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Management and
Organisational
Behaviour
A01_MULL8488_11_SE_FM.indd 1 1/27/16 5:07 PM

Management &
Organisational
Behaviour
Eleventh Edition
Laurie J. Mullins
WITH GILL CHRISTY

Pearson Education Limited
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow CM20 2JE
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)1279 623623
Web: www.pearson.com/uk
First published in 1985 in Great Britain under the Pitman imprint (print)
Fifth edition published in 1999 by Financial Times Pitman Publishing (print)
Seventh edition 2005 (print)
Eighth edition 2007 (print)
Ninth edition 2010 (print)
Tenth edition 2013 (print and electronic)
Eleventh edition published 2016 (print and electronic)
© Laurie J. Mullins 1985, 2010 (print)

© Laurie J. Mullins 2012, 2016 (print and electronic)
Chapters 4, 6 © Linda Carter and Laurie J. Mullins 1993, 2007
Chapter 5 © Linda Carter 1993, 2007
Chapter 15 © Peter Scott 2010
Chapter 16 © David Preece 1999, 2007
The right of Laurie J. Mullins to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copy-
right, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
The print publication is protected by copyright. Prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, distribu-
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ISBN: 978-1-292-08848-8 (print)

978-1-292-08851-8 (PDF)
978-1-292-08849-5 (eText)
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for the print edition is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Mullins, Laurie J.
Title: Management and organisational behaviour / Laurie J. Mulllins.
Description: Eleventh Edition. | New York : Pearson, 2016. | Revised edition
of the author’s Management and organisational behaviour, 2013.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015038750 | ISBN 9781292088488
Subjects: LCSH: Organizational behavior.
Classification: LCC HD58.7 .M85 2016 | DDC 658--dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015038750
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
19 18 17 16 15
Front cover image: Mike Kiev © Getty Images

Print edition typeset in 10/12pt minionPro-Regular by SPi Global
Print edition printed and bound by L.E.G.O. S.p.A., Italy
NOTE THAT ANY PAGE CROSS-REFERENCES REFER TO THE PRINT EDITION

To Pamela and for our families

Contents in brief
Contents in detail ix
In acknowledgement and appreciation xv
About the authors xvi
About this book xvii
Publisher’s acknowledgements xxiii
Part 1 The organisational setting 1

Chapter 1 Understanding organisational behaviour 2
Chapter 2 Approaches to organisation and management 34
Chapter 3 The organisational environment 69
Part 2 The individual 115

Chapter 4 Individual differences and diversity 116
Chapter 5 Learning and development 151
Chapter 6 Perception and communication 181
Chapter 7 Work motivation and job satisfaction 220
Part 3 Groups, leadership and management 269

Chapter 8 Working in groups and teams 270
Chapter 9 Leadership in organisations 311
Chapter 10 Understanding management 349
Part 4 Structure, strategy and effectiveness 393

Chapter 11 Organisation structure and design 394
Chapter 12 Technology and organisations 435
Chapter 13 Organisational control and power 469
Chapter 14 Strategy, corporate responsibility and ethics 503
Chapter 15 Organisational culture and change 536
Chapter 16 Organisational performance and development 571
Appendix Review of personal skills and employability 613

Glossary 616
Index 626

Contents in detail
In acknowledgement and appreciation xv 2 Approaches to organisation and

About the authors xvi management34
About this book xvii
Developments in management and organisational
Publisher’s acknowledgements xxiii
behaviour 35
The classical approach 37
Scientific management 38
Bureaucracy 41
Part 1 Evaluation of bureaucracy 43
Human relations approach 45
The organisational setting 1
Evaluation 46
Neo-human relations 48
1 Understanding organisational behaviour 2 The systems approach 48
Management and organisational behaviour in
The significance of organisational behaviour 3
action case study: ‘Vanguard Method’ for
A multidisciplinary perspective 4
systems thinking 50
A framework of study 6
The contingency approach 51
Realities of organisational behaviour 8
Other approaches to the study of organisations 52
What is work? 9
Decision-making approach 52
Orientations to work and the work ethic 10
Social action 54
Social exchange theory 12
Action theory 55
The psychological contract 12
Postmodernism 56
The nature of human behaviour in
Relevance to management and organisational behaviour 58
organisations 14
Value of management theory 59
Positive organisational behaviour 15
Conceptual thinking and management theory 59
The changing world of work organisations 16
Ten key points to remember 60
Management as an integrating activity 18
Review and discussion questions 61
Management and organisational behaviour
Assignment 61
in action case study: Fred. Olsen
Personal skills and employability exercise 62
Cruise Lines 19
Case study: Not being evil: Google 63
Globalisation and the international context 20
Notes and references 66
Is organisational behaviour culture-bound? 22
Five dimensions of culture: the contribution
3 The organisational environment 69
of Hofstede 24
Cultural diversity: the contribution of Perspectives of the organisation 70
Trompenaars 24 Private- and public-sector organisations 71
High- and low-context cultures 25 Social-enterprise organisations 72
The importance of organisational behaviour 26 Common features of organisations 73
Ten key points to remember 27 The organisation as an open system 74
Review and discussion questions 27 Analysis of work organisations 78
Assignment 28 Formal and informal organisations 80
Personal skills and employability exercise 28 The informal organisation 81
Case study: Virgin Atlantic and Ryanair 29 Underlying realities of work organisations 83
Notes and references 31 Organisational conflict 84

x Contents in detail
Contrasting perspectives of conflict 84 Personal skills and employability exercise 145

Sources of conflict 86 Case study: B&Q: the business case for diversity 145
Management and organisational behaviour in Notes and references 148
action case study: Based on real events 88
The management of conflict 89 5 Learning and development 151
Organisational stress 91
The importance and significance of learning 152
Causes of stress 91
A declaration on learning 154
Stress or pressure: is stress necessarily to be avoided? 92
How do people learn? 156
Coping with stress 93
Behaviourist approach to learning 156
Work/life balance 97
Cognitive theories of learning 159
Is work/life balance still important? 98
Learning styles 160
The workplace of the future 99
E-learning 163
Knowledge management 164
Talent management 166
Assignment 102
action case study: Tapping into diverse talent:
Case study: Grameen Bank: a business that really
Career Watch at EY 167
helps the poor 103
Creativity 168
Mentoring and coaching 170
Academic viewpoint 107
Applications of learning theory to organisations 173
Part 1 Case study Ten key points to remember 174
Indian Railways: lifeline to the nation 108 Review and discussion questions 174
Assignment 175
Part 2 Personal skills and employability exercise 175
Case study: VSO 176
The individual 115
4 Individual differences and diversity 116 6 Perception and communication 181
Recognition of individuality 117 The importance of understanding perception 182

Personality 118 The perceptual process 182
Uniqueness and similarities 120 Internal factors 184
The big five personality factors 121 Management and organisational behaviour in
Hans Eysenck 122 action case study: Diversity Resource Handbook 187
Raymond Cattell 123 External factors 188
Idiographic theoretical approaches 123 Perceptual illusions 191
Erik Erikson 123 Impression management 193
Complementary approaches 124 Organisation and judgement 194
Type A and Type B personalities 126 Perceiving other people 196
Ability and intelligence 127 The importance of language and communication 199
Emotional intelligence (EI) 129 Non-verbal communication and body language 200
Attitudes 131 Interpersonal communications 203
Testing and assessment 133 Neuro-linguistic programming 204
Diversity in the workplace 134 Transactional analysis 206
Business case for diversity 136 Attribution theory 207
Diversity management and training 138 Perceptual distortions and errors 208
Management and organisational behaviour Understanding the organisational process 212
in action case study: Lloyds Banking Group Ten key points to remember 213
Diversity Programme 138 Review and discussion questions 213
Criticisms and limitations 141 Assignment 214
Ten key points to remember 143 Personal skills and employability exercise 214
Review and discussion questions 143 Case study: Behavioural economics 215
Assignment 144 Notes and references 217

Contents in detail xi
7 Work motivation and job satisfaction 220 Membership 277

Work environment 279
The significance of motivation 221
Organisational 280
Needs and expectations at work 222
Group development and maturity 280
Money as a motivator 222
Social identity theory 282
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation 223
Characteristics of an effective work group 283
Threefold classification 225
Potential disadvantages of strong, cohesive groups 284
Virtual teams 285
action case study: Happy and productive
workplace 226
action case study: Remote teamworking 287
Theories of motivation 226
Role structure of the organisation 287
Content theories of motivation 227
Role conflict 289
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory 228
Interactions among members 291
Alderfer’s modified need hierarchy model 231
Analysis of individual behaviour 293
Nohria’s four-drives model of motivation 231
Individual compared with group or team
Herzberg’s two-factor theory 232
performance 296
McClelland’s achievement motivation theory 234
Building effective teams 299
Process theories of motivation 235
Skills of successful teamwork 300
Vroom’s expectancy theory 236
Autonomous working groups 300
The Porter and Lawler expectancy model 237
The Margerison ‘Team Wheel’ 302
Lawler’s revised expectancy model 238
The role of team leader 303
Implications of expectancy theories 239
Equity theory of motivation 240
Goal theory 242
Assignment 305
Attribution theory 245
Relevance today 245
Case study: The Red Arrows 306
Organisational behaviour modification 245
Motivation of knowledge workers 247
Frustration-induced behaviour 248 9 Leadership in organisations 311
Job satisfaction 250
The significance of leadership 312
Comprehensive model of job enrichment 252
Leadership and management 312
Approaches to leadership 313
Qualities or traits approach 314
Assignment 255
Functional (or group) approach 316
Styles of leadership 317
Case study: Managers and motivation 257
Continuum of leadership behaviour 318
Contingency theories of leadership 320
Fiedler’s contingency model 320
Part 2 Case study Vroom and Yetton contingency model 322
Philanthropy: the resurgence of personal social Path–goal theory 323
responsibility? 262 Readiness of the followers or group 324
Transformational leadership 326
Inspirational or visionary leadership 327
Part 3 Servant leadership 329
Groups, leadership and management 269 Power and leadership influence 330
The leadership relationship 332
Culture as a contingent factor? 333
8 Working in groups and teams 270
Leadership effectiveness 334
The importance and significance of groups 271 No one best form of leadership 335
Groups and teams 271 Alternative views of leadership 336
Formal and informal groups 273 Management and organisational behaviour in
Group values and norms 274 action case study: The Post Office – Women in
Group cohesiveness and performance 277 Leadership Programme 337

