Medical Image Computing and

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 Alejandro F. Frangi · Julia A. Schnabel
Christos Davatzikos · Carlos Alberola-López
Gabor Fichtinger (Eds.)
LNCS 11073

Medical Image Computing

and Computer Assisted
Intervention – MICCAI 2018
21st International Conference
Granada, Spain, September 16–20, 2018
Proceedings, Part IV

123
Lecture Notes in Computer Science 11073
Commenced Publication in 1973
Founding and Former Series Editors:
Gerhard Goos, Juris Hartmanis, and Jan van Leeuwen

Editorial Board
David Hutchison
Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
Takeo Kanade
Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Josef Kittler
University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
Jon M. Kleinberg
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
Friedemann Mattern
ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
John C. Mitchell
Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
Moni Naor
Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
C. Pandu Rangan
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
Bernhard Steffen
TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
Demetri Terzopoulos
University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Doug Tygar
University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
Gerhard Weikum
Max Planck Institute for Informatics, Saarbrücken, Germany
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/7412
Alejandro F. Frangi Julia A. Schnabel
•

Christos Davatzikos Carlos Alberola-López

•

Gabor Fichtinger (Eds.)

Medical Image Computing

and Computer Assisted
Intervention – MICCAI 2018
21st International Conference
Granada, Spain, September 16–20, 2018
Proceedings, Part IV

123
Editors
Alejandro F. Frangi Carlos Alberola-López
University of Leeds Universidad de Valladolid
Leeds Valladolid
UK Spain
Julia A. Schnabel Gabor Fichtinger
King’s College London Queen’s University
London Kingston, ON
UK Canada
Christos Davatzikos
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, PA
USA

ISSN 0302-9743 ISSN 1611-3349 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Computer Science
ISBN 978-3-030-00936-6 ISBN 978-3-030-00937-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00937-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018909526

LNCS Sublibrary: SL6 – Image Processing, Computer Vision, Pattern Recognition, and Graphics

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018

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 Preface

We are very pleased to present the conference proceedings for the 21st International
Conference on Medical Image Computing and Computer Assisted Intervention
(MICCAI), which was successfully held at the Granada Conference Center, September
16–20, 2018 in Granada, Spain.
The conference also featured 40 workshops, 14 tutorials, and ten challenges held on
September 16 or 20. For the first time, we had events co-located or endorsed by other
societies. The two-day Visual Computing in Biology and Medicine (VCBM) Work-
shop partnered with EUROGRAPHICS1, the one-day Biomedical Workshop
Biomedical Information Processing and Analysis: A Latin American perspective
partnered with SIPAIM2, and the one-day MICCAI Workshop on Computational
Diffusion on MRI was endorsed by ISMRM3. This year, at the time of writing this
preface, the MICCAI 2018 conference had over 1,400 firm registrations for the main
conference featuring the most recent work in the fields of:
– Reconstruction and Image Quality
– Machine Learning and Statistical Analysis
– Registration and Image Guidance
– Optical and Histology Applications
– Cardiac, Chest and Abdominal Applications
– fMRI and Diffusion Imaging
– Neuroimaging
– Computer-Assisted Intervention
– Segmentation
This was the largest MICCAI conference to date, with, for the first time, four
volumes of Lecture Notes in Computer Science (LNCS) proceedings for the main
conference, selected after a thorough double-blind peer-review process organized in
several phases as further described below. Following the example set by the previous
program chairs of MICCAI 2017, we employed the Conference Managing Toolkit
(CMT)4 for paper submissions and double-blind peer-reviews, the Toronto Paper
Matching System (TPMS)5 for automatic paper assignment to area chairs and
reviewers, and Researcher.CC6 to handle conflicts between authors, area chairs, and
reviewers.

1
https://www.eg.org.
2
http://www.sipaim.org/.
3
https://www.ismrm.org/.
4
https://cmt.research.microsoft.com.
5
http://torontopapermatching.org.
6
http://researcher.cc.
VI Preface

In total, a record 1,068 full submissions (ca. 33% more than the previous year) were
received and sent out to peer-review, from 1,335 original intentions to submit. Of those
submissions, 80% were considered as pure Medical Image Computing (MIC), 14% as
pure Computer-Assisted Intervention (CAI), and 6% as MICCAI papers that fitted into
both MIC and CAI areas. The MICCAI 2018 Program Committee (PC) had a total of
58 area chairs, with 45% from Europe, 43% from the Americas, 9% from Australasia,
and 3% from the Middle East. We maintained an excellent gender balance with 43%
women scientists on the PC.
Using TPMS scoring and CMT, each area chair was assigned between 18 and 20
manuscripts using TPMS, for each of which they suggested 9–15 potential reviewers.
Subsequently, 600 invited reviewers were asked to bid for the manuscripts they had
been suggested for. Final reviewer allocations via CMT took PC suggestions, reviewer
bidding, and TPMS scores into account, allocating 5–6 papers per reviewer. Based on
the double-blind reviews, 173 papers (16%) were directly accepted and 314 papers
(30%) were directly rejected – these decisions were confirmed by the handling area
chair. The remaining 579 papers (54%) were invited for rebuttal. Two further area
chairs were added using CMT and TPMS scores to each of these remaining manu-
scripts, who then independently scored these to accept or reject, based on the reviews,
rebuttal, and manuscript, resulting in clear paper decisions using majority voting: 199
further manuscripts were accepted, and 380 rejected.
The overall manuscript acceptance rate was 34.9%. Two PC teleconferences were
held on May 14, 2018, in two different time zones to confirm the final results and
collect PC feedback on the peer-review process (with over 74% PC attendance rate).
For the MICCAI 2018 proceedings, the 372 accepted papers7 have been organized in
four volumes as follows:
– Volume LNCS 11070 includes: Image Quality and Artefacts (15 manuscripts),
Image Reconstruction Methods (31), Machine Learning in Medical Imaging (22),
Statistical Analysis for Medical Imaging (10), and Image Registration Methods (21)
– Volume LNCS 11071 includes: Optical and Histology Applications (46); and
Cardiac, Chest, and Abdominal Applications (59)
– Volume LNCS 11072 includes: fMRI and Diffusion Imaging (45); Neuroimaging
and Brain Segmentation (37)
– Volume LNCS 11073 includes: Computer-Assisted Intervention (39) grouped into
image-guided interventions and surgery; surgical planning, simulation and work
flow analysis; and visualization and augmented reality; and Image Segmentation
Methods (47) grouped into general segmentation methods; multi-organ segmenta-
tion; abdominal, cardiac, chest, and other segmentation applications.
We would like to thank everyone who contributed greatly to the success of MICCAI
2018 and the quality of its proceedings. These include the MICCAI Society, for support
and insightful comments; and our sponsors for financial support and their presence on
site. We are especially grateful to all members of the Program Committee for their
diligent work in the reviewer assignments and final paper selection, as well as the 600

7
One paper was withdrawn.
 Preface VII

reviewers for their support during the entire process. Finally, and most importantly, we
thank all authors, co-authors, students, and supervisors, for submitting and presenting
their high-quality work which made MICCAI 2018 a greatly enjoyable, informative,
and successful event. We are especially indebted to those reviewers and PC members
who helped us resolve last-minute missing reviews at a very short notice.
We are looking forward to seeing you in Shenzhen, China, at MICCAI 2019!

August 2018 Julia A. Schnabel

Christos Davatzikos
Gabor Fichtinger
Alejandro F. Frangi
Carlos Alberola-López
Alberto Gomez Herrero
Spyridon Bakas
Antonio R. Porras
 Organization

Organizing Committee
General Chair and Program Co-chair
Alejandro F. Frangi University of Leeds, UK

General Co-chair
Carlos Alberola-López Universidad de Valladolid, Spain

Associate to General Chairs

Antonio R. Porras Children’s National Medical Center,
Washington D.C., USA

Program Chair
Julia A. Schnabel King’s College London, UK

Program Co-chairs
Christos Davatzikos University of Pennsylvania, USA
Gabor Fichtinger Queen’s University, Canada

Associates to Program Chairs

Spyridon Bakas University of Pennsylvania, USA
Alberto Gomez Herrero King’s College London, UK

Tutorial and Educational Chair

Anne Martel University of Toronto, Canada

Tutorial and Educational Co-chairs

Miguel González-Ballester
Marius Linguraru
Kensaku Mori
Carl-Fredrik Westin
Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Spain
Children’s National Medical Center,
Washington D.C., USA
Nagoya University, Japan
Harvard Medical School, USA

Workshop and Challenge Chair

Danail Stoyanov University College London, UK
X Organization

Workshop and Challenge Co-chairs

Hervé Delingette Inria, France
Lena Maier-Hein German Cancer Research Center, Germany
Zeike A. Taylor University of Leeds, UK

Keynote Lecture Chair

Josien Pluim TU Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Keynote Lecture Co-chairs

Matthias Harders ETH Zurich, Switzerland
Septimiu Salcudean The University of British Columbia, Canada

Corporate Affairs Chair

Terry Peters Western University, Canada

Corporate Affairs Co-chairs

Hayit Greenspan Tel Aviv University, Israel
Despina Kontos University of Pennsylvania, USA
Guy Shechter Philips, USA

Student Activities Facilitator

Demian Wasserman Inria, France

Student Activities Co-facilitator

Karim Lekadir Universitat Pompeu-Fabra, Spain

Communications Officer
Pedro Lopes University of Leeds, UK

Conference Management
DEKON Group

Program Committee
Ali Gooya University of Sheffield, UK
Amber Simpson Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, USA
Andrew King King’s College London, UK
Bennett Landman Vanderbilt University, USA
Bernhard Kainz Imperial College London, UK
Burak Acar Bogazici University, Turkey
 Organization XI

