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Modeling and Optimization in Science and Technologies 10
Srikanta Patnaik
Xin-She Yang
Kazumi Nakamatsu Editors
Nature-Inspired
Computing and
Optimization
Theory and Applications
Modeling and Optimization in Science
and Technologies
Volume 10
Series editors
Srikanta Patnaik, SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India
e-mail: patnaik_srikanta@yahoo.co.in
Ishwar K. Sethi, Oakland University, Rochester, USA
e-mail: isethi@oakland.edu
Xiaolong Li, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, USA
e-mail: Xiaolong.Li@indstate.edu
Editorial Board
Li Cheng, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
Jeng-Haur Horng, National Formosa University, Yulin, Taiwan
Pedro U. Lima, Institute for Systems and Robotics, Lisbon, Portugal
Mun-Kew Leong, Institute of Systems Science, National University of Singapore
Muhammad Nur, Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia
Luca Oneto, University of Genoa, Italy
Kay Chen Tan, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Sarma Yadavalli, University of Pretoria, South Africa
Yeon-Mo Yang, Kumoh National Institute of Technology, Gumi, South Korea
Liangchi Zhang, The University of New South Wales, Australia
Baojiang Zhong, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
Ahmed Zobaa, Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UK
About this Series
The book series Modeling and Optimization in Science and Technologies (MOST)
publishes basic principles as well as novel theories and methods in the fast-evolving
field of modeling and optimization. Topics of interest include, but are not limited to:
methods for analysis, design and control of complex systems, networks and
machines; methods for analysis, visualization and management of large data sets;
use of supercomputers for modeling complex systems; digital signal processing;
molecular modeling; and tools and software solutions for different scientific and
technological purposes. Special emphasis is given to publications discussing novel
theories and practical solutions that, by overcoming the limitations of traditional
methods, may successfully address modern scientific challenges, thus promoting
scientific and technological progress. The series publishes monographs, contributed
volumes and conference proceedings, as well as advanced textbooks. The main
targets of the series are graduate students, researchers and professionals working at
the forefront of their fields.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10577

Srikanta Patnaik Xin-She Yang
•
Kazumi Nakamatsu
Editors
Nature-Inspired Computing
and Optimization
Theory and Applications
123
Editors
Srikanta Patnaik Kazumi Nakamatsu
Department of Computer Science School of Human Science and Environment
and Engineering University of Hyogo
SOA University Himeji
Bhubaneswar, Odisha Japan
India
Xin-She Yang
School of Science and Technology
Middlesex University
London
UK
ISSN 2196-7326 ISSN 2196-7334 (electronic)

Modeling and Optimization in Science and Technologies
ISBN 978-3-319-50919-8 ISBN 978-3-319-50920-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-50920-4
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016960712
© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made.
Printed on acid-free paper
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The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
Nature-inspired computing provides promising and effective approaches for prob-

lem solving in optimization, machine intelligence, data mining and resource
management. Nature has evolved over millions of years under a variety of chal-
lenging environments and can thus provide a rich source of inspiration for
designing algorithms and approaches to tackle challenging problems in real-world
applications.
The success of these algorithms in applications has increased their popularity in
recent years, and active research has also led to the significant increase in the
number of algorithms in recent years. It is estimated that about 140 different types
of algorithms now exist in the literature, and this number is certainly gradually
increasing. Researchers have tried to find inspiration from various sources in nature,
such as ants, bees, fish, birds, mammals, plants, physical and chemical systems such
as gravity, river systems, waves and pheromone. This leads to a diverse of range of
algorithms with different capabilities and different levels of performance.
However, such diversity may also cause confusion and distractions from
important research topics. For example, many researchers wonder why such
algorithms work and what their mathematical foundations for different search
algorithms are. At the moment, it still lacks good theoretical understanding of
metaheuristics. In fact, without a good mathematical framework, it is difficult to
establish any solid mathematical foundation for analysing such algorithms. Such
lack of theoretical analysis, together with different claims of results, it is under-
standable that misunderstanding and criticism have arisen in the research com-
munity concerning some metaheuristic algorithms.
There is a strong need for the whole research community to review carefully the
developments concerning metaheuristics and bio-inspired computation so as to
identify the key challenges, to inspire further research and to encourage innovative
approaches that can help to develop effective tools for tackling hard problems in
applications.
This book provides readers a timely snapshot of the state-of-the-art develop-
ments in the field of nature-inspired computing and its application in optimization,
with the emphasis on both new applications and analysis of algorithms in their
v
vi Preface
implementation context. Therefore, this book is intended as a practice-oriented

reference guide for students, researchers and professionals.
Despite the recent developments and the success of these algorithms, there are
still some key issues that need further investigation. For example, there still lacks a
general mathematical framework for analysing nature-inspired algorithms. In
addition, the applications and case studies in the current literature have not focused
on the large-scale problems yet. Thus, it is hoped that this book can inspire further
research with a special focus on finding solutions for key challenges, including
theoretical analysis, benchmarking, performance evaluation and large-scale
applications.
We would like to thank the review board members for their constructive com-
ments on the manuscripts of all the chapters during the peer-review process, which
have greatly helped to ensure and improve the quality of the book. We also would
like to thank the editors and staff at Springer for their help and professionalism. Last
but not least, we thank our families for their help and support.
Bhubaneswar, India Srikanta Patnaik

London, UK Xin-She Yang
Himeji, Japan Kazumi Nakamatsu
October 2016
Contents
The Nature of Nature: Why Nature-Inspired Algorithms Work . . . .... 1

David Green, Aldeida Aleti and Julian Garcia
1 Introduction: How Nature Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 The Nature of Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1 Fitness Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Graphs and Phase Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3 Nature-Inspired Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1 Genetic Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 Ant Colony Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Simulated Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4 Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4 Dual-Phase Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 GA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.3 Ant Colony Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.4 Simulated Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5 Evolutionary Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.1 Markov Chain Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.2 The Replicator Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6 Generalized Local Search Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.1 The Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.2 SA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.3 GA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6.4 ACO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.5 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
vii
viii Contents
Multimodal Function Optimization Using an Improved

Bat Algorithm in Noise-Free and Noisy Environments. . . . . . ......... 29
Momin Jamil, Hans-Jürgen Zepernick and Xin-She Yang
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2 Improved Bat Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3 IBA for Multimodal Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.1 Parameter Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2 Test Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3 Numerical Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4 Performance Comparison of IBA with Other Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5 IBA Performance in AWGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.1 Numerical Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Multi-objective Ant Colony Optimisation in Wireless
Sensor Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 51
Ansgar Kellner
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2 Multi-objective Combinatorial Optimisation Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.1 Combinatorial Optimisation Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.2 Multi-objective Combinatorial Optimisation Problems . . . . . . . . . 53
2.3 Pareto Optimality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.4 Decision-Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.5 Solving Combinatorial Optimisation Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3 Multi-objective Ant Colony Optimisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.2 Multi-objective Ant Colony Optimisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4 Applications of MOACO Algorithms in WSNs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Generating the Training Plans Based on Existing Sports Activities
Using Swarm Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 79
Iztok Fister Jr. and Iztok Fister
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2 Artificial Sports Trainer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3 Generating the Training Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.1 Preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.2 Optimization Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5 Conclusion with Future Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Contents ix
Limiting Distribution and Mixing Time for Genetic Algorithms . . . .... 95