xii Contents in detail
Leadership development 338 Task and element functions 399

Ten key points to remember 341 Division of work and grouping of people 400
Review and discussion questions 342 Centralisation and decentralisation 402
Assignment 342 Principles of organisation 403
Personal skills and employability exercise 342 Formal organisational relationships 406
Case study: A change of leadership at Project teams and matrix organisation 408
Barclays Bank 343 Management and organisational behaviour in
Notes and references 346 action case study: Working structure: Geoplan
Spatial Intelligence Limited 410
Boundaryless organisation 411
10 Understanding management 349 Effects of a deficient organisation structure 412
The importance of management 350 Organisation charts 412
But what is management? 351 Variables influencing organisation structure 413
The process of management 353 Size of organisation 415
Responsibility for the work of other people 356 Technology 416
Essential nature of managerial work 356 Woodward – structure and production technology 416
Management in private-enterprise and public-sector Perrow – major dimensions of technology 418
organisations 358 Uncertain external environment 418
Management and organisational behaviour in Burns and Stalker – mechanistic and organic
action case study: Putting the customer first in a structures 418
service organisation: cultural change at Fareham Lawrence and Lorsch – differentiation and
Borough Council 361 integration 420
The work of a manager 362 Evaluation of contingency approach 421
Managerial roles 363 Organisation structure and culture 421
Agenda-setting and network-building 364 The changing face of the workplace 422
Demands, constraints and choices 365 Outsourcing 424
Importance of managerial style 365 Demand for flexibility 425
Theory X and Theory Y management 367 Structure and organisational behaviour 426
The Managerial/Leadership Grid® 369 No perfect structure 427
Management systems 372 Ten key points to remember 428
Managing with and through people 373 Review and discussion questions 429
Guidance on good management 376 Assignment 429
The future of management 377 Personal skills and employability exercise 429
Ten key points to remember 379 Case study: John Lewis and Waitrose; distinctively
Review and discussion questions 379 successful 430
Assignment 380 Notes and references 433
Case study: Is everybody happy? 382
12 Technology and organisations
Peter Scott435
Part 3 Case study Why study technology? 436
The Eden Project 387

Features of technology 436
Approaches to technology and organisation 438
Decision-making processes 441
Involvement of HR specialists and users of
Part 4 technology 445
Structure, strategy and effectiveness 393 Technology, work and organisational behaviour 446
Skill, work design and job quality 447
Centralisation versus decentralisation of control 448
11 Organisation structure and design 394
The purpose and importance of structure 395 action case study: Negotiating the use of vehicle-
Levels of organisation 396 tracking technology 450
Underlying dimensions of organisation structure 398 Social networking 451

Contents in detail xiii
Changing relations with customers and users 452 Corporate social responsibilities 513
Location of work 453 Management and organisational behaviour in
The nature of social interactions 455 action case study: Corporate social responsibility:
The pace and intensity of work 456 Graham McWilliam, BSkyB 514
The ‘digital divide’ and job security 457 Organisational stakeholders 515
Implications for organisations and organisational The UN Global Compact 515
behaviour 458 Values and ethics 517
Ten key points to remember 458 Ethics and CSR 518
Review and discussion questions 459 Ethics and corporate purpose 521
Assignment 460 Business ethics 523
Personal skills and employability exercise 460 Codes of business conduct (or ethics) 526
Case study: How many ‘likes’ do I get for my An integrated approach 527
essay? 461 Ten key points to remember 528
Notes and references 463 Review and discussion questions 529
Assignment 530
13 Organisational control and power 469 Personal skills and employability exercise 530
Case study: The Fairtrade Foundation 531
The essence of control 470
Improvement in performance 471
Elements of an organisational control system 472
15 Organisational culture and change 536
Strategies of control in organisations 475
Characteristics of an effective control system 477 Adapting to change 537
Power and management control 478 Organisational culture 537
Perspectives of organisational power 481 Types of organisational culture 540
Pluralistic approaches to power 482 Influences on the development of culture 542
Financial and accounting systems of control 483 The cultural web 543
Influencing skills 484 Culture and organisational control 544
Behavioural factors in control systems 486 The importance of culture 545
The concept of empowerment 487 National and international culture 547
The manager–subordinate relationship 488 Case study: Brazil 549
Management and organisational behaviour in Organisational climate 550
action case study: The police custody officer Organisational change 551
and empowerment 490 Planned organisational change 553
Reasons for lack of delegation 491 Management and organisational behaviour in
Systematic approach to empowerment and action case study: MANAGEMENT 2020 555
delegation 492 Resistance to change 557
Control versus autonomy 494 Managing change 559
Ten key points to remember 496 Minimising problems of change 560
Review and discussion questions 496 Getting people to accept change 562
Assignment 497 Responsibilities of top management 563
Personal skills and employability exercise 498 Ten key points to remember 564
Case study: Rogue traders 499 Review and discussion questions 565
Notes and references 501 Assignment 565
14 Strategy, corporate responsibility Case study: Changing priorities: ActionAid 566
and ethics503 Notes and references 569
The importance of strategy 504

16 Organisational performance and
Organisational goals 505
development571
Objectives and policy 506
Organisational ideologies and principles 507 The crucial role of managers 572
Vision and mission statements 509 Attributes and qualities of a manager 573
The profit objective – not a sufficient criterion 509 The importance of management skills 574
Organisational values and behaviour 511 Managerial effectiveness 575

xiv Contents in detail
Measures of effectiveness 576 The future of the workplace 598

Management of time 580 Successful organisations and people 598
The nature of organisational effectiveness 581 Ten key points to remember 600
The learning organisation 582 Review and discussion questions 601
Total quality management 584 Assignment 601
The balanced scorecard 585 Personal skills and employability exercise 601
Employee engagement and commitment 586 Case study: Co-operatives 602
Investors in People 588 Notes and references 605
The EFQM Excellence Model 591 Academic viewpoint 607
Management development 593
Part 4 Case study
Succession planning 594
The Timpsons – solving life’s little problems 608
Continuing professional development 594
The future of management and leadership 595
Management and organisational behaviour Appendix Review of personal skills and
in action case study: CEZ Distribution employability 613
Bulgaria JSC 596 Glossary 616
Organisational capabilities 597 Index 626

In acknowledgement and
appreciation
Special tribute to my wife Pamela and family for their love, continuing support and
encouragement.
Special thanks
Thanks and gratitude to friends and colleagues Gill Christy and Peter Scott for their
invaluable contribution to the eleventh edition.
Thanks and gratitude also to:
Richard Christy
Mike Crabbe and Mike Timmins
Hugo Misselhorn
Anne Riches
Those managers who kindly gave permission to reproduce material from their
own organisations.
The team at Pearson Education including Donna Goddard, Mary Lince, Eileen
Srebernik, Rachel Gear, Simon Lake (for always being there), Jess Kneller and col-
leagues in marketing and sales.
Those who in a variety of ways through their friendship, interest and support have
helped with completion of this eleventh edition, including: Marlon Aquino, Di
and Mike Blyth; Jenny and Tony Hart; Lynn and Wayne Miller; Francesca Mullins;
Bryan Mundy; Christine Paterson.
Reviewers
Thanks and appreciation to the following reviewers, approached by the publishers,
for insightful and constructive comments that helped shape this eleventh edition:
John Spoerry, Jean-Anne Stewart, Colin Combe, Kathryn Thory, Nicholas Jackson,
Kevin Tennent and Claire Williams.
Laurie J. Mullins

About the authors
Laurie Mullins was formerly a principal lecturer at the University

of Portsmouth Business School and led the Behavioural and Human
Resource Management Group. Laurie has experience of business, local
government, university administration and human resource manage-
ment, and for a number of years was an instructor in the Territorial
Army. He has worked with the United Nations Association International
Service (UNAIS), Voluntary Service Overseas (VSO), professional and
educational bodies including UNISON Education and as external exam-
iner for university courses and professional organisations. Laurie has
undertaken an academic exchange at the University of Wisconsin, USA, a visiting fellowship at the Royal
Melbourne Institute of Technology University, Australia and was a visiting lecturer in the Netherlands.
He is also author of Essentials of Organisational Behaviour and co-author of Hospitality Management and
Organisational Behaviour, both published by Pearson Education.
Gill Christy is a visiting lecturer in Organisational Behaviour/Human

Resource Management (OB/HRM) at Portsmouth University. She read
History at Cambridge, then trained and worked as a teacher before
moving into a career in training and personnel management, achieving
membership of the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development
in 1990. Gill spent five years at Southampton City Council before join-
ing Portsmouth Business School in 1992, where she became subject
leader for the OB/HRM group and served a term as Head of the Human
Resource and Marketing Management Department.
Peter Scott is a senior lecturer at the University of Portsmouth Business

School, specialising in organisational behaviour and employee rela-
tions. He has previously taught at the University of Bath and Manchester
Metropolitan University. Peter’s doctoral research was on craft skills and
advanced manufacturing technology.