Carola Schoenlieb Cambridge University, UK

Caroline Essert University of Strasbourg/ICUBE, France
Christian Wachinger Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Germany
Christos Bergeles King’s College London, UK
Daphne Yu Siemens Healthineers, USA
Duygu Tosun University of California at San Francisco, USA
Emanuele Trucco University of Dundee, UK
Ender Konukoglu ETH Zurich, Switzerland
Enzo Ferrante CONICET/Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Argentina
Erik Meijering Erasmus University Medical Center, The Netherlands
Gozde Unal Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
Guido Gerig New York University, USA
Gustavo Carneiro University of Adelaide, Australia
Hassan Rivaz Concordia University, Canada
Herve Lombaert ETS Montreal, Canada
Hongliang Ren National University of Singapore, Singapore
Ingerid Reinertsen SINTEF, Norway
Ipek Oguz University of Pennsylvania/Vanderbilt University,
USA
Ivana Isgum University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands
Juan Eugenio Iglesias University College London, UK
Kayhan Batmanghelich University of Pittsburgh/Carnegie Mellon University,
USA
Laura Igual Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
Lauren O’Donnell Harvard University, USA
Le Lu Ping An Technology US Research Labs, USA
Li Cheng A*STAR Singapore, Singapore
Lilla Zöllei Massachusetts General Hospital, USA
Linwei Wang Rochester Institute of Technology, USA
Marc Niethammer University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA
Marius Staring Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands
Marleen de Bruijne Erasmus MC Rotterdam/University of Copenhagen,
The Netherlands/Denmark
Marta Kersten Concordia University, Canada
Mattias Heinrich University of Luebeck, Germany
Meritxell Bach Cuadra University of Lausanne, Switzerland
Miaomiao Zhang Washington University in St. Louis, USA
Moti Freiman Philips Healthcare, Israel
Nasir Rajpoot University of Warwick, UK
Nassir Navab Technical University of Munich, Germany
Pallavi Tiwari Case Western Reserve University, USA
Pingkun Yan Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA
Purang Abolmaesumi University of British Columbia, Canada
Ragini Verma University of Pennsylvania, USA
Raphael Sznitman University of Bern, Switzerland
Sandrine Voros University of Grenoble, France
XII Organization

Sotirios Tsaftaris University of Edinburgh, UK

Stamatia Giannarou Imperial College London, UK
Stefanie Speidel National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT) Dresden,
Germany
Stefanie Demirci Technical University of Munich, Germany
Tammy Riklin Raviv Ben-Gurion University, Israel
Tanveer Syeda-Mahmood IBM Research, USA
Ulas Bagci University of Central Florida, USA
Vamsi Ithapu University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
Yanwu Xu Baidu Inc., China

Scientific Review Committee

Amir Abdi Martin Benning

Ehsan Adeli Aïcha BenTaieb
Iman Aganj Ruth Bergman
Ola Ahmad Alessandro Bevilacqua
Amr Ahmed Ryoma Bise
Shazia Akbar Isabelle Bloch
Alireza Akhondi-asl Sebastian Bodenstedt
Saad Ullah Akram Hrvoje Bogunovic
Amir Alansary Gerda Bortsova
Shadi Albarqouni Sylvain Bouix
Luis Alvarez Felix Bragman
Deepak Anand Christopher Bridge
Elsa Angelini Tom Brosch
Rahman Attar Aurelien Bustin
Chloé Audigier Irène Buvat
Angelica Aviles-Rivero Cesar Caballero-Gaudes
Ruqayya Awan Ryan Cabeen
Suyash Awate Nathan Cahill
Dogu Baran Aydogan Jinzheng Cai
Shekoofeh Azizi Weidong Cai
Katja Bühler Tian Cao
Junjie Bai Valentina Carapella
Wenjia Bai M. Jorge Cardoso
Daniel Balfour Daniel Castro
Walid Barhoumi Daniel Coelho de Castro
Sarah Barman Philippe C. Cattin
Michael Barrow Juan Cerrolaza
Deepti Bathula Suheyla Cetin Karayumak
Christian F. Baumgartner Matthieu Chabanas
Pierre-Louis Bazin Jayasree Chakraborty
Delaram Behnami Rudrasis Chakraborty
Erik Bekkers Rajib Chakravorty
Rami Ben-Ari Vimal Chandran
 Organization XIII

Catie Chang Lei Du

Pierre Chatelain Lixin Duan
Akshay Chaudhari Florian Dubost
Antong Chen Nicolas Duchateau
Chao Chen James Duncan
Geng Chen Luc Duong
Hao Chen Nicha Dvornek
Jianxu Chen Oleh Dzyubachyk
Jingyun Chen Zach Eaton-Rosen
Min Chen Mehran Ebrahimi
Xin Chen Matthias J. Ehrhardt
Yang Chen Ahmet Ekin
Yuncong Chen Ayman El-Baz
Jiezhi Cheng Randy Ellis
Jun Cheng Mohammed Elmogy
Veronika Cheplygina Marius Erdt
Farida Cheriet Guray Erus
Minqi Chong Marco Esposito
Daan Christiaens Joset Etzel
Serkan Cimen Jingfan Fan
Francesco Ciompi Yong Fan
Cedric Clouchoux Aly Farag
James Clough Mohsen Farzi
Dana Cobzas Anahita Fathi Kazerooni
Noel Codella Hamid Fehri
Toby Collins Xinyang Feng
Olivier Commowick Olena Filatova
Sailesh Conjeti James Fishbaugh
Pierre-Henri Conze Tom Fletcher
Tessa Cook Germain Forestier
Timothy Cootes Denis Fortun
Pierrick Coupé Alfred Franz
Alessandro Crimi Muhammad Moazam Fraz
Adrian Dalca Wolfgang Freysinger
Sune Darkner Jurgen Fripp
Dhritiman Das Huazhu Fu
Johan Debayle Yang Fu
Farah Deeba Bernhard Fuerst
Silvana Dellepiane Gareth Funka-Lea
Adrien Depeursinge Isabel Funke
Maria Deprez Jan Funke
Christian Desrosiers Francesca Galassi
Blake Dewey Linlin Gao
Jwala Dhamala Mingchen Gao
Qi Dou Yue Gao
Karen Drukker Zhifan Gao
XIV Organization

Utpal Garain Xiaolei Huang

Mona Garvin Yawen Huang
Aimilia Gastounioti Henkjan Huisman
Romane Gauriau Yuankai Huo
Bao Ge Sarfaraz Hussein
Sandesh Ghimire Jana Hutter
Ali Gholipour Seong Jae Hwang
Rémi Giraud Atsushi Imiya
Ben Glocker Amir Jamaludin
Ehsan Golkar Faraz Janan
Polina Golland Uditha Jarayathne
Yuanhao Gong Xi Jiang
German Gonzalez Jieqing Jiao
Pietro Gori Dakai Jin
Alejandro Granados Yueming Jin
Sasa Grbic Bano Jordan
Enrico Grisan Anand Joshi
Andrey Gritsenko Shantanu Joshi
Abhijit Guha Roy Leo Joskowicz
Yanrong Guo Christoph Jud
Yong Guo Siva Teja Kakileti
Vikash Gupta Jayashree Kalpathy-Cramer
Benjamin Gutierrez Becker Ali Kamen
Séverine Habert Neerav Karani
Ilker Hacihaliloglu Anees Kazi
Stathis Hadjidemetriou Eric Kerfoot
Ghassan Hamarneh Erwan Kerrien
Adam Harrison Farzad Khalvati
Grant Haskins Hassan Khan
Charles Hatt Bishesh Khanal
Tiancheng He Ron Kikinis
Mehdi Hedjazi Moghari Hyo-Eun Kim
Tobias Heimann Hyunwoo Kim
Christoph Hennersperger Jinman Kim
Alfredo Hernandez Minjeong Kim
Monica Hernandez Benjamin Kimia
Moises Hernandez Fernandez Kivanc Kose
Carlos Hernandez-Matas Julia Krüger
Matthew Holden Pavitra Krishnaswamy
Yi Hong Frithjof Kruggel
Nicolas Honnorat Elizabeth Krupinski
Benjamin Hou Sofia Ira Ktena
Yipeng Hu Arjan Kuijper
Heng Huang Ashnil Kumar
Junzhou Huang Neeraj Kumar
Weilin Huang Punithakumar Kumaradevan
 Organization XV

Manuela Kunz Kai Ma

Jin Tae Kwak Khushhall Chandra Mahajan
Alexander Ladikos Dwarikanath Mahapatra
Rodney Lalonde Andreas Maier
Pablo Lamata Klaus H. Maier-Hein
Catherine Laporte Sokratis Makrogiannis
Carole Lartizien Grégoire Malandain
Toni Lassila Anand Malpani
Andras Lasso Jose Manjon
Matthieu Le Tommaso Mansi
Maria J. Ledesma-Carbayo Awais Mansoor
Hansang Lee Anne Martel
Jong-Hwan Lee Diana Mateus
Soochahn Lee Arnaldo Mayer
Etienne Léger Jamie McClelland
Beatrice Lentes Stephen McKenna
Wee Kheng Leow Ronak Mehta
Nikolas Lessmann Raphael Meier
Annan Li Qier Meng
Gang Li Yu Meng
Ruoyu Li Bjoern Menze
Wenqi Li Liang Mi
Xiang Li Shun Miao
Yuanwei Li Abhishek Midya
Chunfeng Lian Zhe Min
Jianming Liang Rashika Mishra
Hongen Liao Marc Modat
Ruizhi Liao Norliza Mohd Noor
Roxane Licandro Mehdi Moradi
Lanfen Lin Rodrigo Moreno
Claudia Lindner Kensaku Mori
Cristian Linte Aliasghar Mortazi
Feng Liu Peter Mountney
Hui Liu Arrate Muñoz-Barrutia
Jianfei Liu Anirban Mukhopadhyay
Jundong Liu Arya Nabavi
Kefei Liu Layan Nahlawi
Mingxia Liu Ana Ineyda Namburete
Sidong Liu Valery Naranjo
Marco Lorenzi Peter Neher
Xiongbiao Luo Hannes Nickisch
Jinglei Lv Dong Nie
Ilwoo Lyu Lipeng Ning
Omar M. Rijal Jack Noble
Pablo Márquez Neila Vincent Noblet
Henning Müller Alexey Novikov
XVI Organization