S. Alwadani, F. Mendivil and R. Shonkwiler
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2 Preliminaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.1 Random Search and Markov Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.2 Boltzmann Distribution and Simulated Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3 Expected Hitting Time as a Means of Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.1 “No Free Lunch” Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4 The Holland Genetic Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5 A Simple Genetic Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6 Shuffle-Bit GA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.1 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.2 Estimate of Expected Hitting Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7 Discussion and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Permutation Problems, Genetic Algorithms, and Dynamic
Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 123
James Alexander Hughes, Sheridan Houghten and Daniel Ashlock
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2 Problem Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.1 Bin Packing Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.2 Graph Colouring Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.3 Travelling Salesman Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3 Previous Work on Small Travelling Salesman Problem Instances . . . . . 127
4 Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.1 2-Opt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.2 Lin–Kernighan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.3 Genetic Algorithm Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.4 Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5 Experimental Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
x Contents
Hybridization of the Flower Pollination Algorithm—A Case Study in

the Problem of Generating Healthy Nutritional Meals for Older
Adults. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Cristina Bianca Pop, Viorica Rozina Chifu, Ioan Salomie,
Dalma Szonja Racz and Razvan Mircea Bonta
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2.1 Optimization Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2.2 Meta-Heuristic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4 Problem Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.1 Search Space and Solution Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.2 Fitness Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.3 Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5 Hybridizing the Flower Pollination Algorithm for Generating
Personalized Menu Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.1 Hybrid Flower Pollination-Based Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.2 Flower Pollination-Based Algorithms for Generating
Personalized Menu Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.3 The Iterative Stage of the Hybrid Flower Pollination-Based
Algorithm for Generating Healthy Menu Recommendations . . . . . 166
6 Performance Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.1 Experimental Prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.2 Test Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.3 Setting the Optimal Values of the Algorithms' Adjustable
Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.4 Comparison Between the Classical and Hybrid Flower
Pollination-Based Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Nature-inspired Algorithm-based Optimization for Beamforming
of Linear Antenna Array System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 185
Gopi Ram, Durbadal Mandal, S.P. Ghoshal and Rajib Kar
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2 Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3 Flower Pollination Algorithm [55] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3.1 Global Pollination: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.2 Local Pollination: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.3 Pseudo-code for FPA: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.1 Optimization of Hyper-Beam by Using FPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.2 Comparisons of Accuracies Based on t test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5 Convergence Characteristics of Different Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Contents xi
6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7 Future Research Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Multi-Agent Optimization of Resource-Constrained Project
Scheduling Problem Using Nature-Inspired Computing . . . . . . . . . . .... 217
Pragyan Nanda, Sritam Patnaik and Srikanta Patnaik
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
1.1 Multi-agent System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
1.2 Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
1.3 Nature-Inspired Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
2 Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
3 Various Nature-Inspired Computation Techniques for RCPSP . . . . . . . . 222
3.1 Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
3.2 Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) for RCPSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
3.3 Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
3.4 Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) for RCPSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
3.5 Shuffled Frog-Leaping Algorithm (SFLA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
3.6 Shuffled Frog-Leaping Algorithm (SFLA) for RCPSP . . . . . . . . . 232
3.7 Multi-objective Invasive Weed Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
3.8 Multi-objective Invasive Weed Optimization for MRCPSP . . . . . . 235
3.9 Discrete Flower Pollination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
3.10 Discrete Flower Pollination for RCPSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
3.11 Discrete Cuckoo Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
3.12 Discrete Cuckoo Search for RCPSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
3.13 Multi-agent Optimization Algorithm (MAOA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4 Proposed Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
4.1 RCPSP for Retail Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
4.2 Cooperative Hunting Behaviour of Lion Pride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
5 A Lion Pride-Inspired Multi-Agent System-Based Approach
for RCPSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 242
6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 244
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 244
Application of Learning Classifier Systems to Gene Expression
Analysis in Synthetic Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 247
Changhee Han, Kenji Tsuge and Hitoshi Iba
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 248
2 Learning Classifier Systems: Creating Rules that Describe
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
2.1 Basic Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
2.2 Michigan- and Pittsburgh-style LCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
3 Examples of LCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
3.1 Minimal Classifier Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
xii Contents
3.2 Zeroth-level Classifier Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

3.3 Extended Classifier Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
4 Synthetic Biology: Designing Biological Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
4.1 The Synthetic Biology Design Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
4.2 Basic Biological Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
4.3 DNA Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
4.4 Future Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
5 Gene Expression Analysis with LCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
6 Optimization of Artificial Operon Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
7 Optimization of Artificial Operon Construction
by Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7.2 Artificial Operon Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7.3 Experimental Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
7.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
7.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Ant Colony Optimization for Semantic Searching of Distributed
Dynamic Multiclass Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 277
Kamil Krynicki and Javier Jaen
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
2 P2p Search Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
3 Nature-Inspired Ant Colony Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
4 Nature-Inspired Strategies in Dynamic Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
4.1 Network Dynamism Inefficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
4.2 Solution Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
4.3 Experimental Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
5 Nature-Inspired Strategies of Semantic Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
5.1 Semantic Query Inefficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
5.2 Solution Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
5.3 Experimental Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
6 Conclusions and Future Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Adaptive Virtual Topology Control Based on Attractor
Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 305
Yuki Koizumi, Shin'ichi Arakawa and Masayuki Murata
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
2 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
3 Attractor Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
3.1 Concept of Attractor Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
3.2 Cell Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Contents xiii
3.3 Mathematical Model of Attractor Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 310

4 Virtual Topology Control Based on Attractor Selection . . . . . . . . . .... 312
4.1 Virtual Topology Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 312
4.2 Overview of Virtual Topology Control Based on Attractor
Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
4.3 Dynamics of Virtual Topology Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
4.4 Attractor Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
4.5 Dynamic Reconfiguration of Attractor Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
5 Performance Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
5.1 Simulation Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
5.2 Dynamics of Virtual Topology Control Based on Attractor
Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
5.3 Adaptability to Node Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
5.4 Effects of Noise Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
5.5 Effects of Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
5.6 Effects of Reconfiguration Methods of Attractor Structure . . . . . . 325
6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
CBO-Based TDR Approach for Wiring Network Diagnosis . . . . . . .... 329
Hamza Boudjefdjouf, Francesco de Paulis, Houssem Bouchekara,
Antonio Orlandi and Mostafa K. Smail
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
2 The Proposed TDR-CBO-Based Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
2.1 Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
2.2 The Forward Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
2.3 Colliding Bodies Optimization (CBO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
3 Applications and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
3.1 The Y-Shaped Wiring Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
3.2 The YY-shaped Wiring Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Morphological Filters: An Inspiration from Natural Geometrical
Erosion and Dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 349
Mahdi Khosravy, Neeraj Gupta, Ninoslav Marina, Ishwar K. Sethi
and Mohammad Reza Asharif
1 Natural Geometrical Inspired Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
2 Mathematical Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
2.1 Morphological Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
3 Morphological Operators and Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
3.1 Sets and Corresponding Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
3.2 Basic Properties for Morphological Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
3.3 Set Dilation and Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
xiv Contents
3.4 A Geometrical Interpretation of Dilation

and Erosion Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 359
3.5 Direct Effect of Edges and Borders on the Erosion
and Dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
3.6 Closing and Opening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
3.7 A Historical Review to Definitions and Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
4 Practical Interpretation of Binary Opening and Closing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
5 Morphological Operators in Grayscale Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
5.1 Basic Morphological Operators in Multivalued Function
Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 370
5.2 Dilation and Erosion of Multivalued Functions. . . . . . . . . . . .... 374
5.3 Two Forms of Presentation for Dilation
and Erosion Formula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 375
6 Opening and Closing of Multivalued Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 376
7 Interpretation and Intuitive Understanding of Morphological
Filters in Multivalued Function Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 377
8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 379
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 379
Brain Action Inspired Morphological Image Enhancement . . . . . . . .... 381
Mahdi Khosravy, Neeraj Gupta, Ninoslav Marina, Ishwar K. Sethi
and Mohammad Reza Asharif
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
2 Human Visual Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
3 Visual Illusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
4 Visual Illusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
4.1 Rotating Snakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
5 Mach Bands Illusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
6 Image Enhancement Inspiration from Human Visual Illusion . . . . . . . . . 393
7 Morphological Image Enhancement Based on Visual Illusion . . . . . . . . 394
8 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Path Generation for Software Testing: A Hybrid Approach Using
Cuckoo Search and Bat Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 409
Praveen Ranjan Srivastava
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
2 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
3 Motivational Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
3.1 Cuckoo Search Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
3.2 Bat Algorithm [12] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
4 Proposed Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Contents xv
5 Path Sequence Generation and Prioritization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