About this book
In an increasingly competitive environment, an understanding of the behaviour

and actions of people at work is of particular importance. The activities of an
organisation are directed towards the attainment of certain goals and also have
social implications. Organisational behaviour is a wide and essentially multidisci-
plinary field of enquiry and should not be considered in a vacuum but related to
the process of management and wider organisational context and environment.
Broadening the scope of the subject matter beyond the concerns of tradi-
tional organisational behaviour texts is a distinctive feature of this book,
which is especially suitable across a range of different but related modules,
including single or double semester units.
The underlying theme of the book is the need for effective organisational perfor-
mance and development based on an understanding of the behaviour of people at
work and the role of management as an integrating activity. The concepts and ideas
presented provide a basis for contrasting perspectives on the structure, operation and
management of organisations, and interactions among people who work in them.
Aims of this book

The aims of this book are to:
● relate the study of organisational behaviour with that of management;
● provide an integrated view embracing both theory and practice;
● point out applications of social science and cultural influences, and implications
for management action;
● indicate ways in which organisational performance may be improved through
better understanding of effective management of people;
● increase awareness of, and sensitivity to, personal skills and employability.
The comprehensive coverage and progressive presentation of contents will appeal to
students at undergraduate level or on related professional courses, and to graduate
and post-experience students who, through their course of study, wish to enhance
their knowledge and understanding of the subject area. The book will hopefully also
appeal to those aspiring to a managerial position.
Distinctive format
There is a logical flow to the sequencing of topic areas and each chapter of the
book is self-contained, with appropriate cross-referencing to other chapters.
This provides a flexible approach. Selection and ordering of chapters can be varied
to suit the demands of particular courses of study or individual interests.

xviii About this book
The book is written with a minimum of technical terminology and the format is
clearly structured. Each chapter is supported with illustrations and practical exam-
ples and contains:
● a short introduction and learning outcomes;
● critical review and reflections throughout the text;
● a practical management and organisational behaviour in action case study;
● a pictorial concept map;
● a summary of ten key points to remember;
● review and discussion questions;
● an assignment;
● a personal skills and employability exercise;
● a case study;
● detailed notes and references.
For each part of the book there is also an academic viewpoint and integrative
case study.
The eleventh edition

The book retains the same underlying aims and approach that have been a hallmark
of its success. In response to clear user and reviewer feedback, there is a noticeable
reduction in the size of this edition. Based on this feedback, certain subject areas
have been integrated into other chapters to provide a more succinct format.
The book is structured in four parts with a total of sixteen chapters.
Following the revised structure, there is considerable reordering throughout.
Attention has been focused on the overall plan of the book and sequence of contents
between and within chapters. Strategy is now included in Chapter 14: ‘Strategy, corpo-
rate responsibility and ethics’. Certain chapters are renamed to reflect more accurately
their contents. Each chapter has been reworded or substantially rewritten as neces-
sary. Words set in colour throughout the main text indicate inclusion in the Glossary.
Every effort has been made to balance a smaller text with the inclusion of new
material and additional features without detracting from the continuing appeal of
the book. These changes provide a new and fresh look while enhancing ease of
readability, which is another key feature of the book. In addition:
● There are eleven revised or completely new management and organisational
behaviour in action case studies, seven new concept maps and nine revised or
completely new assignments.
● The section on personal skills and employability has been rewritten and expanded.
There are five completely new end-of-chapter exercises. There is also a review of
personal skills and employability at the end of the book.
● There are now an average of ten critical review and reflections throughout each
chapter and a summary of ten key points to remember at the end of each chapter.
● All end-of-chapter case studies have been revised and updated where necessary.
There are four completely new chapter case studies.

About this book xix
● For each part of the book there is a completely new academic viewpoint.
● The end-of-part integrative case studies have been revised and updated as
necessary and there is a completely new case study for Part 4.
Attention continues to be focused on design features and overall appear-
ance to provide a manageable and attractive text with enhanced clarity and
user-friendliness.
Personal skills and employability

The Confederation for British Industry (CBI) points out that in an increasingly com-
petitive employment market, employers are looking beyond simple academic
achievement when considering applicants for a job or internship.
Many now expect to see evidence of other skills and achievements that boost
someone’s attractiveness as a potential employee. Businesses want graduates who
not only add value but who have the skills to help transform their organization
in the face of continuous and rapid economic and technological change.
All graduates – whatever their degree disciple – need to be equipped with
employability skills.1
The UK Commission for Employment and Skills (UKCES) aims to raise UK
rosperity and opportunity by improving employment and skills levels across the
p
UK, benefitting individuals, employers, government and society. Recent years have
seen attention given by the government and other employment and professional
bodies to the importance of the supply and application of skills attainment for the
prosperity of the UK economy. For example, the Chartered Institute of Personnel and
Development (CIPD) points out that, for individuals, skills determine their employ-
ment and earning potential and, for the organisation, skills are vital to current and
future demands.2
University education and employability

One of the recommendations in a report from the Chartered Management Institute
(CMI) on the future of management and leadership is to ‘build employability
into education’. The report outlines a series of practical proposals to help embed
practical management, enterprise and leadership experiences into the world of
education: ‘The standing of business studies courses should be reviewed to ensure
they are relevant, attractive to young people and respected by employers and
higher education.’3
UKCES reports that higher education is well placed to play its part in help-
ing to overcome the well-documented skills challenge: ‘Collaborations between
employers and universities have a significant role to play in providing the supply
of highly skilled people to meet demand from businesses now and in the future.’4
GOV.UK refers to the need for a better connection to bridge the gap between edu-
cation and work. Attention should be focused on ‘Real results, not exam results.
Success should be measured by a wide set of outcomes, including jobs and progres-
sion, not just qualifications.’5
The Prince’s Trust also points out the human cost of skills shortages that could
affect levels of productivity and morale among existing workforces.6

xx About this book
People management and social skills

A survey report on tomorrow’s leaders suggests that managers recognise the
potential benefits of management qualifications that help improve young people’s
practical skills. Managers were asked to select three factors with the biggest impact
on their decision-making when recruiting young people. In two-thirds of cases
managers highlight personal presentation, three out of five point to academic quali-
fications and half focus on an individual’s ambition: ‘This suggests that managers
are often looking at characteristics that demonstrate an individual’s potential rather
than fully fledged skills themselves.’7
Unlike technical or practical skills, social skills are more intangible. They are
difficult to get a firm hold of, or to define and measure clearly. Social skills are often
associated as ‘soft skills’ and regarded as a natural part of human behaviour. As a
result, a common concern with attention to the skills shortage is a lack of focus
on people management, social skills and interpersonal behaviour. For example, an
important aspect of working with other people and leadership skills is an awareness
and acceptance of individual differences and diversity.
The skills imperative

The European Commission has drawn attention to ‘the skills imperative’ and points
out the importance of a skills policy to raising productivity. For the first time, skills
are part of the portfolio of a European Commissioner. The EU is promoting a ‘learn-
ings outcome’ approach focusing on what people actually know, understand and
are able to do, no matter where and how they acquired their knowledge, skills and
competencies. Focusing on what people can actually do breaks down the divide
between the world of education and the world of work. In-demand skills include
the ability to plan and manage projects in order to achieve objectives and transver-
sal skills such as language, problem-solving, communication, ability and willingness
to keep learning, and the ability to work with others.8
Developing your employability skills

Increasingly, graduate recruiters are placing greater emphasis on key interpersonal
and social skills, and attitudes. A first step in working harmoniously and effectively
with other people is to know and understand yourself and the skill of self-manage-
ment. Reflecting honestly on your personal strengths and weaknesses should help
develop your level of competence. You cannot even begin to think of managing
other people until you can effectively manage yourself.
The continual development of employability skills as part of your university edu-
cation and lifelong learning is important for:
● progressing your personal confidence and self-awareness;
● developing harmonious interpersonal relationships with colleagues and external
contacts;
● initial attractiveness for appointment with a potential employer;
● maintaining a competent level of work performance;
● enhancing work motivation and job satisfaction; and
● helping to safeguard your career progression.