Ilkay Oksuz Parnesh Raniga

Ozan Oktay Yogesh Rathi
John Onofrey Saima Rathore
Eliza Orasanu Nishant Ravikumar
Felipe Orihuela-Espina Shan E. Ahmed Raza
Jose Orlando Islem Rekik
Yusuf Osmanlioglu Beatriz Remeseiro
David Owen Markus Rempfler
Cristina Oyarzun Laura Mauricio Reyes
Jose-Antonio Pérez-Carrasco Constantino Reyes-Aldasoro
Danielle Pace Nicola Rieke
J. Blas Pagador Laurent Risser
Akshay Pai Leticia Rittner
Xenophon Papademetris Yong Man Ro
Bartlomiej Papiez Emma Robinson
Toufiq Parag Rafael Rodrigues
Magdalini Paschali Marc-Michel Rohé
Angshuman Paul Robert Rohling
Christian Payer Karl Rohr
Jialin Peng Plantefeve Rosalie
Tingying Peng Holger Roth
Xavier Pennec Su Ruan
Sérgio Pereira Danny Ruijters
Mehran Pesteie Juan Ruiz-Alzola
Loic Peter Mert Sabuncu
Igor Peterlik Frank Sachse
Simon Pezold Farhang Sahba
Micha Pfeifer Septimiu Salcudean
Dzung Pham Gerard Sanroma
Renzo Phellan Emine Saritas
Pramod Pisharady Imari Sato
Josien Pluim Alexander Schlaefer
Kilian Pohl Jerome Schmid
Jean-Baptiste Poline Caitlin Schneider
Alison Pouch Jessica Schrouff
Prateek Prasanna Thomas Schultz
Philip Pratt Suman Sedai
Raphael Prevost Biswa Sengupta
Esther Puyol Anton Ortal Senouf
Yuchuan Qiao Maxime Sermesant
Gwénolé Quellec Carmen Serrano
Pradeep Reddy Raamana Amit Sethi
Julia Rackerseder Muhammad Shaban
Hedyeh Rafii-Tari Reuben Shamir
Mehdi Rahim Yeqin Shao
Kashif Rajpoot Li Shen
 Organization XVII

Bibo Shi Nicolas Toussaint

Kuangyu Shi Jocelyne Troccaz
Hoo-Chang Shin Tomasz Trzcinski
Russell Shinohara Ahmet Tuysuzoglu
Viviana Siless Andru Twinanda
Carlos A. Silva Carole Twining
Matthew Sinclair Eranga Ukwatta
Vivek Singh Mathias Unberath
Korsuk Sirinukunwattana Tamas Ungi
Ihor Smal Martin Urschler
Michal Sofka Maria Vakalopoulou
Jure Sokolic Vanya Valindria
Hessam Sokooti Koen Van Leemput
Ahmed Soliman Hien Van Nguyen
Stefan Sommer Gijs van Tulder
Diego Sona S. Swaroop Vedula
Yang Song Harini Veeraraghavan
Aristeidis Sotiras Miguel Vega
Jamshid Sourati Anant Vemuri
Rachel Sparks Gopalkrishna Veni
Ziga Spiclin Archana Venkataraman
Lawrence Staib François-Xavier Vialard
Ralf Stauder Pierre-Frederic Villard
Darko Stern Satish Viswanath
Colin Studholme Wolf-Dieter Vogl
Martin Styner Ingmar Voigt
Heung-Il Suk Tomaz Vrtovec
Jian Sun Bo Wang
Xu Sun Guotai Wang
Kyunghyun Sung Jiazhuo Wang
Nima Tajbakhsh Liansheng Wang
Sylvain Takerkart Manning Wang
Chaowei Tan Sheng Wang
Jeremy Tan Yalin Wang
Mingkui Tan Zhe Wang
Hui Tang Simon Warfield
Min Tang Chong-Yaw Wee
Youbao Tang Juergen Weese
Yuxing Tang Benzheng Wei
Christine Tanner Wolfgang Wein
Qian Tao William Wells
Giacomo Tarroni Rene Werner
Zeike Taylor Daniel Wesierski
Kim Han Thung Matthias Wilms
Yanmei Tie Adam Wittek
Daniel Toth Jelmer Wolterink
XVIII Organization

Ken C. L. Wong Guillaume Zahnd

Jonghye Woo Marco Zenati
Pengxiang Wu Ke Zeng
Tobias Wuerfl Oliver Zettinig
Yong Xia Daoqiang Zhang
Yiming Xiao Fan Zhang
Weidi Xie Han Zhang
Yuanpu Xie Heye Zhang
Fangxu Xing Jiong Zhang
Fuyong Xing Jun Zhang
Tao Xiong Lichi Zhang
Daguang Xu Lin Zhang
Yan Xu Ling Zhang
Zheng Xu Mingli Zhang
Zhoubing Xu Pin Zhang
Ziyue Xu Shu Zhang
Wufeng Xue Tong Zhang
Jingwen Yan Yong Zhang
Ke Yan Yunyan Zhang
Yuguang Yan Zizhao Zhang
Zhennan Yan Qingyu Zhao
Dong Yang Shijie Zhao
Guang Yang Yitian Zhao
Xiao Yang Guoyan Zheng
Xin Yang Yalin Zheng
Jianhua Yao Yinqiang Zheng
Jiawen Yao Zichun Zhong
Xiaohui Yao Luping Zhou
Chuyang Ye Zhiguo Zhou
Menglong Ye Dajiang Zhu
Jingru Yi Wentao Zhu
Jinhua Yu Xiaofeng Zhu
Lequan Yu Xiahai Zhuang
Weimin Yu Aneeq Zia
Yixuan Yuan Veronika Zimmer
Evangelia Zacharaki Majd Zreik
Ernesto Zacur Reyer Zwiggelaar

Mentorship Program (Mentors)

Stephen Aylward Kitware Inc., USA
Christian Barillot IRISA/CNRS/University of Rennes, France
Kayhan Batmanghelich University of Pittsburgh/Carnegie Mellon University,
USA
Christos Bergeles King’s College London, UK
 Organization XIX

Marleen de Bruijne Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam/University

of Copenhagen, The Netherlands/Denmark
Cheng Li University of Alberta, Canada
Stefanie Demirci Technical University of Munich, Germany
Simon Duchesne University of Laval, Canada
Enzo Ferrante CONICET/Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Argentina
Alejandro F. Frangi University of Leeds, UK
Miguel A. Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Spain
González-Ballester
Stamatia (Matina) Imperial College London, UK
Giannarou
Juan Eugenio University College London, UK
Iglesias-Gonzalez
Laura Igual Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
Leo Joskowicz The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
Bernhard Kainz Imperial College London, UK
Shuo Li University of Western Ontario, Canada
Marius G. Linguraru Children’s National Health System/George Washington
University, USA
Le Lu Ping An Technology US Research Labs, USA
Tommaso Mansi Siemens Healthineers, USA
Anne Martel Sunnybrook Research Institute, USA
Kensaku Mori Nagoya University, Japan
Parvin Mousavi Queen’s University, Canada
Nassir Navab Technical University of Munich/Johns Hopkins
University, USA
Marc Niethammer University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA
Ipek Oguz University of Pennsylvania/Vanderbilt University,
USA
Josien Pluim Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands
Jerry L. Prince Johns Hopkins University, USA
Nicola Rieke NVIDIA Corp./Technical University of Munich,
Germany
Daniel Rueckert Imperial College London, UK
Julia A. Schnabel King’s College London, UK
Raphael Sznitman University of Bern, Switzerland
Jocelyne Troccaz CNRS/University of Grenoble, France
Gozde Unal Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
Max A. Viergever Utrecht University/University Medical Center Utrecht,
The Netherlands
Linwei Wang Rochester Institute of Technology, USA
Yanwu Xu Baidu Inc., China
Miaomiao Zhang Lehigh University, USA
Guoyan Zheng University of Bern, Switzerland
Lilla Zöllei Massachusetts General Hospital, USA
XX Organization

Sponsors and Funders

Platinum Sponsors

• NVIDIA Inc.
• Siemens Healthineers GmbH

Gold Sponsors

• Guangzhou Shiyuan Electronics Co. Ltd.

• Subtle Medical Inc.

Silver Sponsors

• Arterys Inc.
• Claron Technology Inc.
• ImSight Inc.
• ImFusion GmbH
• Medtronic Plc

Bronze Sponsors

• Depwise Inc.
• Carl Zeiss AG

Travel Bursary Support

• MICCAI Society
• National Institutes of Health, USA
• EPSRC-NIHR Medical Image Analysis Network (EP/N026993/1), UK
 Contents – Part IV

Computer Assisted Interventions: Image Guided Interventions

and Surgery

Uncertainty in Multitask Learning: Joint Representations for Probabilistic

MR-only Radiotherapy Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Felix J. S. Bragman, Ryutaro Tanno, Zach Eaton-Rosen,
Wenqi Li, David J. Hawkes, Sebastien Ourselin, Daniel C. Alexander,
Jamie R. McClelland, and M. Jorge Cardoso

A Combined Simulation and Machine Learning Approach for Image-Based

Force Classification During Robotized Intravitreal Injections . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Andrea Mendizabal, Tatiana Fountoukidou, Jan Hermann,
Raphael Sznitman, and Stephane Cotin

Learning from Noisy Label Statistics: Detecting High Grade Prostate

Cancer in Ultrasound Guided Biopsy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Shekoofeh Azizi, Pingkun Yan, Amir Tahmasebi, Peter Pinto,
Bradford Wood, Jin Tae Kwak, Sheng Xu, Baris Turkbey, Peter Choyke,
Parvin Mousavi, and Purang Abolmaesumi

A Feature-Driven Active Framework for Ultrasound-Based Brain

Shift Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Jie Luo, Matthew Toews, Ines Machado, Sarah Frisken,
Miaomiao Zhang, Frank Preiswerk, Alireza Sedghi, Hongyi Ding,
Steve Pieper, Polina Golland, Alexandra Golby, Masashi Sugiyama,
and William M. Wells III

Soft-Body Registration of Pre-operative 3D Models to Intra-operative

RGBD Partial Body Scans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Richard Modrzejewski, Toby Collins, Adrien Bartoli,
Alexandre Hostettler, and Jacques Marescaux

Automatic Classification of Cochlear Implant Electrode

Cavity Positioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Jack H. Noble, Robert F. Labadie, and Benoit M. Dawant

X-ray-transform Invariant Anatomical Landmark Detection

for Pelvic Trauma Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Bastian Bier, Mathias Unberath, Jan-Nico Zaech, Javad Fotouhi,
Mehran Armand, Greg Osgood, Nassir Navab, and Andreas Maier
XXII Contents – Part IV