6 Analysis of Proposed Algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
7 Conclusions and Future Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
An Improved Spider Monkey Optimization for Solving a Convex
Economic Dispatch Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 425
Ahmed Fouad Ali
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
2 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
3 Economic Dispatch Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
3.1 Problem Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
3.2 Penalty Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
4 Social Behavior and Foraging of Spider Monkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
4.1 Fission–Fusion Social Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
4.2 Social Organization and Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
4.3 Communication of Spider Monkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
4.4 Characteristic of Spider Monkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
4.5 The Standard Spider Monkey Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . 430
4.6 Spider Monkey Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
5 Multidirectional Search Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
6 The Proposed MDSMO Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
7 Numerical Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
7.1 Parameter Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
7.2 Six-Generator Test System with System Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
7.3 The General Performance of the Proposed MDSMO with
Economic Dispatch Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
7.4 MDSMO and Other Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
8 Conclusion and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Chance-Constrained Fuzzy Goal Programming with Penalty
Functions for Academic Resource Planning in University Management
Using Genetic Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Bijay Baran Pal, R. Sophia Porchelvi and Animesh Biswas
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
2 FGP Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
2.1 Membership Function Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
2.2 Deterministic Equivalents of Chance Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
3 Formulation of Priority Based FGP Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
3.1 Euclidean Distance Function for Priority
Structure Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
4 FGP Model with Penalty Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
4.1 Penalty Function Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
xvi Contents
4.2 Priority Based FGP Model with Penalty Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 460

4.3 GA Scheme for FGP Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
5 FGP Formulation of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
5.1 Definitions of Decision Variables and Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
5.2 Descriptions of Fuzzy Goals and Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
6 A Case Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
6.1 An Illustration for Performance Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Swarm Intelligence: A Review of Algorithms . ..................... 475
Amrita Chakraborty and Arpan Kumar Kar
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
2 Research Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
3 Insect-Based Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
3.1 Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
3.2 Bee-Inspired Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
3.3 Firefly-Based Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
3.4 Glow-Worm-Based Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
4 Animal-Based Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
4.1 Bat-Based Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
4.2 Monkey-Based Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
4.3 Lion-Based Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
4.4 Wolf-Based Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
5 Future Research Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Contributors
Aldeida Aleti Faculty of Information Technology, Monash University, Clayton,

Australia
Ahmed Fouad Ali Faculty of Computers and Informatics, Department of
Computer Science, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
S. Alwadani Acadia University, Wolfville, NS, Canada
Shin’ichi Arakawa Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
Mohammad Reza Asharif Faculty of Engineering, Information Department,
University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
Daniel Ashlock University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
Animesh Biswas Department of Mathematics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani,
West Bengal, India
Razvan Mircea Bonta Computer Science Department, Technical University of
Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Houssem Bouchekara Constantine Electrical Engineering Laboratory, LEC,
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Constantine 1, Constantine,
Algeria
Hamza Boudjefdjouf Constantine Electrical Engineering Laboratory, LEC,
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Constantine 1, Constantine,
Algeria
Amrita Chakraborty Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Viorica Rozina Chifu Computer Science Department, Technical University of
Iztok Fister Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University
of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
xvii
xviii Contributors
Iztok Fister Jr. Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science,

University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
Julian Garcia Faculty of Information Technology, Monash University, Clayton,
Australia
S.P. Ghoshal Department of ECE, NIT Durgapur, India
David Green Faculty of Information Technology, Monash University, Clayton,
Australia
Neeraj Gupta Faculty of Machine Intelligence and Robotics (MIR), University of
Information Science and Technology, Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia
Changhee Han Graduate School of Information Science and Technology, The
University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Sheridan Houghten Brock University, St. Catharines, ON, Canada
James Alexander Hughes Brock University, St. Catharines, ON, Canada
Hitoshi Iba Graduate School of Information Science and Technology, The
University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Javier Jaen DSIC, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain
Momin Jamil Harman/Becker Automotive Systems GmbH, Karlsbad, Germany
Arpan Kumar Kar Information Systems, DMS, Indian Institute of Technology,
Delhi, New Delhi, India
Rajib Kar Department of ECE, NIT Durgapur, India
Ansgar Kellner Institute of System Security, Technische Universität
Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
Mahdi Khosravy Faculty of Computers Networks and Security (CNS), University
of Information Science and Technology, Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia
Yuki Koizumi Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
Kamil Krynicki DSIC, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain
Durbadal Mandal Department of ECE, NIT Durgapur, India
Ninoslav Marina University of Information Science and Technology, Ohrid,
Republic of Macedonia
F. Mendivil Acadia University, Wolfville, NS, Canada
Masayuki Murata Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
Pragyan Nanda Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Department of
Computer Science and Engineering, SOA University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Contributors xix
Antonio Orlandi UAq EMC Laboratory, Department of Industrial and

Information Engineering and Economics, University of L’Aquila, L’Aquila, Italy
Bijay Baran Pal Department of Mathematics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani,
West Bengal, India
Srikanta Patnaik Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Department of
Computer Science and Engineering, SOA University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Sritam Patnaik Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, School of
Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
Francesco de Paulis UAq EMC Laboratory, Department of Industrial and
Information Engineering and Economics, University of L’Aquila, L’Aquila, Italy
Cristina Bianca Pop Computer Science Department, Technical University of
R. Sophia Porchelvi Department of Mathematics, ADM College for Women,
Nagapattinam, India
Dalma Szonja Racz Computer Science Department, Technical University of
Gopi Ram Department of ECE, NIT Durgapur, India
Ioan Salomie Computer Science Department, Technical University of
Ishwar K. Sethi Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Oakland
University, Rochester, Oakland, MI, USA
R. Shonkwiler Georgia Tech, Atlanta, Georgia
Mostafa K. Smail Institut Polytechnique des Sciences Avancées (IPSA),
Ivry-sur-Seine, France
Praveen Ranjan Srivastava Information System and System Area, Indian
Institute of Management (IIM) Rohtak, Rohtak, India
Kenji Tsuge Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Keio University, Tsuruoka,
Yamagata, Japan
Xin-She Yang Middlesex University, School of Science and Technology, London,
UK
Hans-Jürgen Zepernick Blekinge Institute of Technology, Karlskrona, Sweden
Members of Review Board
M.T. Ayvaz, Pamukkale University, Turkey

