Scene 5.)

Although complex numbers are defined to include “imaginary” numbers,

the practical applications of complex numbers are far from “imaginary”. We
shall touch on some of the applications in this chapter: but there are many
many more in engineering, in physics, and in other sciences as well.1

3.1 The origin of complex numbers

3.1.1 A number that can’t be real (and we can prove it!)

Way back in your first algebra class, you saw equations like:

• x2 = 4

• x2 = 36

• x2 = 7
1
Thanks to Tom Judson for material used in this chapter.

13
14 CHAPTER 3 COMPLEX NUMBERS

You also learned how to solve them either by hand, or using the SQRT button
on a simple calculator. The solutions to these equations are

• x = ±2
• x = ±6
• x = ±2.64575131106459...

But what about equations like:

x2 = −1
Your simple calculator can’t help you with that one!2 If you try to take
the square root of -1, the calculator will choke out ERROR or some similar
message of distress. But why does it do this? Doesn’t −1 have a square
root?
In fact, we can prove mathematically that −1 does not have a real square
root. As proofs will play a very important part in this course, we’ll spend
some extra time and care explaining this first proof.

Proposition 1. −1 has no real square root.

Proof. We give two proofs of this proposition. The first one explains all
the details, while the second proof is more streamlined. It is the streamlined
proof that you should try to imitate when you write up proofs for homework
exercises.
Long drawn-out proof of Proposition 1 with all the gory details:
We will use a common proof technique called proof by contradiction.
Here’s how it goes:
First we suppose that there exists a real number a such that a2 =
−1. Now we know that any real number is either positive, or zero, or
negative−there are no other possibilities. So we consider each of these three
cases: a > 0, or a = 0, or a < 0.

• In the case that a > 0 then a2 = a · a = (positive)·(positive) = a

positive number (that is, a2 > 0). But this couldn’t possibly be true,
because we have already supposed that a2 = −1: there’s not way that
a2 > 0 and a2 = −1 can both be true at the same time!
2
It’s true that the fancier graphing calculators can handle it, but that’s beside the
point.
3.1 THE ORIGIN OF COMPLEX NUMBERS 15

• In the case that a = 0, then a2 = a · a = (0) · (0) = 0. But a2 = 0 also

contradicts our supposition that a2 = −1.

• In the case that a < 0, then a2 = a · a = (negative)·(negative) = a

positive number, so a2 > 0. As in the first case, this contradicts our
supposition that a2 = −1.

So no matter which of the three possible cases is true, we’re still screwed:
in every case, we always have a contradiction. We seem to have reached a
dead end – a logically impossible conclusion. So what’s wrong?
What’s wrong is the supposition. It must be the case that the supposi-
tion is not true. Consequently, the statement “there exists a real number
a such that a2 = −1” must be false. In other words, -1 has no real square
root. This completes the proof.  3
The above proof is pretty wordy. When mathematicians write up proofs
they leave out many of the details–and you should too. Following is a more
typical proof:
Streamlined proof of Proposition 1 (suitable for writing up home-
work exercises)
The proof is by contradiction. Suppose ∃a ∈ R such that a2 = −1
(note the symbol “∃” means “there exists,” the symbol R denotes the real
numbers, and the expression “a ∈ R” means that a is a real number).
There are two cases: either (i) a ≥ 0 or (ii) a < 0.
In Case (i), then a2 = a · a = (nonnegative)·(nonnegative) = 0, which
contradicts the supposition.
In Case (ii), then a2 = a·a = (negative)·(negative) > 0, which contradicts
the supposition.
By contradiction, it follows that −1 has no real square root. 
You may note that in the streamlined case, we reduced the number of cases
from three to two. That’s because we noticed that we really could combine
the “positive” and the “zero” case into a single case.

Exercise 2. Imitate the proof of Propostion 1 to prove that −2 has no real

fourth root. ♦
3
The ’’ symbol will be used to indicate the end of a proof. In other words: Ta-da!
16 CHAPTER 3 COMPLEX NUMBERS

Exercise 3. Try to use the method of Propostion 1 to prove that -4 has no

real cube root. At what step does the method fail? ♦

Exercise 4.

(a) Sketch the function f (x) = x2 + 9. Does the function have any real
roots? Explain how you can use the graph to answer this question.

(b) Prove that the function f (x) = x2 +9 has no real roots. (You may prove
by contradiction, as before).

(c) Graph the function f (x) = x6 + 7x2 + 5 (you may use a graphing calcu-
lator). Determine whether f (x) has any real roots. Prove your answer
(note: a picture is not a proof!).

Exercise 4 underscores an important point. A graph can be a good visual

aid, but it’s not a mathematical proof. We will often use pictures and graphs
to clarify things, but in the end we’re only certain of what we can prove.
After all, pictures can be misleading.