About this book xxi
Many employers have structured programmes for the continued development of

their staff. Your longer-term employment prospects will be enhanced when you are
able to demonstrate a genuine and enthusiastic commitment to your own personal
development.
Study as an aid to practice

Study is an aid to practice. An underlying aim of this book is to provide an integrated
view embracing both theory and practice. The ideas and concepts discussed pro-
vide you with opportunities to explore the underlying skills associated with man-
agement and organisational behaviour.
As you progress through your studies, reflect upon what you have read and about
the importance of social skills, including:
● personal awareness and how you project yourself;
● openness to diversity, equality and inclusion;
● perceiving and understanding other people;
● written, verbal and non-verbal communications;
● social interactions with others and teamworking;
● persuasiveness and leadership;
● personal organisation and time management;
● coping with change;
● coaching and mentoring; and
● working in a multicultural society.
The critical review and reflection sections throughout each chapter are contro-
versial statements to help provoke and inspire personal reflection about areas you
have just read. Draw upon the views of your colleagues to share experiences and
test not only your assumptions and ideas, but also your skills of group interaction
and influencing other people. References to the importance of skills throughout the
text, together with the exhibits, case studies and assignments, should serve to stimu-
late your awareness of the importance of underlying personal and employability
skills necessary for effective performance.
You are encouraged to complement your reading by drawing upon your own
observations and practical experiences. This can, of course, be from your university.
You may also have work experience, even part-time or casual employment, in other
organisations to draw upon. In addition, you will have contact with a range of other
organisations such as supermarkets, local pubs and shops, banks or building socie-
ties, fast food restaurants, service stations, doctors or a dentist surgery. An analytical
approach to contemporary examples from your own observations should help fur-
ther your interest in the subject area.
Bear in mind that opportunities to develop personal skills are not always immediately
apparent but embedded into your course of study. Adopt an inquisitive and enquiring
mind. Search for both good and bad examples of organisational behaviour and people
management, and the manner in which concepts and ideas presented in this book
are applied in practice. Make a point of continually observing and thinking about the
interpersonal and work-based skills exhibited. Use this awareness and knowledge to
enhance development of your own employability skills and aid career progression.

xxii About this book
Monitor and assess your development

It is recommended strongly that you maintain a portfolio of what you have learned
in your personal development and the employability skills you have attained or
enhanced during your course of study. This can provide a useful basis of discussion
with a potential employer.
You may find it useful to assess progression of your personal skills and employ-
ability by reviewing your learning and development under the broad headings
shown in the illustration.
Self-awareness and Relationships

confidence with others
Communication and Working in groups

presentation skills and teams
ENHANCING YOUR
Dealing with difficult PERSONAL SKILLS Influencing others
situations AND EMPLOYABILITY and leadership
Coping with and Observing ethical

managing change behaviour
Displaying
Working in multicultural managerial
organisations potential
Personal skills and employability exercises

Critical self-reflection is a positive activity that can challenge narrow preconceived
thought processes, encourage creativity and provide a valuable personal learning
and development experience.
At the end of each chapter there is a personal skills and employability exercise.
This is designed to encourage you to think about further development of your social
and work-based skills.
At the end of the book is a review of features within the text that relate to employ-
ability skills. You are encouraged to examine the extent to which you have enhanced
your personal awareness and knowledge, and are better prepared to demonstrate
your employability skills and aid your career progression.
References
1. ‘Boosting employability skills’, CBI, http://cbi.org.uk (accessed 17 December 2014).
2. ‘Skills policy in the UK: Factsheet’, CIPD, January 2014.
3. ‘MANAGEMENT 2020: Leadership to unlock long-term growth’, The Commission on the
Future of Management and Leadership, CMI, July 2014, p. 12.
4. ‘Forging Futures: Building higher level skills through university and employer collaboration’,
UKCES, September 2014.
5. ‘Growth Through People’, UKCES, 25 November 2014.
6. ‘The Skills Crunch’, Prince’s Trust, 2014.
7. Woodman, P. and Hutchings, P. ‘Tomorrow’s Leaders’, CMI, March 2011.
8. ‘The Skills Imperative’, Social Agenda, European Commission Magazine on Employment and
Social Affairs, No. 41, July 2015, pp.14–20.

Publisher’s acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material:
Figures
Figure 1.3 adapted from Management, 8th ed., pub. South-Western, a part of Cen-
gage Learning, Inc. (Hellriegel, D., Slocum, J.W., Jr. and Woodman, R.W. 1998) p.6,
reproduced by permission; Figures 1.5, 3.10, 4.6, 5.5, 7.12, 10.6, 12.3, 15.6, 16.7
Copyright © 2011 The Virtual Learning Materials Workshop, Courtesy of Virtual
Learning Materials Workshop; Figure 1.7 from Organisational Behaviour: Individu-
als, Groups and Organisation, 4th ed., Financial Times Prentice Hall (Brooks, I. 2008)
p.272, Pearson Education Ltd; Figures 2.2, 8.3, 9.7, 14.3 Copyright © 2008 The Virtual
Learning Materials Workshop, Courtesy of Virtual Learning Materials Workshop;
Figure 3.1 from Human Resource Management in the Public Sector, Kwansei Gakuin
University Press (Smart, P. and Inazawa, K. 2011) p.21, reproduced with permission;
Figure 3.7 from Strategic Management, 7th ed., Pearson Education Ltd. (Lynch, R.
2015) p.73, Exhibit 3.1; Figure 3.11 from How to tackle work-related stress, publica-
tion INDG430, October (Health and Safety Executive 2009), Contains public sector
information published by the Health and Safety Executive and licensed under the
Open Government Licence; Figure 4.4 adapted from The Structure of Human Abili-
ties (Vernon, P.E. 1950) Copyright © 1950 Methuen & Co., reproduced by permission
of Taylor & Francis Books UK; Figure 4.5 from Hay Group. Copyright © 1999 Hay
Group Limited. All rights reserved. Reproduced with permission; Figure 5.4 from
Assessment Issues in Higher Education, October, Department of Employment (Atkins,
M.J., Beattie, J. and Dockrell, W.B. 1993) p.51, Department for Employment and
Learning, Contains public sector information licensed under the Open Government
Licence v2.0; Figure 6.4 from Can You Believe Your Eyes?, Robson Books (Block,
J.R. and Yuker, H.E. 2002) p.163, reproduced with permission of Pavilion Books;
Figure 6.7 from Introduction to Psychology, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill (King, R.A. 1979)
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King; Figure 6.11 from Odd Perceptions (Gregory, R.L. 1986) p.71, Copyright © 1986
Methuen, reproduced by permission of Taylor & Francis Books UK; F igure 6.12 from
Interactive Behaviour at Work, 3rd ed., Financial Times Prentice Hall (Guirdham,
M. 2002) p.162, Pearson Education Ltd; Figure 6.13 Copyright © 2009 The Virtual
Figure 6.14 from Nick Fitzherbert, www.fitzherbert.co.uk, reproduced with permis-
sion; Figure 7.4 reproduced with permission from Andrzej A. Huczynski and David
A. Buchanan, Organizational Behaviour, Pearson Education (eighth edition), p.293;
Figure 7.13 from Knowledge Workers: The New Management Challenge, Profes-
sional Manager, Institute of Management, November, 1994, p.13 (Tampoe, M.),
Reproduced with permission from Chartered Management Institute; Figure 7.15

xxiv Publisher’s acknowledgements
from J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign, 1st Ed. ©1980.
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New York; Figure 8.1 from Beyond the Team, Butterworth-Heinemann (Belbin, R.M.
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ers Charter, https://civilservice.blog.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/86/2014/09/
Annex-C-Managers-Charter.pdf, Contains public sector information licensed under
the Open Government Licence (OGL) v3.0.http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/
doc/open-government-licence; Figures 11.11, 13.7 Copyright © 2012 The Virtual
Figure 11.12 from Strategic Management, 6th ed., Financial Times Prentice Hall
(Lynch, R. 2012) p.464, Pearson Education Ltd; Figure 11.13 from Industrial Organi-
zation: Theory and Practice, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press (Woodward, J. 1980)
p.128, by permission of Oxford University Press; Figure 11.14 from Reed Business
Information, Copyright © Reed Business Information Ltd., reprinted with permis-
sion; Figure 11.15 from Gray, Organizational Behavior: Concepts and Applications,
4th ed. © 1988. Reprinted and Electronically reproduced by permission from Pear-
son Education Inc. New York; Figure 13.3 from Organization: Contemporary Princi-
ples and Practice, Blackwell Publishing (Child, J. 2005) p.121 © 2005 by John Child,
Reproduced with permission of Blackwell Pub in the format Republish in a book via
Copyright Clearance Center; Figure 13.4 reprinted with the permission of The Free
Press, a Division of Simon & Schuster, Inc., from A Comparative Analysis of Complex
Organizations: On Power, Involvement, and Their Correlates, Revised and Enlarged
Edition by Amitai Etzoni. Copyright © 1975 by Amitai Etzoni; copyright renewed
© 2003 Amitai Etzoni. All rights reserved; Figure 14.2 from Organisational Behav-
iour and Analysis, 4th ed., Financial Times Prentice Hall (Rollinson, D. 2008) p.56,
Pearson Education Ltd; Figure 15.1 from Organizational Change, 4th ed., Financial
Times Prentice Hall (Senior, B. and Swailes, S. 2010) p.161, Pearson Education Ltd;
Figure 15.2 from Organisational Behaviour and Analysis: An Integrated Approach, 4th
ed., Financial Times Prentice Hall (Rollinson, D. 2008) p.592, Pearson Education Ltd;
Figure 15.3 from Exploring Strategy, 10th ed., Pearson Education Ltd. ( Johnson, G.,
Whittington, R., Scholes, K., Angwin, D. and Regner, P. 2014) p.156; Figure 15.4 from
The Cultural Imperative: Global Trends in the 21st Century, Nicholas Brealey (Lewis,
R.D. 2007) © 2003 Richard Lewis. Reproduced by permission of Nicholas Brealey
Publishing; Figure 16.3 from Managing, Financial Times Prentice Hall (Mintzberg,
H. 2009) p.197, Reproduced by permission of Henry Mintzberg; Figure 16.6 from
Get Engaged, Management Today, April, p.40 (De Vita, E. 2007), Reproduced from