Sarada Baboo, Sambalpur University, India
Shi Cheng, University of Nottingham Ningbo, China
Iztok Fister Jr., University of Maribor, Slovenia
Andres Iglesias, University of Cantabria, Spain
Momin Jamil, Harman International, Germany
Alok Kumar Jagadev, KIIT University, India
Arpan Kumar Kar, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India
Rajiv Mall, Indian Institute of Technology, India
Kazumi Nakamatsu, University of Hyogo, Japan
Pragyan Nanda, SOA University, India
Ajit Nayak, SOA University, India
Aziz Ouaarab, Cadi Ayyad University, Morocco
Srikanta Patnaik, SOA University, India
Sugam Sharma, Iowa State University, USA
T.O. Ting, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, China
Hui Wang, Nanchang Institute of Technology, China
Xin-She Yang, Middlesex University, UK
Lina Zhang, Harbin Engineering University, China
xxi
The Nature of Nature: Why Nature-Inspired
Algorithms Work
David Green, Aldeida Aleti and Julian Garcia
Abstract Nature has inspired many algorithms for solving complex problems.
Understanding how and why these natural models work leads not only to new insights
about nature, but also to an understanding of deep relationships between familiar
algorithms. Here, we show that network properties underlie and define a whole fam-
ily of nature-inspired algorithms. In particular, the network defined by neighbour-
hoods within landscapes (real or virtual) underlies the searches and phase transitions
mediate between local and global search. Three paradigms drawn from computer
science—dual-phase evolution, evolutionary dynamics and generalized local search
machines—provide theoretical foundations for understanding how nature-inspired
algorithms function. Several algorithms provide useful examples, especially genetic
algorithms, ant colony optimization and simulated annealing.
Keywords Nature-inspired algorithms · Dual-phase evolution · Evolutionary

dynamics · Generalized local search machines
1 Introduction: How Nature Works
Borrowing from nature has become a well-established practice in computing. The

reasons for this are easy to understand. Computing has to deal with increasingly
complex problems where traditional methods often do not work well. Natural sys-
tems have evolved ways to solve such problems. Methods borrowed from nature
include both ways to represent and model systems, such as cellular automata or
neural networks, and procedures to solve complex problems.
D. Green · A. Aleti (B) · J. Garcia

Faculty of Information Technology, Monash University, Clayton 3800, Australia
e-mail: aldeida.aleti@monash.edu
D. Green
e-mail: david.green@monash.edu
J. Garcia
e-mail: julian.garcia@monash.edu
© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1

S. Patnaik et al. (eds.), Nature-Inspired Computing and Optimization,
Modeling and Optimization in Science and Technologies 10,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-50920-4_1
2 D. Green et al.
The motivation for basing algorithms on nature is that the natural processes con-
cerned are known to produce desirable results, such as finding an optimal value of
some feature. This observation has inspired many algorithms based on nature. Despite
their effectiveness, methods modelled on nature have often been treated with sus-
picion. Traditional mathematical methods, such as linear programming, are based
on well-known theoretical foundations. So their interpretation, and their limitations,
can be tested analytically. In contrast, nature-based methods are ad hoc heuristics
based on phenomena whose properties are not always understood, even by biology.
The above issues raise a need to identify theoretical foundations to underpin
nature-based algorithms. To address this need, we set out to do the following in
this account. First, we identify features that are common to many nature-inspired
algorithms and show how these are described by a formal model that explains why
the algorithms work. Secondly, we describe three frameworks for describing nature-
inspired algorithms and their operation. Finally, we discuss some deeper issues about
the differences between natural processes and methods based on them. This includes
both the danger of simplifying nature and further lessons we can derive from the way
processes actually work in nature.
2 The Nature of Nature
Many natural processes have inspired optimization algorithms. However, most of

them share a common underlying model, which reveals how they work. We begin
with a simple example that captures the main features. The great deluge algorithm
(GDA) is based on the idea of an agent moving about in a landscape, and the landscape
is in the process of being flooded [18]. Initially, the agent can wander freely anywhere
in the landscape. However, the rising water level prevents entry into low-lying areas.
These areas expand and coalesce, until eventually the agent is trapped on a single
peak, after which all it can do is to climb to the top of that peak.
An optimization algorithm based on GDA interprets model parameters as coordi-
nates in an N-dimensional ‘landscape’. The object variable, which is to be maximized,
is treated as elevation. The flood level then becomes a constraining lower limit on
the object function, which is gradually raised. The agent is a model that performs a
random walk through the solution space, rejecting any move to a region where the
object function falls below the flood level. The algorithm terminates when the agent
can no longer find anywhere above flood level. An important feature of the algorithm
is a transition from ‘global search’ in which it can move freely anywhere, to ‘local
search’, in which it is constrained to a local neighbourhood.
In the great deluge algorithm, the agent continues to take a random walk within
the local region in which it is confined and is forced to move uphill as rising water
level progressively shrinks the size of the region. A more efficient approach to this
final search is ‘hill climbing’. Based on the analogy with a mountaineer ascending
a mountain, in hill climbing the agent does not wander at random, but moves uphill
on every step, until it reaches a local peak.
The Nature of Nature: Why Nature-Inspired Algorithms Work 3
By mimicking natural processes, nature-inspired algorithms (NIAs) provide ways

to find a target by navigating a search through a network of possibilities. The manner
of these searches sometimes reveals deep similarities between completely different
systems. Other algorithms, for example simulated annealing (see Sect. 3.3) and the
great deluge algorithm use analogues with natural processes to manage a switch from
what is initially a global search to a local search in their final stages.
We can see another example of deep similarity if we compare the gravitational
search algorithm (GSA) [67] and the firefly algorithm [81]. Both involve attraction
between potential solutions. Initially, these are scattered across a search space, and
weaker solutions move towards better ones. GSA represents solutions as objects
in an N -dimensional space. Their locations are given by values of N parameters,
and their masses are values of the object function. Gravitational attraction draws
the objects towards each other, with smaller masses moving closer to larger ones.
The firefly algorithm mimics the flashing behaviour of fireflies. As in GSA, the
fireflies are scattered over an N-dimensional space. The brightness of a firefly’s
flashes corresponds to the quality of its solution. Fireflies are attracted to others with
brighter flashes, but brightness decreases with distance.
The simple models discussed above capture features that are present in many
nature-inspired algorithms (NIAs). The procedures are characterized as a search
through a space defined by values of the variables, with a transition from a global
search to a local search. For optimization problems, the idea of a search space leads
to the concept of a ‘fitness landscape’.
2.1 Fitness Landscape
The notion of a ‘fitness landscape’ is an abstraction developed in evolutionary theory