Exercise 5. *4 Suppose that a · x2n + b · x2m + a = 0 has a real root, where

a, b, m, n are nonzero integers. What can you conclude about the signs of a
and b? Prove your answer. ♦

3.1.2 Unreal, but unavoidable

Mathematicians have known Proposition 1 for thousands of years, √ and for

a long time that settled the question. Unfortunately, that nasty −1 kept
popping up in all sorts of inconvenient places. For example, about 400 years
ago, it was very fashionable to study the roots of cubic polynomials such as
x3 − 15x − 4 = 0. A mathematician named Bombelli came √ up with√a formula
for a solution that eventually
√ simplified to: x = (2 + −1) + (2 − −1). By
cancelling out the −1 terms, he got the correct solution x = 4. But how
can you cancel something that doesn’t exist?
√
√ −1’s,
Since mathematicians couldn’t completely avoid those embarrassing
they decided to put up with them as best they could. They called −1 an
4
Asterisks (*) indicate problems that are more difficult. Take the challenge!
3.1 THE ORIGIN OF COMPLEX NUMBERS 17

imaginary number, just to emphasize that it wasn’t up √ to par with the

real numbers. They also used the symbol i to represent −1, to make it
less conspicuous (and easier to write). Finally, they created a larger set of
numbers that included both real and imaginary numbers, called the complex
numbers. 5

Definition 6. The complex numbers are defined as

C = {a + bi : a, b ∈ R},

where i2 = −1. If z = a + bi, then a is the real part of z and b is the

imaginary part of z. (Note that the imaginary part of a complex number
is a real number. It is the coefficient of i in the expression z = a + bi.) 4

Examples of complex numbers include

• 1+i

• 5.387 − 6.432i
√
1 3
• 2 − 2 i

• 3i (equal to 0 + 3i)

• 7.42 (equal to 7.42 + 0i).

• 0 (equal to 0 + 0i).

Exercise 7.

(a) Write down the complex number with real part 0 and imaginary part 7.

(b) Write down a complex number whose real part is the negative of its
imaginary part.

(c) Write down a complex number that is also a real number.