Publisher’s acknowledgements xxv
Management Today magazine with the permission of the copyright owner, Haymar-
ket Business Publications Limited; Figure 16.8 from Investors in People © Investors
in People - UK Commission for Employment and Skills 2015, www.investorsinpeo-
ple.co.uk; Figure 16.9 from EFQM Excellence Model, Copyright © 2012 EFQM. The
EFQM Excellence Model is a registered trademark of the EFQM. Reproduced with
permission; Figure 16.10 from Organizational Capabilities Matter © 2012, The Bos-
ton Consulting Group (BCG).
Tables
Table 3.1 adapted from Gray, Organizational Behavior: Concepts and Applications,
4th Ed. © 1988. Reprinted and Electronically reproduced by permission from Pear-
son Education, Inc., New York; Table 4.3 adapted from Identity and the Life Cycle,
Norton (Erikson, E.H. 1980) worksheet table appendix, Copyright © 1980 by W. W.
Norton & Company, Inc. Copyright © 1959 by International Universities Press, Inc.
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Feeling and Smiling, The Psychologist vol.12, no.1, January, pp.16–19 (Briner, R. 1999),
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The Debate Starts Here, People Management in Perspective: A Collection of Key Arti-
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ed., John Wiley & Sons (Litterer, J. A. 1973) p.339, Reproduced with permission from
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(Osborne, A.), http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/retailandcon-
sumer/10266250/Timpson-has-key-to-giving-ex-convicts-second-chance.html,
copyright © Telegraph Media Group Limited 2013; Exercise on pages 614–15 repro-
duced with permission from Hugo Misselhorn, M.O.D. Consulting. August 2014.
Photographs
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Magnum Photos Ltd: © Steve McCurry / Magnum Photos. 115 Fotolia.com:
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ones next, material and economic ones perhaps least. But in all
cases change or innovation is due to a shift of values that are
broader than the single phenomenon in question, and that are held
to impulsively instead of reasonably. That is why all social creations
—institutions, beliefs, codes, styles, speech forms—prove on
impartial analysis to be full of inconsistencies and irrationalities. They
have sprung not from weighed or reasoned choices but from
impulsive desires and emotionally colored habits.
The foregoing discussion may be summarized as follows.
Linguistic phenomena and processes are on the whole more deeply
unconscious than cultural ones, without however differing in
principle. In both language and culture, content is more readily
imparted and assimilated than form and enters farther into
consciousness. Organization or structure in both cases takes place
according to unconscious patterns, such as grammatical categories,
social standards, political or economic points of view, religious or
intellectual assumptions. These patterns attain recognition only in a
late stage of sophistication, and even then continue to alter and to be
influential without conscious control. The number of such linguistic
and social patterns being limited, they tend to be approximately
repeated without historic connection. Partially similar combinations of
such patterns sometimes recur, producing languages or cultures of
similar type. But established patterns, and still more their
combinations, replace each other with difficulty. Their spread
therefore takes place through the integral substitution of one
language or culture for another, rather than by piecemeal absorption.
This is in contrast to the specific elements of which language and
culture consist—individual words, mechanical devices, institutional
symbols, particular religious ideas or actions, and the like. These
elements absorb and diffuse readily. They are therefore imitated
more often than they are reinvented. But linguistic and cultural
patterns or structures growing up spontaneously may possess more
general resemblance than historic connection.
63. Linguistic and Cultural Standards

It does not follow that because social usages lack a rational basis,
they are therefore unworthy of being followed, or that standards of
conduct need be renounced because they are relative, that is,
unconsciously founded and changing. The natural inclination of men
being to regard their standards of taste, behavior, and social
arrangement as wholly reasonable, perfect, and fixed, there follows a
first inclination to regard these standards as valueless as soon as
their emotionality and variability have been recognized. But such a
tendency is only a negative reaction against the previous illusion
when this has disappointed by crumbling. The reaction is therefore in
a sense a further result of the illusion. Once the fundamental and
automatic assumption of fixity and inherent value of social patterns
has been given up, and it is recognized that the motive power of
behavior in man as in the other animals is affective and unconscious,
there is nothing in institutions and codes to quarrel with. They are
neither despicable nor glorious; no more deserving in virtue of their
existence to be uprooted and demolished than to be defended as
absolute and eternal. In some form or other, they are inevitable; and
the particular form which they take at this time or that place is always
tolerably well founded, in the sense of being adapted with fair
success, or having been but recently well adapted, to the conditions
of natural and social environment of the group which holds the
institution, code, or standard.
That this is a sane attitude is more easily shown in the field of
language than of culture, because, language being primarily a
mechanism or means, whereas in culture ends or purposes tend
more to obtrude, it is easier to view linguistic phenomena
dispassionately. Grammars and dictionaries, for instance, are
evidently the result of self-consciousness arising about speech which
has previously been mainly unconscious. They may be roughly
compared to social formulations like law codes or written
constitutions or philosophic systems or religious dogmas, which are
also representations of usages or beliefs already in existence. When
grammarians stigmatize expressions like ain’t or them cows or he
don’t as “wrong,” they are judging an innovation, or one of several
established conflicting usages, by a standard of correctness that
seems to them absolute and permanent. As a matter of actuality, the
condemned form may or may not succeed in becoming established.
He don’t, for example, might attain to correctness in time, although
ain’t is perhaps less likely to become legitimized, and them cows to
have still smaller prospect of recognition. That a form departs from
the canon of to-day of course no more proves that it will be accepted
in future than that it will not. What is certain is that if it wins sufficient
usage, it will also win sanction, and will become part of the standard
of its time.
Linguistic instances like these differ little if at all in principle, in their
involved psychology, from the finding of the Supreme Court that a
certain legislative enactment is unconstitutional and therefore void;
or from the decision of a denomination that dancing or playing golf
on Sunday is wicked; or from the widespread sentiment that
breaking an unpopular law like that on liquor prohibition is morally
justifiable. The chief point of divergence would seem to be that a
court is a constituted body endowed with an authority which is not
paralleled on the linguistic side, at any rate in Anglo-Saxon
countries; although the Latin nations possess Academies whose
dicta on correctness of speech enjoy a moral authority approximating
the verdicts of a high court.
It is also of interest to remember that the power of nullifying
legislation was not specifically granted the Supreme Court by the
Constitution of the United States, but that the practice grew up
gradually, quite like a speech innovation which becomes established.
Certain elements in the American population look upon this power as
undesirable and therefore take satisfaction in pointing out its
unsanctioned origin. The majority on the other hand feel that the
situation on the whole works out well, and that a Supreme Court with
its present powers is better than the risk of a Court without power.
Still, it remains curiously illogical that the preservation of the
Constitution should take place partly through the extra-constitutional
functioning of a constitutional body. In principle such a case is similar
to that of grammarians who at the same time lay down a rule and
exceptions to the rule, because the contradictory usages happen to
be actually established.
Codes, dogmas, and grammars are thus normally reflections
rather than causes. Such influence as they have is mainly in outward
crystallization. They produce a superficial appearance of
permanence. In the field of speech, it is easy to recognize that it is
not grammarians that make languages, but languages that make
grammarians. The analogous process evidently holds for culture.
Lawgivers, statesmen, religious leaders, discoverers, inventors,
therefore only seem to shape civilization. The deep-seated, blind,
and intricate forces that shape culture, also mold the so-called
creative leaders of society as essentially as they mold the mass of
humanity. Progress, so far as it can objectively be considered to be
such, is something that makes itself. We do not make it. Our
customary conviction to the contrary is probably the result of an
unconscious desire not to realize our individual impotence as
regards the culture we live in. Social influence of a sort we do have
as individuals. But it is a personal influence on the fortune and
careers of other individual members of society, and is concerned
largely with aims of personal security, relative dominance, or
affection among ourselves. This obviously is a different thing from
the exertion of influence on the form or content of civilization as
such.
64. Rapidity of Linguistic Change