and borrowed by the optimization community to explain the relationship between an
optimization problem and the search algorithm. For optimization problems, many
NIAs provide ways to search the fitness landscape.
Formally, a fitness landscape has the following components: (i) a set of possible
solutions s, also known as the search space, (ii) the distance (neighbourhood) opera-
tor, which assigns each solution s ∈ s to a set of neighbours n ⊂ s and (iii) the fitness
function F : s → . An example of a fitness landscape is shown in Fig. 1.
As the neighbourhood of a solution depends on the distance operator, a given
problem can have any number of fitness landscapes. The neighbourhoods can be very
large, such as the ones arising from the crossover operator of a genetic algorithm or
as small as the ones created by a 1-flip operator.
The neighbourhood operator influences the topology of the fitness landscape and,
as a consequence, the performance of the algorithm. A neighbourhood operator that
creates a fitness landscape with one local optimum that is also the global optimum
would be easy to search with a local search method. When the fitness landscape has
plateaux, the progress of a search algorithm could easily stagnate, because of the
4 D. Green et al.
2
Fitness
-2
-4
-6
4
-8
-3 2
-2 0
-1
0 Variable 2
1 -2
Variable 1 2
-4
3
Fig. 1 An example of a fitness landscape of a maximization problem. Note the two small peaks
(local optima) in front of the large one (global optimum)
search iterating between equally fit solutions. Plateaux can be detrimental to most
search algorithms which rely on gradients they can follow.
The shape and size of gradients and the distribution of local optima are also
features that decide the effectiveness of one algorithm over another. For instance,
if the difference in fitness between any two neighbouring solutions is on average
small, then the landscape is more likely to be easy to negotiate for a wide range of
local search methods. In contrast, if a significant fitness difference is observed in the
neighbourhood, the choice of the search algorithm becomes important.
2.2 Graphs and Phase Changes
As we saw earlier with the great deluge algorithm, many optimization algorithms
involve a combination of global search and local search. In terms of a fitness land-
scape, a global search aims to find a high mountain to climb, and a local search tries
to find the top of a single mountain. The challenge is how to strike a balance between
the two. Many natural processes achieve this balance by exploiting a mathematical
property of connectivity in graphs.
Fig. 2 The spread of an epidemic process (e.g. a fire) shows how connectivity in a fitness landscape
produces a transition from global to local search. Here, a grid represents space, with white cells
denoting empty space, grey denoting fuel andblack cells denoting burnt areas. When a fire starts at
the centre of the grid, its spread can be viewed as a search for neighbouring cells that contain fuel. a
If the density of fuel is subcritical, then the fire is restricted in a small, isolated area (local search).
b If the density of fuel is supercritical, then the fire spreads across the entire landscape
A graph is a set of nodes together with edges, which link pairs of nodes. Points
in a fitness landscape form a graph, with neighbourhoods defining the edges. The
larger the neighbourhood, the more edges connect the point to others.
If a graph is formed by adding edges at random to a set of nodes, then as the num-
ber of edges grows steadily in size, the resulting clumps that form remain small until
a critical density is reached, whereupon a connectivity avalanche occurs, absorbing
almost all the nodes into a single ‘giant component’ [19, 20]. In effect, the connec-
tivity avalanche means that a graph has two phases: connected and fragmented.
The connectivity avalanche explains how natural processes are able to mediate
between local and global searches. In a fitness landscape, removing areas in the
manner of the great deluge creates holes, thus removing edges from the underlying
graph until the graph fragments (Fig. 2). Other natural processes, and the algorithms
based on them, achieve the same effect by other means.
The flower pollination algorithm uses analogies with the way flowers pollinate
to manage the balance between local search and global search [80, 83]. Here, the
‘flowers’ are potential solutions to a problem, and like several other algorithms,
variables determine their location in ‘space’. Breeding occurs by pollination. Cross-
pollination (‘global pollination’) occurs when different ‘flowers’ trade pollen. Self-
pollination (‘local pollination’) occurs when a flower pollinates itself. The crucial
step is the transition between the two processes. The bat algorithm mimics the way
bats home in on prey [82]. Like the flower pollination algorithm, the organisms
(bats) are potential solutions to a problem and parameter values determine their
6 D. Green et al.
location in ‘space’. The bat makes a random walk through the environment, but uses
echolocation to detect food (global search). When food is located, the bat switches
to a local random walk to close in on its goal.
3 Nature-Inspired Algorithms
Nature-inspired algorithms (NIAs) are sometimes termed meta-heuristics. This

means either they incorporate other, simpler methods as part of their operation, or
they can be set over other methods to overcome problems in behaviour. For instance,
local search methods, such as hill climbing, can become trapped on a foothill in the
fitness landscape, rather than the mountain. NIAs can prevent searches becoming
trapped this way. As we saw earlier, many NIAs achieve this by enabling transitions
from global to local search.
Among the large number of NIAs, we have selected three prominent algorithms
to analyse in this work. Each method mimics a unique natural process. These are
genetic algorithms, ant colony optimization and simulated annealing. The way they
carry out the search is based on quite different processes. Genetic algorithms are
iterative methods, as they iteratively evolve (change) a population of solutions that
are randomly initialized. Ant colony optimization belongs to the class of constructive
methods, since they build a solution one step at a time, based on the knowledge learnt
in the previous steps. Simulated annealing, on the other hand, is an iterative search
method that adapts the search procedure based on a time-dependent schedule. The
following sections describe the natural processes that have inspired the development
of these three unique NIAs and the theoretical investigations that have been carried
out to prove their convergence.
3.1 Genetic Algorithm
Genetic algorithms [44] are optimization methods that mimic the process of evolution
and natural selection. They are part of a larger class of methods known as evolutionary
algorithms (EAs).
The main components of natural evolution that are part of a GA are inheritance,
mutation, crossover and selection. They are known as genetic operators. GAs main-
tain a population of solutions that evolves by means of these genetic operators.
The optimization process starts with a set of solutions as initial population that are
randomly initialized or created by applying some heuristic. Genetic operators are
applied with predefined rates. The new individuals are added to the population, and
the replacement procedure selects the solutions that will survive to the next generation
to maintain the prescribed population size.
3.2 Ant Colony Optimization
The algorithm of ant colony optimization (ACO) [16] was built from inspiration by
the foraging behaviour of ants. When ants search for food, they initially explore the
area around their nest in a random way. When a food source is found, the ants carry
it back to the nest, at the same time depositing a chemical pheromone trail on the
ground. This trail is intended to guide the other ants to the food source, which will
also deposit more pheromone in the trail. As time goes by, some of the pheromone
is evaporated, and the trail may disappear if it is not updated with more pheromone.
This indirect communication between ants has been shown to enable the ant colony
to establish the shortest path to the food source [15]. The natural phenomenon of
intensification of short (high-quality) paths, and evaporation (forgetting paths that
are not so good), has inspired a set of methods known as ant colony optimization
(ACO).
ACO algorithms are based on a parameterized probabilistic model (pheromone
model) that builds on high-quality results found in the past. This usage of memory is
considered one of the most important elements of a powerful approximate method [7].
In ACO, ants build a solution by performing randomized walks through the solu-
tion space. Each move is made stochastically, biased by the pheromone levels. In the
initial phase of the algorithm, pheromone levels are equal and the first solutions are
created through uniformly randomly chosen values.
The local pheromone update prescribed by ACO specifies that every time an ant
makes a move, the amount of pheromone on all paths is decreased according to
the evaporation rate in the interval [0, 1]. The local pheromone update enables the
diversity of exploration within the same iteration. Ants of the same iteration are less
likely to build the same path when pheromone is evaporated immediately after a move
has been made. As a result, the diversity of the solutions provided is enhanced. The
pheromone information on each move is increased by a quantity measured according
to the fitness of solutions.
3.3 Simulated Annealing
Simulated annealing (SA) [48] is inspired from the technique of annealing in metal-
lurgy. This involves the heating and slow cooling of a material in a controlled way to
reduce defects that are related to the material’s thermodynamic free energy. Heating
and cooling the material affect both the thermodynamic free energy and the tempera-
ture. In SA, energy is interpreted as fitness, and the slow cooling process is interpreted
as the decrease in the probability of accepting worse solutions while exploring the
fitness landscape of an optimization problem. The acceptance criterion is known as
the Metropolis condition, defined for a maximization problem as follows:
8 D. Green et al.