Endoscopic Navigation in the Absence of CT Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Ayushi Sinha, Xingtong Liu, Austin Reiter, Masaru Ishii,
Gregory D. Hager, and Russell H. Taylor

A Novel Mixed Reality Navigation System for Laparoscopy Surgery . . . . . . 72

Jagadeesan Jayender, Brian Xavier, Franklin King, Ahmed Hosny,
David Black, Steve Pieper, and Ali Tavakkoli

Respiratory Motion Modelling Using cGANs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Alina Giger, Robin Sandkühler, Christoph Jud, Grzegorz Bauman,
Oliver Bieri, Rares Salomir, and Philippe C. Cattin

Physics-Based Simulation to Enable Ultrasound Monitoring of HIFU

Ablation: An MRI Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Chloé Audigier, Younsu Kim, Nicholas Ellens, and Emad M. Boctor

DeepDRR – A Catalyst for Machine Learning

in Fluoroscopy-Guided Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Mathias Unberath, Jan-Nico Zaech, Sing Chun Lee, Bastian Bier,
Javad Fotouhi, Mehran Armand, and Nassir Navab

Exploiting Partial Structural Symmetry for Patient-Specific Image

Augmentation in Trauma Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Javad Fotouhi, Mathias Unberath, Giacomo Taylor,
Arash Ghaani Farashahi, Bastian Bier, Russell H. Taylor,
Greg M. Osgood, Mehran Armand, and Nassir Navab

Intraoperative Brain Shift Compensation Using a Hybrid Mixture Model . . . . 116

Siming Bayer, Nishant Ravikumar, Maddalena Strumia,
Xiaoguang Tong, Ying Gao, Martin Ostermeier, Rebecca Fahrig,
and Andreas Maier

Video-Based Computer Aided Arthroscopy for Patient Specific

Reconstruction of the Anterior Cruciate Ligament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Carolina Raposo, Cristóvão Sousa, Luis Ribeiro, Rui Melo,
João P. Barreto, João Oliveira, Pedro Marques, and Fernando Fonseca

Simultaneous Segmentation and Classification of Bone Surfaces

from Ultrasound Using a Multi-feature Guided CNN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Puyang Wang, Vishal M. Patel, and Ilker Hacihaliloglu

Endoscopic Laser Surface Scanner for Minimally Invasive

Abdominal Surgeries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Jordan Geurten, Wenyao Xia, Uditha Jayarathne, Terry M. Peters,
and Elvis C. S. Chen
 Contents – Part IV XXIII

Deep Adversarial Context-Aware Landmark Detection

for Ultrasound Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Ahmet Tuysuzoglu, Jeremy Tan, Kareem Eissa, Atilla P. Kiraly,
Mamadou Diallo, and Ali Kamen

Towards a Fast and Safe LED-Based Photoacoustic Imaging Using Deep

Convolutional Neural Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Emran Mohammad Abu Anas, Haichong K. Zhang, Jin Kang,
and Emad M. Boctor

An Open Framework Enabling Electromagnetic Tracking

in Image-Guided Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Herman Alexander Jaeger, Stephen Hinds,
and Pádraig Cantillon-Murphy

Colon Shape Estimation Method for Colonoscope Tracking Using

Recurrent Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Masahiro Oda, Holger R. Roth, Takayuki Kitasaka, Kasuhiro Furukawa,
Ryoji Miyahara, Yoshiki Hirooka, Hidemi Goto, Nassir Navab,
and Kensaku Mori

Towards Automatic Report Generation in Spine Radiology Using Weakly

Supervised Framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Zhongyi Han, Benzheng Wei, Stephanie Leung, Jonathan Chung,
and Shuo Li

Computer Assisted Interventions: Surgical Planning, Simulation

and Work Flow Analysis

A Natural Language Interface for Dissemination of Reproducible

Biomedical Data Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Rogers Jeffrey Leo John, Jignesh M. Patel, Andrew L. Alexander,
Vikas Singh, and Nagesh Adluru

Spatiotemporal Manifold Prediction Model for Anterior Vertebral Body

Growth Modulation Surgery in Idiopathic Scoliosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
William Mandel, Olivier Turcot, Dejan Knez, Stefan Parent,
and Samuel Kadoury

Evaluating Surgical Skills from Kinematic Data Using Convolutional

Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Hassan Ismail Fawaz, Germain Forestier, Jonathan Weber,
Lhassane Idoumghar, and Pierre-Alain Muller
XXIV Contents – Part IV

Needle Tip Force Estimation Using an OCT Fiber and a Fused

convGRU-CNN Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Nils Gessert, Torben Priegnitz, Thore Saathoff, Sven-Thomas Antoni,
David Meyer, Moritz Franz Hamann, Klaus-Peter Jünemann,
Christoph Otte, and Alexander Schlaefer

Fast GPU Computation of 3D Isothermal Volumes in the Vicinity of Major

Blood Vessels for Multiprobe Cryoablation Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Ehsan Golkar, Pramod P. Rao, Leo Joskowicz, Afshin Gangi,
and Caroline Essert

A Machine Learning Approach to Predict Instrument Bending

in Stereotactic Neurosurgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Alejandro Granados, Matteo Mancini, Sjoerd B. Vos, Oeslle Lucena,
Vejay Vakharia, Roman Rodionov, Anna Miserocchi,
Andrew W. McEvoy, John S. Duncan, Rachel Sparks,
and Sébastien Ourselin

Deep Reinforcement Learning for Surgical Gesture Segmentation

and Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Daochang Liu and Tingting Jiang

Automated Performance Assessment in Transoesophageal

Echocardiography with Convolutional Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Evangelos B. Mazomenos, Kamakshi Bansal, Bruce Martin,
Andrew Smith, Susan Wright, and Danail Stoyanov

DeepPhase: Surgical Phase Recognition in CATARACTS Videos . . . . . . . . . 265

Odysseas Zisimopoulos, Evangello Flouty, Imanol Luengo,
Petros Giataganas, Jean Nehme, Andre Chow, and Danail Stoyanov

Surgical Activity Recognition in Robot-Assisted Radical Prostatectomy

Using Deep Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Aneeq Zia, Andrew Hung, Irfan Essa, and Anthony Jarc

Unsupervised Learning for Surgical Motion by Learning to Predict

the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Robert DiPietro and Gregory D. Hager

Computer Assisted Interventions: Visualization

and Augmented Reality

Volumetric Clipping Surface: Un-occluded Visualization of Structures

Preserving Depth Cues into Surrounding Organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Bhavya Ajani, Aditya Bharadwaj, and Karthik Krishnan
 Contents – Part IV XXV

Closing the Calibration Loop: An Inside-Out-Tracking Paradigm for

Augmented Reality in Orthopedic Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Jonas Hajek, Mathias Unberath, Javad Fotouhi, Bastian Bier,
Sing Chun Lee, Greg Osgood, Andreas Maier, Mehran Armand,
and Nassir Navab

Higher Order of Motion Magnification for Vessel Localisation

in Surgical Video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Mirek Janatka, Ashwin Sridhar, John Kelly, and Danail Stoyanov

Simultaneous Surgical Visibility Assessment, Restoration, and Augmented

Stereo Surface Reconstruction for Robotic Prostatectomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Xiongbiao Luo, Ying Wan, Hui-Qing Zeng, Yingying Guo,
Henry Chidozie Ewurum, Xiao-Bin Zhang, A. Jonathan McLeod,
and Terry M. Peters

Real-Time Augmented Reality for Ear Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

Raabid Hussain, Alain Lalande, Roberto Marroquin,
Kibrom Berihu Girum, Caroline Guigou, and Alexis Bozorg Grayeli

Framework for Fusion of Data- and Model-Based Approaches

for Ultrasound Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Christine Tanner, Rastislav Starkov, Michael Bajka, and Orcun Goksel

Image Segmentation Methods: General Image Segmentation Methods,

Measures and Applications

Esophageal Gross Tumor Volume Segmentation Using a 3D Convolutional

Neural Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Sahar Yousefi, Hessam Sokooti, Mohamed S. Elmahdy, Femke P. Peters,
Mohammad T. Manzuri Shalmani, Roel T. Zinkstok, and Marius Staring

Deep Learning Based Instance Segmentation in 3D Biomedical Images

Using Weak Annotation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Zhuo Zhao, Lin Yang, Hao Zheng, Ian H. Guldner, Siyuan Zhang,
and Danny Z. Chen

Learn the New, Keep the Old: Extending Pretrained Models with New
Anatomy and Images. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Firat Ozdemir, Philipp Fuernstahl, and Orcun Goksel

ASDNet: Attention Based Semi-supervised Deep Networks for Medical

Image Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Dong Nie, Yaozong Gao, Li Wang, and Dinggang Shen
XXVI Contents – Part IV

MS-Net: Mixed-Supervision Fully-Convolutional Networks

for Full-Resolution Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Meet P. Shah, S. N. Merchant, and Suyash P. Awate

How to Exploit Weaknesses in Biomedical Challenge Design

and Organization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Annika Reinke, Matthias Eisenmann, Sinan Onogur, Marko Stankovic,
Patrick Scholz, Peter M. Full, Hrvoje Bogunovic, Bennett A. Landman,
Oskar Maier, Bjoern Menze, Gregory C. Sharp,
Korsuk Sirinukunwattana, Stefanie Speidel, Fons van der Sommen,
Guoyan Zheng, Henning Müller, Michal Kozubek, Tal Arbel,
Andrew P. Bradley, Pierre Jannin, Annette Kopp-Schneider,
and Lena Maier-Hein

Accurate Weakly-Supervised Deep Lesion Segmentation Using

Large-Scale Clinical Annotations: Slice-Propagated 3D Mask Generation
from 2D RECIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Jinzheng Cai, Youbao Tang, Le Lu, Adam P. Harrison, Ke Yan,
Jing Xiao, Lin Yang, and Ronald M. Summers

Semi-automatic RECIST Labeling on CT Scans with Cascaded

Convolutional Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Youbao Tang, Adam P. Harrison, Mohammadhadi Bagheri, Jing Xiao,
and Ronald M. Summers