The rate of change in language is circumscribed by the principles
of linguistic causality that have been discussed, but it remains an
obscure subject in detail. The opinion often held that unwritten
languages necessarily alter faster than written ones, or that those of
savages are less stable than the tongues of civilized men, is mainly
a naïve reflection of our sense of superiority. It contravenes the
principles just referred to and is not supported by evidence.
Occasional stories that a primitive tribe after a generation or two was
found speaking an almost made-over language are unconscious
fabrications due to preconception and supported by hasty
acquaintance, faulty records, misunderstanding, or perhaps change
of inhabitants. Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, has probably
changed less in four hundred years than Spanish; Quechua, that of
the Incas, no more. English has apparently altered more than any of
the three in the same period. Dozens of native tongues, some of
them from wholly rude peoples, were written down in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries by Spanish and other priests, and in most
instances the grammars and dictionaries prove to be usable to-day.
Cultural alteration would appear to work toward speech change
chiefly in certain ways. New things need new names; new acts mean
new thoughts and new ideas require new words. These may be
imported; or they may be made out of elements already in the
language; or old words may undergo a shift of meaning. In any
event, the change is mainly on the side of vocabulary. The sounds of
a language are generally much less affected; its plan of structure
least of all. The introduction of a new religion or development of a
new form of government among a people need not be accompanied
by changes in the grammar of their speech, and usually are not, as
abundant historical examples prove.
While the causes of grammatical innovation are far from clear,
contact with alien tongues is certainly a factor in some degree. An
isolated off-shoot of a linguistic group is generally more specialized,
and therefore presumably more altered, than the main body of
dialects of the family. The reason is that the latter, maintaining
abundant reciprocal contact, tend to steady one another, or if they
swerve, to do so in the same direction. The speakers of the branch
that is geographically detached, however, come to know quite
different grammars so far as they learn languages other than their
native one, and such knowledge seems to act as an unconscious
stimulus toward the growth of new forms and uses. It is not that
grammatical concepts are often imitated outright or grammatical
elements borrowed. Acquaintance with a language of different type
seems rather to act as a ferment which sets new processes going.
It is in the nature of the case that direct specific evidence of
changes of this character is hard to secure. But comparison of
related languages or dialects with reference to their location
frequently shows that the dialects which are geographically situated
among strange languages are the most differentiated. This holds of
Abyssinian in the Semitic family, of Brahui in Dravidian, of
Singhalese in the Indic branch of Indo-European, of Hopi and
Tübatulabal in Shoshonean, of Arapaho and Blackfoot in Algonkin, of
Huastec in Mayan.
But it is also likely that languages differ among each other in their
susceptibility to change, and that the same language differs in
successive periods of its history. It is rather to be anticipated that a
language may be in a phase now of rapid and then of retarded
metabolism, so to speak; that at one stage its tendency may be
toward breaking down and absorption, at another toward a more
rigid setting of its forms. Similarly, there is reason to believe that
languages of certain types of structure are inherently more plastic
than others. At any rate, actual differences in rate of change are
known. The Indo-European languages, for instance, have perhaps
without exception altered more in the three thousand years of
historic record than the Semitic ones. And so in native America,
while contemporary documentary record is of course wanting, the
degree of differentiation within the two stocks suggests strongly that
Athabascan is more tenaciously conservative than Siouan.
There are also notable differences in the readiness to borrow
words ready-made. English is distinctly more hospitable in this
regard than German, which tends rather to express a new concept
by a new formation of old elements. The South American languages
appear to have borrowed more words from one another than those
of North America. In this matter the type of language is probably of
some influence, yet on the whole cultural factors perhaps
predominate. The direction and degree of cultural absorption seem
to determine the absorption of words to a considerable measure.
Here writing is certainly potent. The Latin and French element in
English, the Sanskrit and Arabic element in the Malaysian
languages, were brought in to a large extent by writing, and would
evidently have remained much smaller if the historic contacts had
been wholly oral. This is perhaps the most important way in which
writing exerts influence on the development of spoken language; an
influence which in other respects is usually overestimated.
CHAPTER VI
THE BEGINNINGS OF HUMAN CIVILIZATION
65. Fossils of the body and of the mind.—66. Stone and metals.—67. The
Old and the New Stone Ages.—68. The Eolithic Age.—69. The
Palæolithic Age: duration, climate, animals.—70. Subdivisions of the
Palæolithic.—71. Human racial types in the Palæolithic.—72.
Palæolithic flint implements.—73. Other materials: bone and horn.—
74. Dress.—75. Harpoons and weapons.—76. Wooden implements.
—77. Fire.—78. Houses.—79. Religion.—80. Palæolithic art.—81.
Summary of advance in the Palæolithic.
65. Fossils of the Body and of the Mind

The discovery of fossils has yielded some idea of the history of the
human body during the past million years. The evidence is far from
complete, but there is enough to prove a development much as
might be expected under the hypothesis of evolution. To some extent
fossils also afford an insight into the development of the human
mind. The capacity of a skull gives the size of the brain. The interior
surface of the skull corresponds to the outer surface of the brain. In
this way some slight knowledge has been gained of the development
in ancient types of man of the convolutions and centers of the brain
surface with which mental activity is associated. Even limb bones
yield indirect indications. A straight thigh means an erect posture of
the body, with the arms no longer used for locomotion. Released
from this service, they are freed for other purposes, such as
grasping, handling, and various forms of what we call work. But a
hand adapted for work would be useless without an intelligence to
direct its operations. Thus the bones of our precursors provide
suggestions as to the degree of development of their minds. The
suggestions are sketchy and incomplete, but they are worth
something.
A second line of evidence is fuller. When a human or pre-human
hand has made any article, one can judge from that article what its
purpose is likely to have been, how it was used, how much
intelligence that use involved, what degree of skill was necessary to
manufacture the article. All such artifacts—tools, weapons, or
anything constructed—are a reflection of the degree of “culture” or
civilization, elementary or advanced, possessed by the beings who
made them.
On the whole the evidence to be got from artifacts as to the
degree of advancement of their makers or users is greater than the
information derivable from the structure of skeletons. A large brain
does not always imply high intelligence. Even a much convoluted
brain surface may accompany a mediocre mind. In other words, the
correlation between body and mind has not been worked out with
accuracy. On the other hand an advanced type of tool necessarily
implies more skill in its use, and therefore a decided development of
the use of intelligence. Similarly, if one finds nothing but simple tools
occurring among any past or present people, we may be sure that
their civilization and the training of their minds have remained
backward.
It is true that one cannot always infer from a particular
manufactured object the mentality of the particular person who
owned and used it. An imbecile may come into possession of a good
knife and even possess some ability in using it. But he can acquire
the knife only if there are other individuals in his community or time
who know how to smelt iron and forge steel. In short, even a single
jackknife is proof that human ingenuity has progressed to the point of
making important discoveries, and that arts of relatively high order
are being practised. In this way a solitary implement, if its discovery
is thoroughly authenticated, may suffice to establish a relatively high
or low degree of civilization for a prehistoric period or a vanished
race.
An implement manufactured by human hands of the past is of
course different from an actual fossil of a former human being, and it
is always necessary to distinguish between the two. The one is
something made by a human being and in some measure reflecting
the development of his intelligence; the other something left over or
preserved from the human body itself. Nevertheless, in a
metaphorical sense, the implements of the past may well be spoken
of as the fossils of civilization. They are only its fragments, but they
allow us to reconstruct the mode of life of prehistoric peoples and
utterly forgotten nations, in much the same way as the geologist and
the palæontologist reconstruct from true fossils the forms of life that
existed on the earth or in the seas millions of years ago.
There is even a further parallel. Just as the geologist knows that
one fossil is older or younger than another from its position in the
earth’s crust or the stratum in which it was laid down, so the student
of the beginnings of human civilization knows that the deposit at the
bottom of a cave must be more ancient than the refuse at the top. He
calls in the geologist to tell him the age of a glacial deposit or of a
river terrace, and thus he may learn that, of two types of implements
found at different places or levels, one is so many thousands of
years or geological periods older than the other. In the long run, too,
the older implements prove to be the simpler. Thus archæologists
have succeeded in working out an evolution of civilization which
parallels rather neatly the evolution of life forms. This evolution of
human mental operations as it is reflected in the artifacts preserved
from the lowest and earliest strata of civilization is the subject of the
present chapter.
There is another way in which the evidence on the two lines of
evolution is similar: its incompleteness. The geological record has
been compared to a book from which whole chapters are missing; of
others, but stray leaves remain; and only now and then have
consecutive pages been preserved unmutilated. Humanity has
always been so much less populous than the remainder of the
animal kingdom, especially in its earlier stages, that the number of
individuals whose bones have been preserved as fossils is infinitely
smaller. The result is that we account ourselves fortunate in having
been able to assemble six or seven not quite complete skeletons,
and fragmentary portions of two or three dozen other individuals, of
the Neandertal race which inhabited western Europe for thousands
of years. For still earlier races or species of man the actual data are
even scantier. Knowledge of so fundamental a form as
Pithecanthropus, the earliest of the antecedents of man yet known,
rests on two bones and two teeth, plus a third tooth discovered as
the sole result of a subsequent expedition. Heidelberg man has to be
reconstructed from a jaw.
The remains which illustrate the development of the human mind
are not so scarce. A single man might easily manufacture hundreds
or even thousands of implements in the course of a lifetime. When
these are of stone they are practically imperishable; whereas it is
only the exceptional skeleton, protected by favorable circumstances,
of which the bones will endure for thousands of years. For every
ancient true fossil trace of man that has been found, we have
therefore thousands of the works of his hands.
The inadequateness of the cultural record is not in the insufficient
number of the specimens, but in their onesidedness. Objects of
stone, even those of horn and of metal, last; clothing, fabrics, skins,
basketry, and wooden articles ordinarily decay so rapidly as to have
no chance of being preserved for tens of thousands of years. Tools
of the most ancient times have often been found in abundance;
objects manufactured with tools from softer and less enduring
materials are scarce even from moderately old periods. Now and
then a piece of an earthenware pot may show the imprint of a textile.
Textiles and foodstuffs are occasionally preserved by charring in fire
or by penetration of metallic salts. Charcoal or ashes found in
pockets or beds indicate that fire was maintained in one spot for
considerable periods, and must therefore have been controlled and
used, possibly even produced, by human agency. A bone needle
with an eye proves that some one must have sewn, and one may
therefore assume that garments were worn at the time. But for every
point established in this way there are dozens about which
knowledge remains blank.
Understanding of the social and religious life of the earliest men is
naturally filled with the greatest gaps, and the farther back one goes
in time, the greater is the enveloping darkness. The problem is as
difficult as that of figuring accurately the degree of intelligence
attained by the mailed fishes of the Devonian age some thirty or forty
million years ago, or of estimating whether the complexion of
Pithecanthropus was black, brown, or white. One can guess on
these matters. One may by careful comparisons obtain some partial
and indirect indication of an answer. But it is clearly wisest not to try
to stretch too far the conclusions which can be drawn. Imagination
has its value in science as in art and other aspects of life, yet when it
becomes disproportionate to the facts, it is a danger instead of an
aid.
Still, now and then something has been preserved from which one
may draw inferences with a reasonable prospect of certainty even
concerning the non-material side of life. If human bones are
discovered charred and split open, there is good reason for believing
these bones to be the remains of a cannibal feast. When prehistoric
skeletons are found in the position in which death might have taken
place, the presumption is that the people of that time abandoned
their dead as animals would. If on the other hand a skeleton lies
intact with its arms carefully folded, there is little room for doubt that
the men of the time had progressed to the point where the survivors
put away their dead; in other words, that human burial had been
instituted, and that accordingly at least some rude form of society
was in existence. When, perhaps from a still later period, a skeleton
is found with red paint adhering to the bones, although these lie in
their natural places, the only conclusion to be drawn is that the dead
body was coated with pigment before being interred and that as the
soft tissues wasted away the red ocher came to adhere to the bones.
In this case the painting was evidently part of a rite performed over
the dead.
66. Stone and Metals