1 if f (s ) > f (s)
p(T, s, s ) = f (s )− f (s)
e T otherwise,
where s is the current search position and s is one of its neighbours. The high accep-
tance of worse solutions at the beginning of the search (when the temperature is
high) allows for a more extensive exploration of the search space. As the temper-
ature decreases, worse solutions become less likely to be accepted, which leads to
convergence of the algorithm.
3.4 Convergence
Theoretical investigations of NIAs have mainly focused on convergence [13, 14, 28,
77]; that is, given enough resource, will NIAs find an optimal solution? In GAs,
Schmitt [69] establishes mutation as the main force in the random generator phase
that assures ergodicity of the Markov chain describing the algorithm. The crossover
operator was found to help mutation in the random generation by adding to the
contraction process over the state space. With no mutation, however, crossover and
selection operators show a convergence effect known as genetic drift [69].
A Markov chain describing an algorithm without mutations is usually not ergodic,
and its dynamics depend on the initial population. Schmitt [69] also shows that GAs
do not necessarily converge to populations with only local optima when employed
with the most widely used selection methods.
The first theoretical aspect of ACO considered was convergence of the algorithm.
Gutjahr [38] proved convergence of a graph-based ant system (GBAS), whereas in
[39] the convergence proofs were more general. GBAS, however, is quite different
from any implementation of the original ACO algorithm.
Stützle and Dorigo [72] and Dorigo and Birattari [17] proved convergence in value
and in solution of a class of ACO algorithms known as ACOτmin . These algorithms
apply a positive lower bound τmin to all pheromone values, to prevent any probability
to generate any solution from becoming zero. These methods are among the best
performing in practice.
To represent the decreasing value of the temperature, the SA algorithm has been
described as a sequence of homogeneous Markov chains of finite length. This leads
to convergence proofs by Hajek [40], which show that for asymptotic convergence
to occur, the cooling has to be carried out sufficiently slowly. The analysis of NIAs
using Markov models will be discussed further in Sect. 5.1.
While convergence proofs are helpful in understanding the working of an algo-
rithm, they do not give any insight into how the algorithm interacts with the search
space of the problem it is solving. The behaviour (and success) of an optimization
method depends on the problem; hence, the ability to model this interaction would
reveal why certain methods are more appropriate for a particular class of problems.
Another random document with
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Points of friction
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eBook.
Title: Points of friction
Author: Agnes Repplier
Release date: December 23, 2023 [eBook #72490]
Language: English
Original publication: Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1920
Credits: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POINTS OF

FRICTION ***
POINTS OF FRICTION
BY
AGNES REPPLIER, Litt.D.
AUTHOR OF “BOOKS AND MEN,” “ESSAYS IN IDLENESS,” “COUNTER-
CURRENTS,” ETC., ETC.
BOSTON AND NEW YORK