Image Segmentation Methods: Multi-organ Segmentation

A Multi-scale Pyramid of 3D Fully Convolutional Networks for Abdominal

Multi-organ Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Holger R. Roth, Chen Shen, Hirohisa Oda, Takaaki Sugino,
Masahiro Oda, Yuichiro Hayashi, Kazunari Misawa, and Kensaku Mori

3D U-JAPA-Net: Mixture of Convolutional Networks for Abdominal

Multi-organ CT Segmentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Hideki Kakeya, Toshiyuki Okada, and Yukio Oshiro

Training Multi-organ Segmentation Networks with Sample Selection

by Relaxed Upper Confident Bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Yan Wang, Yuyin Zhou, Peng Tang, Wei Shen, Elliot K. Fishman,
and Alan L. Yuille
 Contents – Part IV XXVII

Image Segmentation Methods: Abdominal Segmentation Methods

Bridging the Gap Between 2D and 3D Organ Segmentation

with Volumetric Fusion Net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Yingda Xia, Lingxi Xie, Fengze Liu, Zhuotun Zhu, Elliot K. Fishman,
and Alan L. Yuille

Segmentation of Renal Structures for Image-Guided Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . 454

Junning Li, Pechin Lo, Ahmed Taha, Hang Wu, and Tao Zhao

Kid-Net: Convolution Networks for Kidney Vessels Segmentation

from CT-Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Ahmed Taha, Pechin Lo, Junning Li, and Tao Zhao

Local and Non-local Deep Feature Fusion for Malignancy Characterization

of Hepatocellular Carcinoma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Tianyou Dou, Lijuan Zhang, Hairong Zheng, and Wu Zhou

A Novel Bayesian Model Incorporating Deep Neural Network

and Statistical Shape Model for Pancreas Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Jingting Ma, Feng Lin, Stefan Wesarg, and Marius Erdt

Fine-Grained Segmentation Using Hierarchical Dilated Neural Networks . . . . 488

Sihang Zhou, Dong Nie, Ehsan Adeli, Yaozong Gao, Li Wang,
Jianping Yin, and Dinggang Shen

Generalizing Deep Models for Ultrasound Image Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . 497

Xin Yang, Haoran Dou, Ran Li, Xu Wang, Cheng Bian, Shengli Li,
Dong Ni, and Pheng-Ann Heng

Inter-site Variability in Prostate Segmentation Accuracy Using

Deep Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Eli Gibson, Yipeng Hu, Nooshin Ghavami, Hashim U. Ahmed,
Caroline Moore, Mark Emberton, Henkjan J. Huisman,
and Dean C. Barratt

Deep Learning-Based Boundary Detection for Model-Based Segmentation

with Application to MR Prostate Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Tom Brosch, Jochen Peters, Alexandra Groth, Thomas Stehle,
and Jürgen Weese

Deep Attentional Features for Prostate Segmentation in Ultrasound . . . . . . . . 523

Yi Wang, Zijun Deng, Xiaowei Hu, Lei Zhu, Xin Yang, Xuemiao Xu,
Pheng-Ann Heng, and Dong Ni
XXVIII Contents – Part IV

Accurate and Robust Segmentation of the Clinical Target Volume

for Prostate Brachytherapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Davood Karimi, Qi Zeng, Prateek Mathur, Apeksha Avinash,
Sara Mahdavi, Ingrid Spadinger, Purang Abolmaesumi,
and Septimiu Salcudean

Image Segmentation Methods: Cardiac Segmentation Methods

Hashing-Based Atlas Ranking and Selection for Multiple-Atlas

Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Amin Katouzian, Hongzhi Wang, Sailesh Conjeti, Hui Tang,
Ehsan Dehghan, Alexandros Karargyris, Anup Pillai, Kenneth Clarkson,
and Nassir Navab

Corners Detection for Bioresorbable Vascular Scaffolds Segmentation

in IVOCT Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Linlin Yao, Yihui Cao, Qinhua Jin, Jing Jing, Yundai Chen, Jianan Li,
and Rui Zhu

The Deep Poincaré Map: A Novel Approach for Left Ventricle

Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Yuanhan Mo, Fangde Liu, Douglas McIlwraith, Guang Yang,
Jingqing Zhang, Taigang He, and Yike Guo

Bayesian VoxDRN: A Probabilistic Deep Voxelwise Dilated Residual

Network for Whole Heart Segmentation from 3D MR Images . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Zenglin Shi, Guodong Zeng, Le Zhang, Xiahai Zhuang, Lei Li,
Guang Yang, and Guoyan Zheng

Real-Time Prediction of Segmentation Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578

Robert Robinson, Ozan Oktay, Wenjia Bai, Vanya V. Valindria,
Mihir M. Sanghvi, Nay Aung, José M. Paiva, Filip Zemrak,
Kenneth Fung, Elena Lukaschuk, Aaron M. Lee, Valentina Carapella,
Young Jin Kim, Bernhard Kainz, Stefan K. Piechnik, Stefan Neubauer,
Steffen E. Petersen, Chris Page, Daniel Rueckert, and Ben Glocker

Recurrent Neural Networks for Aortic Image Sequence Segmentation

with Sparse Annotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
Wenjia Bai, Hideaki Suzuki, Chen Qin, Giacomo Tarroni, Ozan Oktay,
Paul M. Matthews, and Daniel Rueckert

Deep Nested Level Sets: Fully Automated Segmentation of Cardiac MR

Images in Patients with Pulmonary Hypertension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Jinming Duan, Jo Schlemper, Wenjia Bai, Timothy J. W. Dawes,
Ghalib Bello, Georgia Doumou, Antonio De Marvao,
Declan P. O’Regan, and Daniel Rueckert
 Contents – Part IV XXIX

Atrial Fibrosis Quantification Based on Maximum Likelihood Estimator

of Multivariate Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Fuping Wu, Lei Li, Guang Yang, Tom Wong, Raad Mohiaddin,
David Firmin, Jennifer Keegan, Lingchao Xu, and Xiahai Zhuang

Left Ventricle Segmentation via Optical-Flow-Net from Short-Axis Cine

MRI: Preserving the Temporal Coherence of Cardiac Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Wenjun Yan, Yuanyuan Wang, Zeju Li, Rob J. van der Geest,
and Qian Tao

VoxelAtlasGAN: 3D Left Ventricle Segmentation on Echocardiography

with Atlas Guided Generation and Voxel-to-Voxel Discrimination. . . . . . . . . 622
Suyu Dong, Gongning Luo, Kuanquan Wang, Shaodong Cao,
Ashley Mercado, Olga Shmuilovich, Henggui Zhang, and Shuo Li

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had arranged with Isaac Rolls, a hackman, to bring my baggage to
the train just on the moment of its starting, and jumped upon the car
myself when the train was already in motion. Had I gone into the
station and offered to purchase a ticket, I should have been instantly
and carefully examined, and undoubtedly arrested. In choosing this
plan upon which to act, I considered the jostle of the train, and the
natural haste of the conductor, in a train crowded with passengers,
and relied upon my skill and address in playing the sailor as
described in my protection, to do the rest. One element in my favor
was the kind feeling which prevailed in Baltimore and other seaports
at the time, towards “those who go down to the sea in ships.” “Free
trade and sailors’ rights” expressed the sentiment of the country just
then. In my clothing I was rigged out in sailor style. I had on a red
shirt and a tarpaulin hat and black cravat, tied in sailor fashion,
carelessly and loosely about my neck. My knowledge of ships and
sailor’s talk came much to my assistance, for I knew a ship from
stem to stern, and from keelson to cross-trees, and could talk sailor
like an “old salt.” On sped the train, and I was well on the way to
Havre de Grace before the conductor came into the negro car to
collect tickets and examine the papers of his black passengers. This
was a critical moment in the drama. My whole future depended upon
the decision of this conductor. Agitated I was while this ceremony
was proceeding, but still externally, at least, I was apparently calm
and self-possessed. He went on with his duty—examining several
colored passengers before reaching me. He was somewhat harsh in
tone, and peremptory in manner until he reached me, when,
strangely enough, and to my surprise and relief, his whole manner
changed. Seeing that I did not readily produce my free papers, as
the other colored persons in the car had done, he said to me in a
friendly contrast with that observed towards the others: “I suppose
you have your free papers?” To which I answered: “No, sir; I never
carry my free papers to sea with me.” “But you have something to
show that you are a free man, have you not?” “Yes, sir,” I answered;
“I have a paper with the American eagle on it, and that will carry me
round the world.” With this I drew from my deep sailor’s pocket my
seaman’s protection, as before described. The merest glance at the
paper satisfied him, and he took my fare and went on about his
business. This moment of time was one of the most anxious I ever
experienced. Had the conductor looked closely at the paper, he
could not have failed to discover that it called for a very different
looking person from myself, and in that case it would have been his
duty to arrest me on the instant, and send me back to Baltimore from
the first station. When he left me with the assurance that I was all
right, though much relieved, I realized that I was still in great danger:
I was still in Maryland, and subject to arrest at any moment. I saw on
the train several persons who would have known me in any other
clothes, and I feared they might recognize me, even in my sailor
“rig,” and report me to the conductor, who would then subject me to a
closer examination, which I knew well would be fatal to me.
Though I was not a murderer fleeing from justice I felt perhaps
quite as miserable as such a criminal. The train was moving at a
very high rate of speed for that time of railroad travel, but to my
anxious mind, it was moving far too slowly. Minutes were hours, and
hours were days during this part of my flight. After Maryland I was to
pass through Delaware—another slave State, where slave catchers
generally awaited their prey, for it was not in the interior of the State,
but on its borders, that these human hounds were most vigilant and
active. The border lines between slavery and freedom were the
dangerous ones, for the fugitives. The heart of no fox or deer, with
hungry hounds on his trail, in full chase, could have beaten more
anxiously or noisily than did mine, from the time I left Baltimore till I
reached Philadelphia. The passage of the Susquehanna river at
Havre de Grace was made by ferry boat at that time, on board of
which I met a young colored man by the name of Nichols, who came
very near betraying me. He was a “hand” on the boat, but instead of
minding his business, he insisted upon knowing me, and asking me
dangerous questions as to where I was going, and when I was
coming back, etc. I got away from my old and inconvenient
acquaintance as soon as I could decently do so, and went to another
part of the boat. Once across the river I encountered a new danger.
Only a few days before I had been at work on a revenue cutter, in
Mr. Price’s ship-yard, under the care of Captain McGowan. On the
meeting at this point of the two trains, the one going south stopped
on the track just opposite to the one going north, and it so happened
that this Captain McGowan sat at a window where he could see me
very distinctly, and would certainly have recognized me had he
looked at me but for a second. Fortunately, in the hurry of the
moment, he did not see me; and the trains soon passed each other
on their respective ways. But this was not my only hair-breadth
escape. A German blacksmith whom I knew well, was on the train
with me, and looked at me very intently as if he thought he had seen
me somewhere before in his travels. I really believe he knew me, but
had no heart to betray me. At any rate he saw me escaping and held
his peace.
The last point of imminent danger, and the one I dreaded most,
was Wilmington. Here we left the train and took the steamboat for
Philadelphia. In making the change here I again apprehended arrest,
but no one disturbed me, and I was soon on the broad and beautiful
Delaware, speeding away to the Quaker City. On reaching
Philadelphia in the afternoon I inquired of a colored man how I could
get on to New York? He directed me to the Willow street depot, and
thither I went, taking the train that night. I reached New York
Tuesday morning, having completed the journey in less than twenty-
four hours. Such is briefly the manner of my escape from slavery—
and the end of my experience as a slave. Other chapters will tell the
story of my life as a freeman.
 CHAPTER II.
LIFE AS A FREEMAN.