The cultural record of man’s existence is divided into two great
periods. In the latter of these, in which we are still living, metals were
used; in the earlier, metals were unknown and tools made of stone.
Hence the terms “Age of Stone” and “Age of Metals.” The duration of
these two main periods is unequal. Metals were first used in Asia
and Egypt about 4,000 B.C. and in Europe about 3,000 B.C.—say
five to six thousand years ago. The most conservative authorities,
however, would allow forty or fifty thousand years for the Stone Age;
while others make it cover a quarter million. The assumption, which
is here followed, of the intermediate figure of a hundred thousand
years gives the Stone Age a duration twenty times as long as the
Age of Metals. When one remembers that hand in hand with metals
came the art of writing and an infinite variety of inventions, it is clear
that larger additions have been made to human civilization in the
comparatively brief period of metals than in the tremendously longer
time that preceded it. Progress in the Stone Age was not only slow,
but the farther back one peers into this age, the more lagging does
the evolution of human culture seem to have been. One can
definitely recognize a tendency toward the acceleration of evolution:
the farther advancement has got the faster it moves.
The Age of Metals is subdivided into the Iron Age, which begins
some three thousand years ago, say about 1,500-1,000 B.C.; and an
earlier Bronze Age. In the Bronze Age one must distinguish first a
period in which native copper was employed in some parts of the
world; after which comes an era in which it had been learned that
copper melted with a proportion of about one-tenth tin, thus
producing bronze, was a superior material. Within the past five
thousand years or so, accordingly, there are recognized successively
the ages of copper, of bronze, and of iron.
Broadly speaking, these five thousand years are also the historic
period. Not that there exist historic records going back so far as this
for every people. But the earliest preserved documents that the
historian uses, the written monuments of Egypt and Babylonia, are
about five thousand years old. The Age of Metals thus corresponds
approximately with the period of History; the Stone Age, with
Prehistory.
67. The Old and the New Stone Ages

The Stone Age, apart from a rather doubtful introductory era to be
mentioned presently, is customarily divided into two periods, the Old
Stone Age and the New Stone Age,—the Palæolithic and the
Neolithic. These words of Greek origin mean literally “old stone” and
“new stone” periods. The criterion by which these two grand
divisions were originally distinguished was that in the Palæolithic
artifacts were made only by chipping, that is, some process of
fracturing stone, whereas Neolithic stone objects were thought to
have been pecked, ground, rubbed, and polished. Indeed the two
periods have sometimes been designated as the epochs of rough
stone and polished stone implements.
This distinction is now known to be inaccurate. It is true that the
Old Stone Age did not yet employ frictional processes in shaping
stone and confined itself to the older methods of fracturing by blows
or pressure. But the converse is not true, that the Neolithic worked
stone only by grinding, nor even that grinding was its characteristic
process. Stone grinding was invented only toward the middle of the
New Stone Age—in what is perhaps best designated the “Full
Neolithic.” The Early Neolithic, which lasted half the total Neolithic
duration, continued to work stone by fracture. What marked the
beginning of the Neolithic was certain inventions having nothing to
do with stone: notably pottery and the bow. With these available,
human life took on a new color, and it was not until some thousands
of years later that shaping of stone by grinding came into use. In
other words, the prehistorians’ idea as to what constitutes the
Neolithic have changed, and they no longer put stone processes in
the first place in characterizing the period. They would do well,
therefore, to change its name also to one having reference to its
more specific traits. Such a change of designation will perhaps
become established in time. But at present the term Neolithic is so
intrenched in usage, that to replace it by “Pottery Age” or “Bow Age”
would be misleading: all the literature on the subject employs
“Neolithic.” The present chapter being concerned specifically with the
Palæolithic, and this being an age in which stone implements did
loom large and were consistently made by fracture only, the
difficulties about the concept of the Neolithic, and its subdivision into
an Early and a Full period, can be reserved for discussion later
(Chapter XIV). But it is well to bear in mind as the Palæolithic is
examined in the pages immediately following, that the Neolithic is
neither its antithesis nor its logical complement, but rather a period
signalized by the appearance of totally new directions of human
culture.
Another point in connection with the two processes of working
stone has reference to the mental activities involved by them. A
tolerable ground ax or mortar can be made without much difficulty by
any one willing to take the trouble. A civilized person entirely
inexperienced in the working of stone would be likely to produce a
fairly satisfactory implement by the rubbing technique. If however he
attempted to manufacture a chipped stone tool, even of simple type,
he would probably fail repeatedly before learning to control the
method well enough to turn out an implement without first ruining a
dozen. In short, the manual dexterity required to produce the best
forms of chipped stone tools is greater than that needed for ground
ones. Inasmuch as the chipping process is, however, the earlier, we
are confronted here with a paradox.
Yet the paradox is only on the surface. It is true that so far as skill
alone is concerned a good chipped tool is more difficult to make than
a ground one. But it can be made in a shorter time. A rough stone
tool can be manufactured in a few minutes. A good artifact may be
preceded by a number of unsuccessful attempts or “rejects,” and yet
be produced in an hour or less. The processes of pecking, grinding,
and polishing, on the other hand, are laborious. They are slow even
when pursued with steel tools, and when the shaping material is no
better than another stone or sand, as was of course always the case
in prehistoric times, the duration of the labor must have been
discouraging. Weeks or at least days would be required to
manufacture a single implement. If the work was done at odd times,
one may imagine that many a stone ax was months in being
produced. Patience and forethought of a rather high order are thus
involved in the making of implements of the Neolithic type. Dexterity
is replaced by higher qualities of what might be called the moral
order. By comparison, the earliest men lacked these traits. They
would not sit down to-day to commence something that would not be
available for use until a month later. What they wanted they wanted
quickly. To think ahead, to sacrifice present convenience to future
advantage, must have been foreign to their way of life. Therefore
they chipped; and although in the lapse of thousands of years they
learned to do some chipping of high quality, they continued to
operate with modifications of the same rough and rapid process. The
uses to which their implements could be put were also
correspondingly restricted. A first-class ax, a real chisel, or a mortar
in which grinding can be done, can scarcely be made by chipping
alone. It was not until men had learned to restrain their childish
impulse to work only for the immediate purpose, and had acquired
an increased self-control and discipline, that the grinding of stone
came into use.
One principle must be clearly adhered to in the dating or proper
arrangement of the periods of prehistoric time: the principle that it is
always the highest types of implements which determine the age of a
deposit. Lower forms often persist from the earlier periods into the
later, alongside the newly invented higher types. The men of the Full
Neolithic time did not wholly give up making chipped implements
because they also ground stone. Just so we have not discarded the
use of stone because we use metals, and we still employ copper for
a great variety of purposes although we live in an age of which iron
and steel are characteristic. To reckon a people as Palæolithic
because they had chipped implements as well as ground ones,
would be as misleading as to assert that we still belong to the Stone
Age because we build houses of granite. In fact, stone masonry has
had its principal development since metals have been in use.
This caution seems elementary enough. But it has sometimes
been overlooked by scholars in the pursuit of a theory that made
them try to stamp some prehistoric or savage race as particularly
primitive. If in a stratum of ancient remains there are discovered a
thousand chipped artifacts and only ten that are ground or polished
but the latter unquestionably left there at the same time as the
thousand chipped ones, one is justified in reckoning the whole
deposit as Full Neolithic in period. For in such a case it is clear that
the art of grinding must have been already known, even though it
may as yet have been practised only occasionally.
It is found that all surviving peoples of primitive culture—American
Indians, Australian black-fellows, Polynesians, Hottentots, and the
like—except probably the Tasmanians, have attained the grinding
stage of development. It is true enough that many American Indian
tribes chipped arrow-points and knives more frequently than they
would grind out axes. Yet without exception they also knew the
process of grinding stone and applied it to some purpose. For this
reason the endeavors that have been made by certain authors, who
compare particular modern savage peoples to the races of
prehistoric Europe on the basis of a similarity of their chipped
implements, are misleading. It is true that tools like those produced
in the Mousterian period of the Old Stone Age are made by the
modern Australian tribes, and that certain Magdalenian implements
from near the end of the Old Stone Age find parallels among those of
the Eskimo. But both the Australians and the Eskimo practise the art
of rubbing and polishing of stone, which was unknown in the
Palæolithic. They therefore belong clearly to a later stage of
civilization. Too great an insistence on such parallels would be likely
to give rise to the implication that the Australians were a species of
belated Mousterian Stone Age men, and the Eskimo only
Magdalenians whom the Arctic regions had somehow perpetuated
for ten thousand years; whereas their civilizations consist of
Mousterian and Magdalenian ingredients plus many subsequent
elements. The stage of development of the art of chipping in stone
may be the same; the other arts and customs of modern Australian
black-fellows and of Eskimos, and their bodily types, differ from
those of the prehistoric Europeans.
With the distinction of the Palæolithic, Neolithic, and the Ages of
Copper, Bronze, and Iron in mind, it is in order to examine what may
have preceded them, and then to trace in outline the development
which human culture underwent during the Palæolithic in the
continent in which its records are best explored—Europe.
68. The Eolithic Age