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY
The Riverside Press Cambridge
1920
COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY AGNES REPPLIER
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Note
Six of the ten essays in this volume—“Living in History,” “Dead
Authors,” “Consolations of the Conservative,” “The Cheerful Clan,”
“Woman Enthroned,” and “Money”—are reprinted through the
courtesy of The Atlantic Monthly; “The Beloved Sinner” and “The
Strayed Prohibitionist” through the courtesy of The Century
Magazine; “Cruelty and Humour” through the courtesy of The Yale
Review; “The Virtuous Victorian” through the courtesy of The Nation.
Contents
Living in History 1
Dead Authors 31
Consolations of the Conservative 70
The Cheerful Clan 105
The Beloved Sinner 126
The Virtuous Victorian 149
Woman Enthroned 167
The Strayed Prohibitionist 204
Money 227
Cruelty and Humour 254
POINTS OF FRICTION
⁂
Living in History
When Mr. Bagehot spoke his luminous words about “a fatigued
way of looking at great subjects,” he gave us the key to a mental
attitude which perhaps is not the modern thing it seems. There were,
no doubt, Greeks and Romans in plenty to whom the “glory” and the
“grandeur” of Greece and Rome were less exhilarating than they
were to Edgar Poe,—Greeks and Romans who were spiritually
palsied by the great emotions which presumably accompany great
events. They may have been philosophers, or humanitarians, or
academists. They may have been conscientious objectors, or
conscienceless shirkers, or perhaps plain men and women with a
natural gift of indecision, a natural taste for compromise and awaiting
developments. In the absence of newspapers and pamphlets, these
peaceful pagans were compelled to express their sense of fatigue to
their neighbours at the games or in the market-place; and their
neighbours—if well chosen—sighed with them over the intensity of
life, the formidable happenings of history.
Since August, 1914, the turmoil and anguish incidental to the
world’s greatest war have accentuated every human type,—heroic,
base, keen, and evasive. The strain of five years’ fighting was borne
with astounding fortitude, and Allied statesmen and publicists saw to
it that the clear outline of events should not be blurred by ignorance
or misrepresentation. If history in the making be a fluid thing, it swiftly
crystallizes. Men, “living between two eternities, and warring against
oblivion,” make their indelible record on its pages; and other men
receive these pages as their best inheritance, their avenue to
understanding, their key to life.
Therefore it is unwise to gibe at history because we do not chance
to know it. It pleases us to gibe at anything we do not know, but the
process is not enlightening. In the second year of the war, the
English “Nation” commented approvingly on the words of an English
novelist who strove to make clear that the only things which count for
any of us, individually or collectively, are the unrecorded minutiæ of
our lives. “History,” said this purveyor of fiction, “is concerned with
the rather absurd and theatrical doings of a few people, which, after
all, have never altered the fact that we do all of us live on from day to
day, and only want to be let alone.”
“These words,” observed the “Nation” heavily, “have a singular
truth and force at the present time. The people of Europe want to go
on living, not to be destroyed. To live is to pursue the activities
proper to one’s nature, to be unhindered and unthwarted in their
exercise. It is not too much to say that the life of Europe is something
which has persisted in spite of the history of Europe. There is
nothing happy or fruitful anywhere but witnesses to the triumph of life
over history.”
Presuming that we are able to disentangle life from history, to
sever the inseverable, is this a true statement, or merely the
expression of mental and spiritual fatigue? Were the great historic
episodes invariably fruitless, and had they no bearing upon the lives
of ordinary men and women? The battles of Marathon and
Thermopylæ, the signing of the Magna Charta, the Triple Alliance,
the Declaration of Independence, the birth of the National Assembly,
the first Reform Bill, the recognition in Turin of the United Kingdom of
Italy,—these things may have been theatrical, inasmuch as they
were certainly dramatic, but absurd is not a wise word to apply to
them. Neither is it possible to believe that the life of Europe went on
in spite of these historic incidents, triumphing over them as over so
many obstacles to activity.
When the “Nation” contrasts the beneficent companies of strolling
players who “represented and interpreted the world of life, the one
thing which matters and remains,” with the companies of soldiers
who merely destroyed life at its roots, we cannot but feel that this
editorial point of view has its limitations. The strolling players of
Elizabeth’s day afforded many a merry hour; but Elizabeth’s soldiers
and sailors did their part in making possible this mirth. The strolling
players who came to the old Southwark Theatre in Philadelphia
interpreted “the world of life,” as they understood it; but the soldiers
who froze at Valley Forge offered a different interpretation, and one
which had considerably more stamina. The magnifying of small
things, the belittling of great ones, indicate a mental exhaustion
which would be more pardonable if it were less complacent. There
are always men and women who prefer the triumph of evil, which is
a thing they can forget, to prolonged resistance, which shatters their
nerves. But the desire to escape an obligation, while very human, is
not generally thought to be humanity’s noblest lesson.
Many smart things have been written to discredit history. Mr.
Arnold called it “the vast Mississippi of falsehood,” which was easily
said, and has been said in a number of ways since the days of
Herodotus, who amply illustrated the splendours of unreality. Mr.
Edward Fitzgerald was wont to sigh that only lying histories are
readable, and this point of view has many secret adherents. Mr.
Henry Adams, who taught history for seven years at Harvard, and
who built his intellectual dwelling-place upon its firm foundations,
pronounced it to be “in essence incoherent and immoral.”
Nevertheless, all that we know of man’s unending efforts to adjust
and readjust himself to the world about him we learn from history,
and the tale is an enlightening one. “Events are wonderful things,”
said Lord Beaconsfield. Nothing, for example, can blot out, or
obscure, the event of the French Revolution. We are free to discuss
it until the end of time; but we can never alter it, and never get away
from its consequences.
The lively contempt for history expressed by readers who would
escape its weight, and the neglect of history practised by educators
who would escape its authority, stand responsible for much mental
confusion. American boys and girls go to school six, eight, or ten
years, as the case may be, and emerge with a misunderstanding of
their own country, and a comprehensive ignorance of all others.
They say, “I don’t know any history,” as casually and as
unconcernedly as they might say, “I don’t know any chemistry,” or “I
don’t know metaphysics.” A smiling young freshman in the most
scholarly of women’s colleges told me that she had been conditioned
because she knew nothing about the Reformation.
“You mean,—” I began questioningly.
“I mean just what I say,” she interrupted. “I didn’t know what it was,
or where it was, or who had anything to do with it.”
I said I didn’t wonder she had come to grief. The Reformation was
something of an episode. And I asked myself wistfully how it
happened she had ever managed to escape it. When I was a little
schoolgirl, a pious Roman Catholic child with a distaste for polemics,
it seemed to me I was never done studying about the Reformation. If
I escaped briefly from Wycliffe and Cranmer and Knox, it was only to
be met by Luther and Calvin and Huss. Everywhere the great
struggle confronted me, everywhere I was brought face to face with
the inexorable logic of events. That more advanced and more
intelligent students find pleasure in every phase of ecclesiastical
strife is proved by Lord Broughton’s pleasant story about a member
of Parliament named Joliffe, who was sitting in his club, reading
Hume’s “History of England,” a book which well deserves to be
called dry. Charles Fox, glancing over his shoulder, observed, “I see
you have come to the imprisonment of the seven bishops”;
whereupon Joliffe, like a man engrossed in a thrilling detective story,
cried desperately, “For God’s sake, Fox, don’t tell me what is
coming!”
This was reading for human delight, for the interest and agitation
which are inseparable from every human document. Mr. Henry
James once told me that the only reading of which he never tired
was history. “The least significant footnote of history,” he said, “stirs
me more than the most thrilling and passionate fiction. Nothing that
has ever happened to the world finds me indifferent.” I used to think
that ignorance of history meant only a lack of cultivation and a loss of
pleasure. Now I am sure that such ignorance impairs our judgment
by impairing our understanding, by depriving us of standards, of the
power to contrast, and the right to estimate. We can know nothing of
any nation unless we know its history; and we can know nothing of
the history of any nation unless we know something of the history of
all nations. The book of the world is full of knowledge we need to
acquire, of lessons we need to learn, of wisdom we need to
assimilate. Consider only this brief sentence of Polybius, quoted by
Plutarch: “In Carthage no one is blamed, however he may have
gained his wealth.” A pleasant place, no doubt, for business
enterprise; a place where young men were taught how to get on, and
extravagance kept pace with shrewd finance. A self-satisfied, self-
confident, money-getting, money-loving people, honouring success,
and hugging their fancied security, while in far-off Rome Cato
pronounced their doom.
There are readers who can tolerate and even enjoy history,
provided it is shorn of its high lights and heavy shadows, its heroic
elements and strong impelling motives. They turn with relief to such
calm commentators as Sir John Seeley, for years professor of
modern history at Cambridge, who shrank as sensitively as an
eighteenth-century divine from that fell word “enthusiasm,” and from
all the agitation it gathers in its wake. He was a firm upholder of the
British Empire, hating compromise and guiltless of pacifism; but,
having a natural gift for aridity, he saw no reason why the world
should not be content to know things without feeling them, should
not keep its eyes turned to legal institutions, its mind fixed upon
political economy and international law. The force that lay back of
Parliament annoyed him by the simple primitive way in which it beat
drums, fired guns, and died to uphold the institutions which he
prized; also because by doing these things it evoked in others
certain simple and primitive sensations which he strove always to
keep at bay. “We are rather disposed to laugh,” he said, “when poets
and orators try to conjure us with the name of England.” Had he lived
a few years longer, he would have known that England’s salvation
lies in the fact that her name is, to her sons, a thing to conjure by.
We may not wisely ignore the value of emotions, nor underestimate
the power of the human impulses which charge the souls of men.
The long years of neutrality engendered in the minds of Americans
a natural but ignoble weariness. The war was not our war, yet there
was no escaping from it. By day and night it haunted us, a ghost that
would not be laid. Over and over again we were told that it was not
possible to place the burden of blame on any nation’s shoulders.
Once at least we were told that the causes and objects of the
contest, the obscure fountains from which had burst this stupendous
and desolating flood, were no concern of ours. But this proffered
release from serious thinking brought us scant peace of mind. Every