Loneliness and Insecurity—“Allender’s Jake”—Succored by a Sailor—David

Ruggles—Marriage—Steamer J. W. Richmond—Stage to New Bedford—
Arrival There—Driver’s Detention of Baggage—Nathan Johnson—Change
of Name—Why called “Douglas”—Obtaining Work—The Liberator and its
Editor.

MY free life began on the third of September, 1838. On the morning

of the 4th of that month, after an anxious and most perilous but safe
journey, I found myself in the big city of New York, a free man; one
more added to the mighty throng which like the confused waves of
the troubled sea, surged to and fro between the lofty walls of
Broadway. Though dazzled with the wonders which met me on every
hand, my thoughts could not be much withdrawn from my strange
situation. For the moment the dreams of my youth, and the hopes of
my manhood, were completely fulfilled. The bonds that had held me
to “old master” were broken. No man now had a right to call me his
slave or assert mastery over me. I was in the rough and tumble of an
outdoor world, to take my chance with the rest of its busy number. I
have often been asked, how I felt, when first I found myself on free
soil. And my readers may share the same curiosity. There is scarcely
anything in my experience about which I could not give a more
satisfactory answer. A new world had opened upon me. If life is more
than breath, and the “quick round of blood,” I lived more in one day
than in a year of my slave life. It was a time of joyous excitement
which words can but tamely describe. In a letter written to a friend
soon after reaching New York, I said: “I felt as one might feel upon
escape from a den of hungry lions.” Anguish and grief, like darkness
and rain, may be depicted; but gladness and joy, like the rainbow,
defy the skill of pen or pencil. During ten or fifteen years I had, as it
were, been dragging a heavy chain, which no strength of mine could
break; I was not only a slave, but a slave for life. I might become a
husband, a father, an aged man, but through all, from birth to death,
from the cradle to the grave, I had felt myself doomed. All efforts I
had previously made to secure my freedom, had not only failed, but
had seemed only to rivet my fetters the more firmly, and to render my
escape more difficult. Baffled, entangled, and discouraged, I had at
times asked myself the question, May not my condition after all be
God’s work, and ordered for a wise purpose, and if so, was not
submission my duty? A contest had in fact been going on in my mind
for a long time, between the clear consciousness of right, and the
plausible make-shifts of theology and superstition. The one held me
an abject slave—a prisoner for life, punished for some transgression
in which I had no lot or part; and the other counselled me to manly
endeavor to secure my freedom. This contest was now ended; my
chains were broken, and the victory brought me unspeakable joy.
But my gladness was short lived, for I was not yet out of the reach
and power of the slaveholders. I soon found that New York was not
quite so free, or so safe a refuge as I had supposed, and a sense of
loneliness and insecurity again oppressed me most sadly. I chanced
to meet on the street a few hours after my landing, a fugitive slave
whom I had once known well in slavery. The information received
from him alarmed me. The fugitive in question was known in
Baltimore as “Allender’s Jake,” but in New York he wore the more
respectable name of “William Dixon.” Jake in law was the property of
Doctor Allender, and Tolly Allender, the son of the doctor, had once
made an effort to recapture Mr. Dixon, but had failed for want of
evidence to support his claim. Jake told me the circumstances of this
attempt, and how narrowly he escaped being sent back to slavery
and torture. He told me that New York was then full of southerners
returning from the watering places north; that the colored people of
New York were not to be trusted; that there were hired men of my
own color who would betray me for a few dollars; that there were
hired men ever on the lookout for fugitives; that I must trust no man
with my secret; that I must not think of going either upon the
wharves, or into any colored boarding-house, for all such places
were closely watched; that he was himself unable to help me; and, in
fact, he seemed while speaking to me to fear lest I myself might be a
spy, and a betrayer. Under this apprehension, as I suppose, he
showed signs of wishing to be rid of me, and with whitewash brush in
hand, in search of work, he soon disappeared. This picture, given by
poor “Jake” of New York, was a damper to my enthusiasm. My little
store of money would soon be exhausted, and since it would be
unsafe for me to go on the wharves for work, and I had no
introductions elsewhere, the prospect for me was far from cheerful. I
saw the wisdom of keeping away from the ship-yards, for, if pursued,
as I felt certain I would be, Mr. Auld would naturally seek me there
among the calkers. Every door seemed closed against me. I was in
the midst of an ocean of my fellowmen, and yet a perfect stranger to
every one. I was without home, without acquaintance, without
money, without credit, without work, and without any definite
knowledge as to what course to take, or where to look for succor. In
such an extremity, a man has something beside his new-born
freedom to think of. While wandering about the streets of New York,
and lodging at least one night among the barrels on one of the
wharves, I was indeed free—from slavery, but free from food and
shelter as well. I kept my secret to myself as long as I could, but was
compelled at last to seek some one who should befriend me, without
taking advantage of my destitution to betray me. Such an one I found
in a sailor named Stuart, a warm-hearted and generous fellow, who
from his humble home on Centre street, saw me standing on the
opposite sidewalk, near “The Tombs.” As he approached me I
ventured a remark to him which at once enlisted his interest in me.
He took me to his home to spend the night, and in the morning went
with me to Mr. David Ruggles, the secretary of the New York
vigilance committee, a co-worker with Isaac T. Hopper, Lewis and
Arthur Tappan, Theodore S. Wright, Samuel Cornish, Thomas
Downing, Phillip A. Bell and other true men of their time. All these
(save Mr. Bell, who still lives, and is editor and publisher of a paper
called the Elevator, in San Francisco) have finished their work on
earth. Once in the hands of these brave and wise men, I felt
comparatively safe. With Mr. Ruggles, on the corner of Lispenard
and Church streets, I was hidden several days, during which time my
intended wife came on from Baltimore at my call, to share the
burdens of life with me. She was a free woman, and came at once
on getting the good news of my safety. We were married by Rev.
J. W. C. Pennington, then a well-known and respected Presbyterian
minister. I had no money with which to pay the marriage fee, but he
seemed well pleased with our thanks.
Mr. Ruggles was the first officer on the underground railroad with
whom I met after coming North; and was indeed the only one with
whom I had anything to do, till I became such an officer myself.
Learning that my trade was that of a calker, he promptly decided that
the best place for me was in New Bedford, Mass. He told me that
many ships for whaling voyages were fitted out there, and that I
might there find work at my trade, and make a good living. So on the
day of the marriage ceremony, we took our little luggage to the
steamer John W. Richmond, which at that time was one of the line
running between New York and Newport, R. I. Forty-three years ago
colored travelers were not permitted in the cabin, nor allowed abaft
the paddle-wheels of a steam vessel. They were compelled,
whatever the weather might be, whether cold or hot, wet or dry, to
spend the night on deck. Unjust as this regulation was, it did not
trouble us much. We had fared much harder before. We arrived at
Newport the next morning, and soon after an old-fashioned stage-
coach with “New Bedford” in large, yellow letters on its sides, came
down to the wharf. I had not money enough to pay our fare, and
stood hesitating to know what to do. Fortunately for us, there were
two Quaker gentlemen who were about to take passage on the
stage,—Friends William C. Taber and Joseph Ricketson,—who at
once discerned our true situation, and in a peculiarly quiet way,
addressing me, Mr. Taber said: “Thee get in.” I never obeyed an
order with more alacrity, and we were soon on our way to our new
home. When we reached “Stone Bridge” the passengers alighted for
breakfast, and paid their fares to the driver. We took no breakfast,
and when asked for our fares I told the driver I would make it right
with him when we reached New Bedford. I expected some objection
to this on his part, but he made none. When, however, we reached
New Bedford he took our baggage, including three music books,—
two of them collections by Dyer, and one by Shaw,—and held them
until I was able to redeem them by paying to him the sums due for
our rides. This was soon done, for Mr. Nathan Johnson not only
received me kindly, and hospitably, but, on being informed about our
baggage, at once loaned me the two dollars with which to square
accounts with the stage-driver. Mr. and Mrs. Nathan Johnson
reached a good old age, and now rest from their labors. I am under
many grateful obligations to them. They not only “took me in when a
stranger,” and “fed me when hungry,” but taught me how to make an
honest living.
Thus, in a fortnight after my flight from Maryland, I was safe in
New Bedford,—a citizen of the grand old commonwealth of
Massachusetts.
 At the Wharf in Newport.
Once initiated into my new life of freedom, and assured by Mr.
Johnson that I need not fear recapture in that city, a comparatively
unimportant question arose, as to the name by which I should be
known thereafter, in my new relation as a free man. The name given
me by my dear mother was no less pretentious and long than
Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey. I had, however, while living
in Maryland disposed of the Augustus Washington, and retained only
Frederick Bailey. Between Baltimore and New Bedford, the better to
conceal myself from the slave-hunters, I had parted with Bailey and
called myself Johnson; but finding that in New Bedford the Johnson
family was already so numerous as to cause some confusion in
distinguishing one from another, a change in this name seemed
desirable. Nathan Johnson, mine host, was emphatic as to this
necessity, and wished me to allow him to select a name for me. I
consented, and he called me by my present name,—the one by
which I have been known for three and forty years,—Frederick
Douglass. Mr. Johnson had just been reading the “Lady of the Lake,”
and so pleased was he with its great character that he wished me to
bear his name. Since reading that charming poem myself, I have
often thought that, considering the noble hospitality and manly
character of Nathan Johnson, black man though he was, he, far
more than I, illustrated the virtues of the Douglas of Scotland. Sure
am I that if any slave-catcher had entered his domicile with a view to
my recapture, Johnson would have been like him of the “stalwart
hand.”
The reader may be surprised, that living in Baltimore as I had
done for many years, when I tell the honest truth of the impressions I
had in some way conceived of the social and material condition of
the people at the north. I had no proper idea of the wealth,
refinement, enterprise, and high civilization of this section of the
country. My Columbian Orator, almost my only book, had done
nothing to enlighten me concerning northern society. I had been
taught that slavery was the bottom-fact of all wealth. With this
foundation idea, I came naturally to the conclusion that poverty must
be the general condition of the people of the free States. A white
man holding no slaves in the country from which I came, was usually
an ignorant and poverty-stricken man. Men of this class were
contemptuously called “poor white trash.” Hence I supposed that
since the non-slaveholders at the south were ignorant, poor, and
degraded as a class, the non-slaveholders at the north must be in a
similar condition. New Bedford therefore, which at that time was
really the richest city in the Union, in proportion to its population, took
me greatly by surprise, in the evidences it gave of its solid wealth
and grandeur. I found that even the laboring classes lived in better
houses, that their houses were more elegantly furnished, and were
more abundantly supplied with conveniences and comforts, than the
houses of many who owned slaves on the Eastern Shore of
Maryland. This was true not only of the white people of that city, but
it was so of my friend, Mr. Johnson. He lived in a nicer house, dined
at a more ample board, was the owner of more books, the reader of
more newspapers, was more conversant with the moral, social, and
political condition of the country and the world than nine-tenths of the
slaveholders in all Talbot county. I was not long in finding the cause
of the difference in these respects, between the people of the north
and south. It was the superiority of educated mind over mere brute
force. I will not detain the reader by extended illustrations as to how
my understanding was enlightened on this subject. On the wharves
of New Bedford I received my first light. I saw there industry without
bustle, labor without noise, toil—honest, earnest, and exhaustive,
without the whip. There was no loud singing or hallooing, as at the
wharves of southern ports when ships were loading or unloading; no
loud cursing or quarreling; everything went on as smoothly as well-
oiled machinery. One of the first incidents which impressed me with
the superior mental character of labor in the north over that of the
south, was in the manner of loading and unloading vessels. In a
southern port twenty or thirty hands would be employed to do what
five or six men, with the help of one ox, would do at the wharf in New
Bedford. Main strength—human muscle—unassisted by intelligent
skill, was slavery’s method of labor. With a capital of about sixty
dollars in the shape of a good-natured old ox, attached to the end of
a stout rope, New Bedford did the work of ten or twelve thousand
dollars, represented in the bones and muscles of slaves, and did it
far better. In a word, I found everything managed with a much more