The earliest of all periods of human handiwork, although a
somewhat doubtful one, is the Eolithic, or age of the “dawn of stone”
implements.
On purely theoretical grounds it appears likely, indeed almost
inevitable, that the first definitely chipped implements did not develop
full-fledged, but were preceded by still cruder tools, made perhaps
without clear intent, and at any rate so rough and half-shaped that
they would be difficult to recognize.
After the evolution of Palæolithic implements had become pretty
well known, this conjecture began to be supported by evidence, or at
least by alleged evidence. Investigators, especially Rutot in Belgium,
found flints of which it was difficult to say whether or not they had
been used by human hands. These pieces occurred in extremely
ancient deposits. On the basis of these discoveries Rutot and his
followers established the Eolithic period. Some have consistently
assailed this Eolithic age as imaginary, asserting that the so-called
eoliths were nothing but accidental products of nature. Others have
accepted the eoliths and recognize the stage of embryonic or pre-
human civilization which they imply. Still other students remain in
doubt; and their attitude is perhaps still the safest to share.
The view now most prevalent is that the alleged Eolithic flints may
have been used by early human hands, but that they were almost
certainly not manufactured. This would make them tools only in the
sense in which the limb of a tree is a tool when a man in distress
seizes it to defend himself.
The eoliths are more or less irregular pieces of flint or similar
stone, some of them so blunt that they must have been very
inefficient if used for chopping or cutting or scraping. Small nocks or
chips along the edge are believed not to have been flaked off with
the conscious intent of producing an edge, but to have become
chipped away through usage while the stone was being manipulated
as a naturally formed tool. This would be much in line with our
picking up a cobblestone in default of an ax or hammer, and
continuing to maul away with it until the rough handling broke off
several pieces and happened accidentally to produce an edge. That
the eoliths were such unintentionally made tools is the most that can
safely be claimed for them.
Even so some doubts remain. Stones similar to eoliths in every
respect, except that their fractures show a fresher appearance, have
been taken by dozens out of modern steel drums in which flint-
bearing chalk was being broken for industrial purposes.
Then, too, the first believers in the authenticity of the eoliths
reported them as occurring from the middle and earlier layers of the
Pleistocene, in which periods we know that nearly human or half-
human types like Heidelberg man and Pithecanthropus were already
in existence. These two species being more similar to modern man
than to the apes or other animals, we must imagine them to have
been gifted with at least some human intelligence. It would therefore
have been entirely possible for them to supplement the tools with
which nature endowed them—their hands and teeth—with flints
which they picked up and manipulated in one useful way or another
without particularly troubling to shape the stones.
So far the argument is all in favor of the reality of the eolith. Before
long, however, it was discovered that eoliths were not especially
more abundant in the middle Pleistocene just previous to the
opening of the Palæolithic, when we should expect them to have
been most numerous, than they were in the early Pleistocene, when
the human species must still have been most rudimentary. Then it
was found that eoliths occur in lower strata than the earliest
Pleistocene, namely, in the Pliocene, in the Miocene, and perhaps
even earlier, in the Oligocene. Yet these periods are divisions of the
Tertiary, or Age of Mammals—the age before man had been
evolved! In short, the argument cuts too far. Once one begins to
accept eoliths it is difficult to stop accepting them without carrying
them back into a period of geological history when evolution could
scarcely have produced a form sufficiently advanced in intelligence
to use them.[8]
Perhaps on the whole the strongest argument in favor of the
authenticity of the Pleistocene eoliths is the fact that the first
implements known positively to belong to the Old Stone Age are just
a little too well shaped and efficient to represent the products of the
very beginnings of human manual dexterity. One cannot help but
look for something antecedent that was simpler and ruder; and this
need of the imagination the eoliths do go a long way to satisfy.
69. The Palæolithic Age: Duration, Climate,

Animals
With the Eolithic period passed and the Palæolithic entered, our
history of incipient human culture is on a solid foundation, especially
so far as western Europe, the best explored region, is concerned.
The general relation of this Old Stone Age in geological time may be
defined as follows. The Quaternary, whose duration may be
estimated to have been about a million years, is subdivided into the
Pleistocene and the Recent. Of the two, the Recent is very much
shorter than the Pleistocene. Broadly speaking, from ninety-eight to
ninety-nine per cent of the total duration of the Quaternary was
occupied by the Pleistocene. The small remainder which the
geologist calls “Recent,” corresponds to those periods which the
archæologist and the historian name the New Stone and Metal Ages;
say the past ten thousand years. The Old Stone Age therefore falls
in the Pleistocene. But it occupies only the later duration of the
Pleistocene; the earlier part of the Pleistocene is barren of tools or
other records of human culture, except so far as the eoliths may be
so considered.
The proportion of the Pleistocene which is covered by the Old
Stone Age is variously estimated. Some geologists will not allow the
undisputed Palæolithic to have extended over more than the last
tenth of the Pleistocene: the rivers have not changed their beds
enough to permit the assumption of a longer period. This allowance
would give the Palæolithic a duration of perhaps a hundred thousand
years, which is the figure here followed. Those who place the
beginning of the European Palæolithic in the second instead of the
third interglacial period, would have to admit a considerably longer
duration.
The geologist, because he deals with such enormous durations,
has to operate on a broad-gauge scale, and usually disdains to
commit himself to close estimates of years. To measure the lapse of
time within the Pleistocene, he has found it most useful to avail
himself of the evidences left by the great glaciers which repeatedly
covered parts of several continents during the Pleistocene, and he
has therefore given this period its popular name of “glacial epoch.”
These glaciations must be imagined as having occurred on a much
larger scale than one might at first infer from the shrunken remnants
of the glaciers that persist in the Alps and other mountains. The
Pleistocene glaciers were vast sheets, hundreds of feet in thickness,
sliding uniformly over valleys, hills, and mountains except for an
occasional high peak. Modern Greenland, which except at the edges
is buried under a solid ice cap, evidently presents a pretty fair picture
of what the northern parts of Europe and North America repeatedly
looked like during the Pleistocene.
Four such glaciations, or periods of maximum extent of the
continental ice, have been distinguished, and more or less
correlated, in Europe and North America. In Europe they have been
designated as the Günz, Mindel, Riss, and Würm glaciations
respectively (Fig. 5). Each of these is the name of a locality in the
Alps at which typical moraines or erosions produced by the ice of
that period have been carefully observed.
Between these four successive advances of the ice sheets there
fell more temperate eras, some of them rather arid, and others moist
and almost tropical even in the latitude of Europe. These mild
intervals are known as the interglacial periods. That Europe was free
from ice during these interglacial periods is shown not only by facts
of a purely geological nature but by the occurrence in these periods
of fossils of a semi-tropical fauna which included elephants,
rhinoceroses, lions, and the like.
Coming now to a consideration of the relation of man to these ice
eras, we find that the first, second, and probably the third glaciations
passed without leaving sure evidence of manufactured stone
implements. In the last interglacial period, that which falls between
the Riss and the Würm glaciations, the so-called “Chellean picks”
appear; and from then on the record of artifacts is a continuous one.
Considerable parts of Europe remained habitable all through the

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Management Organisational Behaviour

11th Edition Laurie Mullins

Strategic Management and Organisational Dynamics 7th

Healthcare Management 11th Edition Rose T. Dunn

Human Resource Management 11th Edition Derek Torrington

The end of the timeless god 1st Edition Mullins

Strategic Management: Creating Competitive Advantages

A Little History of Art Little Histories 4th Edition

Enablers of Organisational Learning, Knowledge

Investment Analysis and Portfolio Management 11th

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© Laurie J. Mullins 1985, 2010 (print)

The screenshots in this book are reprinted by permission of Microsoft Corporation.

ISBN: 978-1-292-08848-8 (print)

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Front cover image: Mike Kiev © Getty Images

NOTE THAT ANY PAGE CROSS-REFERENCES REFER TO THE PRINT EDITION

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Part 1 The organisational setting 1

Part 2 The individual 115

Part 3 Groups, leadership and management 269

Part 4 Structure, strategy and effectiveness 393

Appendix Review of personal skills and employability 613

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In acknowledgement and appreciation xv 2 Approaches to organisation and

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Contrasting perspectives of conflict 84 Personal skills and employability exercise 145

4 Individual differences and diversity 116 6 Perception and communication 181

Recognition of individuality 117 The importance of understanding perception 182

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7 Work motivation and job satisfaction 220 Membership 277

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Leadership development 338 Task and element functions 399

Part 3 Case study Why study technology? 436

The Eden Project 387

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The importance of strategy 504

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Measures of effectiveness 576 The future of the workplace 598

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Laurie Mullins was formerly a principal lecturer at the University

Gill Christy is a visiting lecturer in Organisational Behaviour/Human

Peter Scott is a senior lecturer at the University of Portsmouth Business

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In an increasingly competitive environment, an understanding of the behaviour

Aims of this book

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The eleventh edition

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Personal skills and employability

University education and employability

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People management and social skills

The skills imperative

Developing your employability skills

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Many employers have structured programmes for the continued development of

Study as an aid to practice

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