♦
5
The web site http://math.fullerton.edu/mathews/n2003/ComplexNumberOrigin.html
gives more information about the origin of complex numbers.
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MP25954.
Llenroc Productions, Inc.
LP43919.
Loading and transportation.
MP25791.
Lobstertown.
R593738.
Locomotion in fishes.
MP25864.
Locomotion in invertebrates.
MP25862.
Loew’s, Inc.
R581038 - R581042.
R581194.
R582318.
R583044.
R583370.
R583371.
R584732 - R584734.
R584968 - R584970.
R586993.
R588088 - R588090.
R588392.
R589600.
R590967.
R591484.
R591703.
R591704.
R592965.
R592966.
R594212.
R594213.
R594214.
The Lone Wolf in London.
R591427.
The Longest yard.
LP43772.
Long live love.
R583551.
Long memory.
LF186.
Long Road Productions.
LP43772.
Lord, Walter.
LF177.
Lose the fear of the explosive “No.”
MP25985.
Lost in the mish-mosh.
LP43747.
Lost in the stars.
LP43688.
The Lost people.
LF182.
Lovebirds.
LP43846.
Love life—Steve Moynahan.
MP25878.
LSB Productions.
LP43908.
Lunch.
MP25579.
Lund, Doris Herold.
LP43683.
Lured.
R584879.
Lure of the North.
MU9041.
Luther.
LP43685.
Lynchtown.
LP43863.
Lyons, Karlen.
MP25802.
 M
Mad about men.
LF176.
Magic carpet.
LP43709.
The Magic scarab (superstition).
MP25623.
Magic tree.
LP43674.
Magnificent doll.
R582959.
Magnum force.
LP43790.
Maharishi International University, Goleta, CA.
MP25713.
Major News Library.
R580412 - R580415.
R583572 - R583577.
R583579 - R583582.
R583853.
R584199 - R584200.
R584880 - R584882.
R585382 - R585383.
R585724 - R585725.
R587208 - R587213.
R587990 - R587991.
R588303 - R588304.
R589462 - R589463.
R590468.
R590680 - R590683.
R591171.
R591818.
 R592644.
R592645.
R592646.
R592891.
R592892.
R593433.
R594147.
R594148.
R594149.
Make mine mink.
LF175.
Male and female in plants and animals.
MP25912.
Malpaso Company.
LP43790.
Mame.
LP43764.
Mammals that gnaw.
MP25914.
Man: a course of study.
MP26010.
The Management of time.
MP25694.
Man and his world series.
MP25760.
Man behind the dollar.
MP25917.
Manges, Kenneth.
MP25997.
Mann (Ted) Productions.
LP43737.
Man of the moment.
LF179.
Man’s humanity.
MU9079.
Manual positive pressure ventilation (bag and mask)
MP25826.
Marathon “Swashbuckle showdown.”
MP25638.
March of time.
MP25747.
MP26035 - MP26047.
R584088 - R584098.
R587470.
Marrow, Alfred J.
MP25609.
MP25610.
MP25611.
Marshall Maintenance.
MP25529.
MP25530.
MP25728.
Marshall of Cripple Creek.
R582741.
Mars, Inc.
MP25638.
Martin (Burt) Associates.
LP43963.
Martin, Marjorie D.
MU9142.
Massage.
MU9070.
Master technicians service conference, session no. 75–2.
MP26048.
Mathematics for elementary school students.
MP26063 - MP26067.
Matheson, Richard.
LP43718.
Matofsky, Harvey.
LP43745.
Matt’s love story.
LP43856.
Maude.
LP43835 - LP43853.
Max Blunder, meet your chopper.
MP26083.
May, Allegra.
MP25801.
MP25802.
May God have mercy.
LP43960.
MCA-TV.
LP43697 - LP43707.
LP43709 - LP43725.
LP43756.
LP43803 - LP43805.
LP43932 - LP43938.
McDermott (Gerald) Films, Inc.
LP43675.
McFarland, Jim, 3rd.
MU9175.
McGraw-Hill, Inc.
MP25804 - MP25807.
McQ.
LP43741.
McShane, Mark.
LF165.
Measuring blood pressure, an introduction for paramedical
personnel.
 MP25761.
Mechanical Bank Collectors of America.
MP25815.
Mechanical models of psychotherapy.
MP25775.
Media Associates.
MP25725.
Medical Center.
LP43641 - LP43664.
LP43798 - LP43801.
LP43959 - LP43962.
Meet Arna Bontemps.
MP25847.
Meet Arnold Lobel.
MP25834.
Meet Eleanor Cameron.
MP25846.
Meet Elizabeth Gray Vining.
MP25839.
Meet Eve Merriam.
MP25833.
Meet Ezra Jack Keats.
MP25848.
Meet James Michener.
MP25923.
Meet Jean Fritz.
MP25828.
Meet Jeanne and Robert Bendick.
MP25844.
Meet Joan Lexau.
MP25840.
Meet Joe and Beth Krush.
 MP25838.
Meet Joseph Krumgold.
MP25845.
Meet Judy Blume.
MP25831.
Meet Keith Robertson.
MP25832.
Meet Kristin Hunter.
MP25830.
Meet Letta Schatz.
MP25829.
Meet Lloyd Alexander, Evaline Ness, Ann Durrell.
MP25843.
Meet Lynd Ward and May McNeer.
MP25827.
Meet Madeleine L’Engle.
MP25842.
Meet Marguerite de Angeli.
MP25837.
Meet me tonight.
LF199.
Meet Pura Belpre.
MP25835.
Meet Richard Lewis.
MP25836.
Meet Tom and Muriel Feelings.
MP25841.
Meet your chopper.
MP26083.
Meier, Don.
MP25767.
MP25768.
Meine Frau Teresa.
R583554.
Meine Tante, deine Tante.
R583555.
Mellnik, Edward.
LU3677.
Memorial Enterprises, Ltd.
LP43777.
Memorial Enterprises-SAM.
LP43789.
Memories within Miss Aggie.