scrupulous regard to economy, both of men and things, time and
strength, than in the country from which I had come. Instead of going
a hundred yards to the spring, the maid-servant had a well or pump
at her elbow. The wood used for fuel was kept dry and snugly piled
away for winter. Here were sinks, drains, self-shutting gates,
pounding-barrels, washing-machines, wringing-machines, and a
hundred other contrivances for saving time and money. The ship-
repairing docks showed the same thoughtful wisdom as seen
elsewhere. Everybody seemed in earnest. The carpenter struck the
nail on its head, and the calkers wasted no strength in idle flourishes
of their mallets. Ships brought here for repairs were made stronger
and better than when new. I could have landed in no part of the
United States where I should have found a more striking and
gratifying contrast, not only to life generally in the South, but in the
condition of the colored people there than in New Bedford. No
colored man was really free while residing in a slave State. He was
ever more or less subject to the condition of his slave brother. In his
color was his badge of bondage. I saw in New Bedford the nearest
approach to freedom and equality that I had ever seen. I was
amazed when Mr. Johnson told me that there was nothing in the
laws or constitution of Massachusetts, that would prevent a colored
man from being governor of the State, if the people should see fit to
elect him. There too the black man’s children attended the same
public schools with the white man’s children, and apparently without
objection from any quarter. To impress me with my security from
recapture, and return to slavery, Mr. Johnson assured me that no
slaveholder could take a slave out of New Bedford; that there were
men there who would lay down their lives to save me from such a
fate. A threat was once made by a colored man to inform a southern
master where his runaway slave could be found. As soon as this
threat became known to the colored people they were furious. A
notice was read from the pulpit of the Third Christian church
(colored) for a public meeting, when important business would be
transacted (not stating what the important business was). In the
meantime special measures had been taken to secure the
attendance of the would-be Judas, and these had proved successful,
for when the hour of meeting arrived, ignorant of the object for which
they were called together, the offender was promptly in attendance.
All the usual formalities were gone through with, the prayer,
appointments of president, secretaries, etc. Then the president, with
an air of great solemnity, rose and said: “Well, friends and brethren,
we have got him here, and I would recommend that you, young men,
should take him outside the door and kill him.” This was enough;
there was a rush for the villain, who would probably have been killed
but for his escape by an open window. He was never seen again in
New Bedford.
The fifth day after my arrival I put on the clothes of a common
laborer, and went upon the wharves in search of work. On my way
down Union street I saw a large pile of coal in front of the house of
Rev. Ephraim Peabody, the Unitarian minister. I went to the kitchen
door and asked the privilege of bringing in and putting away this
coal. “What will you charge?” said the lady. “I will leave that to you,
madam.” “You may put it away,” she said. I was not long in
accomplishing the job, when the dear lady put into my hand two
silver half dollars. To understand the emotion which swelled my heart
as I clasped this money, realizing that I had no master who could
take it from me—that it was mine—that my hands were my own, and
could earn more of the precious coin—one must have been in some
sense himself a slave. My next job was stowing a sloop at Uncle Gid.
Howland’s wharf with a cargo of oil for New York. I was not only a
freeman but a free-working man, and no Master Hugh stood ready at
the end of the week to seize my hard earnings.
The season was growing late and work was plenty. Ships were
being fitted out for whaling, and much wood was used in storing
them. The sawing this wood was considered a good job. With the
help of old Friend Johnson (blessings on his memory) I got a “saw”
and “buck” and went at it. When I went into a store to buy a cord with
which to brace up my saw in the frame, I asked for a “fip’s” worth of
cord. The man behind the counter looked rather sharply at me, and
said with equal sharpness, “You don’t belong about here.” I was
alarmed, and thought I had betrayed myself. A fip in Maryland was
six and a quarter cents, called fourpence in Massachusetts. But no
harm came, except my fear, from the “fipenny-bit” blunder, and I
confidently and cheerfully went to work with my saw and buck. It was
new business to me, but I never did better work, or more of it in the
same space of time for Covey, the negro-breaker, than I did for
myself in these earliest years of my freedom.
Notwithstanding the just and humane sentiment of New Bedford
three and forty years ago, the place was not entirely free from race
and color prejudice. The good influence of the Roaches, Rodmans,
Arnolds, Grinnells, and Robesons did not pervade all classes of its
people. The test of the real civilization of the community came when
I applied for work at my trade, and then my repulse was emphatic
and decisive. It so happened that Mr. Rodney French, a wealthy and
enterprising citizen, distinguished as an anti-slavery man, was fitting
out a vessel for a whaling voyage, upon which there was a heavy job
of calking and coppering to be done. I had some skill in both
branches, and applied to Mr. French for work. He, generous man
that he was, told me he would employ me, and I might go at once to
the vessel. I obeyed him, but upon reaching the float-stage, where
other calkers were at work, I was told that every white man would
leave the ship in her unfinished condition, if I struck a blow at my
trade upon her. This uncivil, inhuman, and selfish treatment was not
so shocking and scandalous in my eyes at the time as it now
appears to me. Slavery had inured me to hardships that made
ordinary trouble sit lightly upon me. Could I have worked at my trade
I could have earned two dollars a day, but as a common laborer I
received but one dollar. The difference was of great importance to
me, but if I could not get two dollars, I was glad to get one; and so I
went to work for Mr. French as a common laborer. The
consciousness that I was free—no longer a slave—kept me cheerful
under this, and many similar proscriptions, which I was destined to
meet in New Bedford, and elsewhere on the free soil of
Massachusetts. For instance, though white and colored children
attended the same schools, and were treated kindly by their
teachers, the New Bedford Lyceum refused till several years after my
residence in that city to allow any colored person to attend the
lectures delivered in its hall. Not until such men as Hon. Chas.
Sumner, Theodore Parker, Ralph W. Emerson, and Horace Mann
refused to lecture in their course while there was such a restriction,
was it abandoned.
Becoming satisfied that I could not rely on my trade in New
Bedford to give me a living, I prepared myself to do any kind of work
that came to hand. I sawed wood, shoveled coal, dug cellars, moved
rubbish from back-yards, worked on the wharves, loaded and
unloaded vessels, and scoured their cabins.
 This was an uncertain and unsatisfactory mode of life, for it kept
me too much of the time in search of work. Fortunately it was not to
last long. One of the gentlemen of whom I have spoken as being in
company with Mr. Taber on the Newport wharf, when he said to me
“thee get in,” was Mr. Joseph Ricketson; and he was the proprietor of
a large candle works in the south part of the city. In this “candle
works” as it was called, though no candles were manufactured there,
by the kindness of Mr. Ricketson, I found what is of the utmost
importance to a young man just starting in life—constant
employment and regular wages. My work in this oil refinery required
good wind and muscle. Large casks of oil were to be moved from
place to place, and much heavy lifting to be done. Happily I was not
deficient in the requisite qualities. Young (21 years), strong, and
active, and ambitious to do my full share, I soon made myself useful,
and I think liked by the men who worked with me, though they were
all white. I was retained here as long as there was anything for me to
do; when I went again to the wharves and obtained work as a laborer
on two vessels which belonged to Mr. George Howland, and which
were being repaired and fitted up for whaling. My employer was a
man of great industry: a hard driver, but a good paymaster, and I got
on well with him. I was not only fortunate in finding work with Mr.
Howland, but in my work-fellows. I have seldom met three working
men more intelligent than were John Briggs, Abraham Rodman, and
Solomon Pennington, who labored with me on the “Java” and
“Golconda.” They were sober, thoughtful, and upright, thoroughly
imbued with the spirit of liberty, and I am much indebted to them for
many valuable ideas and impressions. They taught me that all
colored men were not light-hearted triflers, incapable of serious
thought or effort. My next place of work was at the brass foundry
owned by Mr. Richmond. My duty here was to blow the bellows,
swing the crane, and empty the flasks in which castings were made;
and at times this was hot and heavy work. The articles produced
here were mostly for ship work, and in the busy season the foundry
was in operation night and day. I have often worked two nights and
each working day of the week. My foreman, Mr. Cobb, was a good
man, and more than once protected me from abuse that one or more
of the hands was disposed to throw upon me. While in this situation I
had little time for mental improvement. Hard work, night and day,
over a furnace hot enough to keep the metal running like water, was
more favorable to action than thought; yet here I often nailed a
newspaper to the post near my bellows, and read while I was
performing the up and down motion of the heavy beam by which the
bellows was inflated and discharged. It was the pursuit of knowledge
under difficulties, and I look back to it now after so many years with
some complacency and a little wonder that I could have been so
earnest and persevering in any pursuit other than for my daily bread.
I certainly saw nothing in the conduct of those around to inspire me
with such interest: they were all devoted exclusively to what their
hands found to do. I am glad to be able to say that during my
engagement in this foundry, no complaint was ever made against
me, that I did not do my work, and do it well. The bellows which I
worked by main strength was after I left moved by a steam engine.
I had been living four or five months in New Bedford when there
came a young man to me with a copy of the Liberator, the paper
edited by William Lloyd Garrison, and published by Isaac Knapp, and
asked me to subscribe for it. I told him I had but just escaped from
slavery, and was of course very poor, and had no money then to pay
for it. He was very willing to take me as a subscriber,
notwithstanding, and from this time I was brought into contact with
the mind of Mr. Garrison, and his paper took a place in my heart
second only to the Bible. It detested slavery, and made no truce with
the traffickers in the bodies and souls of men. It preached human
brotherhood; it exposed hypocrisy and wickedness in high places; it
denounced oppression, and with all the solemnity of “Thus saith the
Lord,” demanded the complete emancipation of my race. I loved this
paper and its editor. He seemed to me an all-sufficient match to
every opponent, whether they spoke in the name of the law or the
gospel. His words were full of holy fire, and straight to the point.
Something of a hero-worshiper by nature, here was one to excite my
admiration and reverence.
Soon after becoming a reader of the Liberator it was my privilege
to listen to a lecture in Liberty Hall, by Mr. Garrison, its editor. He
was then a young man, of a singularly pleasing countenance, and
earnest and impressive manner. On this occasion he announced
nearly all his heresies. His Bible was his text book—held sacred as
the very word of the Eternal Father. He believed in sinless perfection,
complete submission to insults and injuries, and literal obedience to
the injunction if smitten “on one cheek to turn the other also.” Not
only was Sunday a Sabbath, but all days were Sabbaths, and to be
kept holy. All sectarianism was false and mischievous—the
regenerated throughout the world being members of one body, and
the head Christ Jesus. Prejudice against color was rebellion against
God. Of all men beneath the sky, the slaves because most neglected
and despised, were nearest and dearest to his great heart. Those
ministers who defended slavery from the Bible were of their “father
the devil”; and those churches which fellowshiped slaveholders as
Christians, were synagogues of Satan, and our nation was a nation
of liars. He was never loud and noisy, but calm and serene as a
summer sky, and as pure. “You are the man—the Moses, raised up
by God, to deliver his modern Israel from bondage,” was the
spontaneous feeling of my heart, as I sat away back in the hall and
listened to his mighty words,—mighty in truth,—mighty in their simple
earnestness. I had not long been a reader of the Liberator, and a
listener to its editor, before I got a clear comprehension of the
principles of the anti-slavery movement. I had already its spirit, and
only needed to understand its principles and measures, and as I
became acquainted with these my hope for the ultimate freedom of
my race increased. Every week the Liberator came, and every week
I made myself master of its contents. All the anti-slavery meetings
held in New Bedford I promptly attended, my heart bounding at every
true utterance against the slave system, and every rebuke of it by its
friends and supporters. Thus passed the first three years of my free
life. I had not then dreamed of the possibility of my becoming a
public advocate of the cause so deeply imbedded in my heart. It was
enough for me to listen, to receive, and applaud the great words of
others, and only whisper in private, among the white laborers on the
wharves and elsewhere, the truths which burned in my heart.
 CHAPTER III.
INTRODUCED TO THE ABOLITIONISTS.