LP43782.
Memory Company.
LP43782.
Menaced by Ryaks.
R591429.
Men and machines.
R593750.
Mendelson (Lee) Film Productions, Inc.
LP43929.
Mendelson (Lee) Productions.
LP43781.
Merck and Company, Inc.
MP25761.
Merck and Company, Inc. Merck, Sharp and Dohme.
MP25761.
Merkle Services.
MP25714.
Merrie Melodies.
R580303.
R580304.
Merry-go-round horse.
 LP43885.
Merton of the movies.
R581042.
Metro Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.
LP43639 - LP43664.
LP43798 - LP43801.
LP43958 - LP43962.
R581038 - R581042.
R581194.
R582318.
R583044.
R583370.
R583371.
R584732 - R584734.
R584968 - R584970.
R586993.
R588088 - R588090.
R588392.
R589600.
R590967.
R591484.
R591703.
R591704.
R592965.
R592966.
R594212.
R594213.
R594214.
Metromedia Producers Corporation.
LP43914.
Mexican joy ride.
R592815.
M-G-M TV.
LP43641 - LP43664.
LP43798 - LP43801.
LP43959 - LP43962.
Michael gets suspended.
LP43975.
Michelsen, Ralph C.
MU9078.
Mickey down under.
R582867.
MIC. SEE New York (City) Department of Health. Maternity, Infant
Care—Family Planning Projects.
The Midnight lady and the mourning man.
LP43743.
The Midnight man.
LP43743.
Midnight rendezvous.
R587216.
M.I.5 plus 2 equals 0.
LF195.
Mighty Mouse.
R591488 - R591489.
R591493.
Mike’s graduation.
LP43966.
Milliammeter shunt actions.
MP25514.
Milner-Fenwick, Inc.
MP25708.
MP25710.
MP25925.
Milner-Fenwick, Inc. Educational Division.
MP25925.
Mind my chopper!
LF198.
Miracle at Oakmont—The 1973 U.S. Open.
 LP43794.
Miracle on 34th Street.
R583799.
Mirisch-Cinema Company, Inc.
LP43726.
LP43727.
LP43728.
LP43783.
LP43784.
LP43920.
LP43921.
Mirisch-Geoffrey-DePatie-Freleng.
LP43765.
LP43766.
Missed period.
MP25751.
Mixed company.
LP43919.
Moberg, Vilhelm.
LP43813.
Mobilizing help in achieving goals.
MP25695.
Model, revised.
MU9018.
Modern school mathematics film loops.
LP43638.
Molluscs of the coral reef.
MP25870.
Monday Film Production Company.
MP25818.
Monogram Pictures Corporation.
R581550.
R581551.
 R583818.
R584640.
R584641.
R584642.
R585844.
R585845.
R588501.
R588502.
R588504.
R588505.
R591328.
R591573.
R594065.
R594066.
Montage Creations, Inc.
MP25546.
Monuments to erosion.
MP25884.
Moody Institute of Science, Whittier, CA.
MP25636.
MP25637.
Moody Institute of Science, Whittier, CA. Educational Film Division.
MP25636.
MP25637.
Moore, George.
LF164.
Moran—bike.
MP25881 - MP25882.
More about me.
MP25654.
More than a dream.
MP25966.
Mor-Film Fare.
LP43958.
Mosel, Arlene.
LP43684.
Moss Rose.
R583800.
The Most crucial game.
LP43933.
The Most dangerous match.
LP43938.
The Most marvelous cat.
LP43771.
Mother Dogfather.
LP43920.
Mother hubba-hubba Hubbard.
R582963.
Mother’s deadly helper.
LP43830.
Mother wore tights.
R584188.
Motion of stars.
MP25551.
Motion Picture Department, Brigham Young University. SEE
Brigham Young University, Provo, UT. Motion Picture
Department.
Motion Picture Division, Broyles, Allebaugh and Davis, Inc. SEE
Broyles, Allebaugh and Davis, Inc. Motion Picture Division.
Motion Pictures International, Inc.
LP43778.
Motions of attracting bodies.
MP25556.
Motorola.
MP25721.
MP25722.
Motorola Teleprograms, Inc.
MP25993 - MP25996.
Motors Insurance Corporation.
MP25513.
Mountain family in Europe.
MP25760.
A Mouse in the house.
R583371.
Movie Makers, Inc.
MP25962.
Movie of the week.
LP43713.
LP43715 - LP43720.
LP43722 - LP43725.
Movie of the weekend.
LP43712 - LP43725.
Movies go West.
MP25854.
Movietone adventures.
R593744.
R593746.
R593747.
Movietone sports review.
R593732.
Movietone’s sports review.
R593745.
Moyer, Martin.
MP25954.
MP26011.
Moyer (Martin) Productions.
MP25954.
MP26011.
Mrs. B.
 MP25651.
Mrs. Liddle/bowling.
MP25644.
Much ado about nothing.
LP43952.
Muhammad Ali (Cassius Clay), champion, versus George Chuvalo,
challenger, for the heavyweight championship of the world, Maple
Leaf Gardens, Toronto, Canada, March 29, 1966.
MP25926.
Muhammed Ali versus Henry Cooper.
MP25928.
MP25934.
Muhammed Ali versus Jimmy Ellis, Houston Astrodome, July 26,
1971.
MP25932.
Muhammad Ali versus Karl Mildenberger, Frankfurt, Germany,
September 10, 1966.
MP25946.
Muhammed Ali versus Oscar Bonavena, New York, New York,
December 7, 1970.
MP25931.
Mulberry Square Productions, Inc.
LP43795.
Multiplying with fractions.
LP43748.
Munchhausen.
R584559.
Murder is a taxing affair.
LP43818.
Murder on the wild side.
LP43812.
Murder with a golden touch.
LP43828.