Anti-Slavery Convention at Nantucket—First Speech—Much Sensation—

Extraordinary Speech of Mr. Garrison—Anti-Slavery Agency—Youthful
Enthusiasm—Fugitive Slaveship Doubted—Experience in Slavery Written
—Danger of Recapture.

IN the summer of 1841 a grand anti-slavery convention was held in

Nantucket, under the auspices of Mr. Garrison and his friends. I had
taken no holiday since establishing myself in New Bedford, and
feeling the need of a little rest, I determined on attending the
meeting, though I had no thought of taking part in any of its
proceedings. Indeed, I was not aware that any one connected with
the convention so much as knew my name. Mr. William C. Coffin, a
prominent abolitionist in those days of trial, had heard me speaking
to my colored friends in the little school house on Second street,
where we worshiped. He sought me out in the crowd and invited me
to say a few words to the convention. Thus sought out, and thus
invited, I was induced to express the feelings inspired by the
occasion, and the fresh recollection of the scenes through which I
had passed as a slave. It was with the utmost difficulty that I could
stand erect, or that I could command and articulate two words
without hesitation and stammering. I trembled in every limb. I am not
sure that my embarrassment was not the most effective part of my
speech, if speech it could be called. At any rate, this is about the
only part of my performance that I now distinctly remember. The
audience sympathized with me at once, and from having been
remarkably quiet, became much excited. Mr. Garrison followed me,
taking me as his text, and now, whether I had made an eloquent plea
in behalf of freedom, or not, his was one, never to be forgotten.
Those who had heard him oftenest, and had known him longest,
were astonished at his masterly effort. For the time he possessed
that almost fabulous inspiration, often referred to but seldom
attained, in which a public meeting is transformed, as it were, into a
single individuality, the orator swaying a thousand heads and hearts
at once, and by the simple majesty of his all-controlling thought,
converting his hearers into the express image of his own soul. That
night there were at least a thousand Garrisonians in Nantucket!
At the close of this great meeting I was duly waited on by Mr.
John A. Collins, then the general agent of the Massachusetts Anti-
Slavery Society, and urgently solicited by him to become an agent of
that society, and publicly advocate its principles. I was reluctant to
take the proffered position. I had not been quite three years from
slavery and was honestly distrustful of my ability, and I wished to be
excused. Besides, publicity might discover me to my master, and
many other objections presented themselves. But Mr. Collins was
not to be refused, and I finally consented to go out for three months,
supposing I should in that length of time come to the end of my story
and my consequent usefulness.
Here opened for me a new life—a life for which I had had no
preparation. Mr. Collins used to say when introducing me to an
audience, I was a “graduate from the peculiar institution, with my
diploma written on my back.” The three years of my freedom had
been spent in the hard school of adversity. My hands seemed to be
furnished with something like a leather coating, and I had marked out
for myself a life of rough labor, suited to the hardness of my hands,
as a means of supporting my family and rearing my children.
Young, ardent, and hopeful, I entered upon this new life in the full
gush of unsuspecting enthusiasm. The cause was good, the men
engaged in it were good, the means to attain its triumph, good.
Heaven’s blessing must attend all, and freedom must soon be given
to the millions pining under a ruthless bondage. My whole heart went
with the holy cause, and my most fervent prayer to the Almighty
Disposer of the hearts of men, was continually offered for its early
triumph. In this enthusiastic spirit I dropped into the ranks of
freedom’s friends and went forth to the battle. For a time I was made
to forget that my skin was dark and my hair crisped. For a time I
regretted that I could not have shared the hardships and dangers
endured by the earlier workers for the slave’s release. I found,
however, full soon that my enthusiasm had been extravagant, that
hardships and dangers were not all over, and that the life now before
me had its shadows also, as well as its sunbeams.
Among the first duties assigned me on entering the ranks was to
travel in company with Mr. George Foster to secure subscribers to
the Anti-Slavery Standard and the Liberator. With him I traveled and
lectured through the eastern counties of Massachusetts. Much
interest was awakened—large meetings assembled. Many came, no
doubt from curiosity to hear what a negro could say in his own
cause. I was generally introduced as a “chattel,”—a “thing”—a piece
of southern property—the chairman assuring the audience that it
could speak. Fugitive slaves were rare then, and as a fugitive slave
lecturer, I had the advantage of being a “bran new fact”—the first one
out. Up to that time, a colored man was deemed a fool who
confessed himself a runaway slave, not only because of the danger
to which he exposed himself of being retaken, but because it was a
confession of a very low origin. Some of my colored friends in New
Bedford thought very badly of my wisdom in thus exposing and
degrading myself. The only precaution I took at the beginning, to
prevent Master Thomas from knowing where I was and what I was
about, was the withholding my former name, my master’s name, and
the name of the State and county from which I came. During the first
three or four months my speeches were almost exclusively made up
of narrations of my own personal experience as a slave. “Let us have
the facts,” said the people. So also said Friend George Foster, who
always wished to pin me down to my simple narrative. “Give us the
facts,” said Collins, “we will take care of the philosophy.” Just here
arose some embarrassment. It was impossible for me to repeat the
same old story, month after month, and to keep up my interest in it. It
was new to the people, it is true, but it was an old story to me; and to
go through with it night after night, was a task altogether too
mechanical for my nature. “Tell your story, Frederick,” would whisper
my revered friend, Mr. Garrison, as I stepped upon the platform. I
could not always follow the injunction, for I was now reading and