honest man and woman knew that we had no intellectual right to be
ignorant when information lay at our hand, and no spiritual right to be
unconcerned when great moral issues were at stake. We could not
in either case evade the duty we owed to reason. The Vatican
Library would not hold the books that have been written about the
war; but the famous five-foot shelf would be too roomy for the
evidence in the case, the documents which are the foundation of
knowledge. They, at least, are neither too profuse for our patience,
nor too complex for our understanding. “The inquiry into the truth or
falsehood of a matter of history,” said Huxley, “is just as much an
affair of pure science as is the inquiry into the truth or falsehood of a
matter of geology; and the value of the evidence in the two cases
must be tested in the same way.”
The resentment of American pacifists, who, being more human
than they thought themselves, were no better able than the rest of us
to forget the state of Europe, found expression in petulant
complaints. They kept reminding us at inopportune moments that
war is not the important and heroic thing it is assumed to be. They
asked that, if it is to figure in history at all (which seems, on the
whole, inevitable), the truth should be told, and its brutalities, as well
as its heroisms, exposed. They professed a languid amusement at
the “rainbow of official documents” which proved every nation in the
right. They inveighed bitterly against the “false patriotism” taught by
American schoolbooks, with their absurd emphasis on the
“embattled farmers” of the Revolution, and the volunteers of the Civil
War. They assured us, in and out of season, that a doctor who came
to his death looking after poor patients in an epidemic was as much
of a hero as any soldier whose grave is yearly decorated with
flowers.
All this was the clearest possible exposition of the lassitude
induced in faint-hearted men by the pressure of great events. It was
the wail of people who wanted, as the “Nation” feelingly expressed it,
to be let alone, and who could not shut themselves away from the
world’s great tragedy. None of us are prepared to say that a doctor
and a nurse who perform their perilous duties in an epidemic are not
as heroic as a doctor and a nurse who perform their perilous duties
in war. There is glory enough to go around. Only he that loveth his
life shall lose it. But to put a flower on a soldier’s grave is a not too
exuberant recognition of his service, for he, too, in his humble way
made the great sacrifice.
As for the brutalities of war, who can charge that history smooths
them over? Certain horrors may be withheld from children, whose
privilege it is to be spared the knowledge of uttermost depravity; but
to the adult no such mercy is shown. Motley, for example, describes
cruelties committed three hundred and fifty years ago in the
Netherlands, which equal, if they do not surpass, the cruelties
committed six years ago in Belgium. Men heard such tales more
calmly then than now, and seldom sought the coward’s refuge—
incredulity. The Dutch, like other nations, did better things than fight.
They painted glorious pictures, they bred great statesmen and good
doctors. They traded with extraordinary success. They raised the
most beautiful tulips in the world. But to do these things peacefully
and efficiently, they had been compelled to struggle for their national
existence. The East India trade and the freedom of the seas did not
drop into their laps. And because their security, and the comeliness
of life which they so highly prized, had been bought by stubborn
resistance to tyranny, they added to material well-being the “luxury of
self-respect.”
To overestimate the part played by war in a nation’s development
is as crude as to ignore its alternate menace and support. It is with
the help of history that we balance our mental accounts. Voltaire was
disposed to think that battles and treaties were matters of small
moment; and Mr. John Richard Green pleaded, not unreasonably,
that more space should be given in our chronicles to the missionary,
the poet, the painter, the merchant, and the philosopher. They are
not, and they never have been, excluded from any narrative
comprehensive enough to admit them; but the scope of their
authority is not always sufficiently defined. Man, as the
representative of his age, and the events in which he plays his
vigorous part,—these are the warp and woof of history. We can no
more leave John Wesley or Ignatius Loyola out of the canvas than
we can leave out Marlborough or Pitt. We know now that the
philosophy of Nietzsche is one with Bernhardi’s militarism.
As for the merchant,—Froissart was as well aware of his prestige
as was Mr. Green. “Trade, my lord,” said Dinde Desponde, the great
Lombard banker, to the Duke of Burgundy, “finds its way
everywhere, and rules the world.” As for commercial honour,—a
thing as fine as the honour of the aristocrat or of the soldier,—what
can be better for England than to know that after the great fire of
1666 not a single London shopkeeper evaded his liabilities; and that
this fact was long the boast of a city proud of its shopkeeping? As for
jurisprudence,—Sully was infinitely more concerned with it than he
was with combat or controversy. It is with stern satisfaction that he
recounts the statutes passed in his day for the punishment of
fraudulent bankrupts, whom we treat so leniently; for the annulment
of their gifts and assignments, which we guard so zealously; and for
the conviction of those to whom such property had been assigned. It
was almost as dangerous to steal on a large scale as on a small one
under the levelling laws of Henry of Navarre.
In this vast and varied chronicle, war plays its appointed part. “We
cannot,” says Walter Savage Landor, “push valiant men out of
history.” We cannot escape from the truths interpreted, and the
conditions established by their valour. What has been slightingly
called the “drum-and-trumpet narrative” holds its own with the
records of art and science. “It cost Europe a thousand years of
barbarism,” said Macaulay, “to escape the fate of China.”
The endless endeavour of states to control their own destinies, the
ebb and flow of the sea of combat, the “recurrent liturgy of war,”
enabled the old historians to perceive with amazing distinctness the
traits of nations, etched as sharply then as now on the imperishable
pages of history. We read Froissart for human delight rather than for
solid information; yet Froissart’s observations—the observations of a
keen-eyed student of the world—are worth recording five hundred
years after he set them down.
“In England,” he says, “strangers are well received”; yet are the
English “affable to no other nation than their own.” Ireland, he holds
to have had “too many kings”; and the Scotch, like the English, “are
excellent men-at-arms, nor is there any check to their courage as
long as their weapons endure.” France is the pride of his heart, as it
is the pride of the world’s heart to-day. “In France also is found good
chivalry, strong of spirit, and in great abundance; for the kingdom of
France has never been brought so low as to lack men ready for the
combat.” Even Germany does not escape his regard. “The Germans
are a people without pity and without honour.” And again: “The
Germans are a rude, unmannered race, but active and expert where
their own personal advantage is concerned.” If history be “philosophy
teaching by example,” we are wise to admit the old historians into
our counsels.
To withhold from a child some knowledge—apportioned to his
understanding—of the world’s sorrows and wrongs is to cheat him of
his kinship with humanity. We would not, if we could, bruise his soul
as our souls are bruised; but we would save him from a callous
content which is alien to his immaturity. The little American, like the
little Austrian and the little Serb, is a son of the sorrowing earth. His
security—of which no man can forecast the future—is a legacy
bequeathed him by predecessors who bought it with sweat and with
blood; and with sweat and with blood his descendants may be called
on to guard it. Alone among educators, Mr. G. Stanley Hall finds
neutrality, a “high and ideal neutrality,” to be an attribute of youth. He
was so gratified by this discovery during the years of the war, so sure
that American boys and girls followed “impartially” the great struggle
in Europe, and that this judicial attitude would, in the years to come,
enable them to pronounce “the true verdict of history,” that he
“thrilled and tingled” with patriotic—if premature—pride.
“The true verdict of history” will be pronounced according to the
documentary evidence in the case. There is no need to vex our souls
over the possible extinction of this evidence, for closer observers
than our impartial young Americans are placing it permanently on
record. But I doubt if the equanimity which escapes the ordeal of
partisanship is to be found in the mind of youth, or in the heart of a
child. Can we not remember a time when the Wars of the Roses
were not—to us—a matter for neutrality? Our little school histories,
those vivacious, anecdotal histories, banished long ago by rigorous
educators, were in some measure responsible for our Lancastrian
fervour. They fed it with stories of high courage and the sorrows of
princes. We wasted our sympathies on “a mere struggle for power”;
but Hume’s laconic verdict is not, and never can be, the measure of
a child’s solicitude. The lost cause fills him with pity, the cause which
is saved by man’s heroic sacrifice fires him to generous applause.
The round world and the tale of those who have lived upon it are his
legitimate inheritance.
Mr. Bagehot said, and said wisely after his wont, that if you catch
an intelligent, uneducated man of thirty, and tell him about the battle
of Marathon, he will calculate the chances, and estimate the results;
but he will not really care. You cannot make the word “Marathon”
sound in his ears as it sounded in the ears of Byron, to whom it had
been sacred in boyhood. You cannot make the word “freedom”
sound in untutored ears as it sounds in the ears of men who have
counted the cost by which it has been preserved through the
centuries. Unless children are permitted to know the utmost peril
which has threatened, and which threatens, the freedom of nations,
how can they conceive of its value? And what is the worth of
teaching which does not rate the gift of freedom above all earthly
benefactions? How can justice live save by the will of freemen? Of
what avail are civic virtues that are not the virtues of the free?
Pericles bade the Athenians to bear reverently in mind the Greeks
who had died for Greece. “Make these men your examples, and be
well assured that happiness comes by freedom, and freedom by
stoutness of heart.” Perhaps if American boys bear reverently in
mind the men who died for America, it will help them too to be stout
of heart, and “worthy patriots, dear to God.”
In the remote years of my childhood, the study of current events,
that most interesting and valuable form of tuition, which,
nevertheless, is unintelligible without some knowledge of the past,
was left out of our limited curriculum. We seldom read the
newspapers (which I remember as of an appalling dulness), and we
knew little of what was happening in our day. But we did study
history, and we knew something of what had happened in other days
than ours; we knew and deeply cared. Therefore we reacted with fair
intelligence and no lack of fervour when circumstances were forced
upon our vision. It was not possible for a child who had lived in spirit
with Saint Genevieve to be indifferent to the siege of Paris in 1870. It
is not possible for a child who has lived in spirit with Jeanne d’Arc to
be indifferent to the destruction of Rheims Cathedral in 1914. If we
were often left in ignorance, we were never despoiled of childhood’s
generous ardour. Nobody told us that “courage is a sublime form of
hypocrisy.” Nobody fed our young minds on stale paradoxes, or
taught us to discount the foolish impulsiveness of adults. Our
parents, as Mr. Henry James rejoicingly observes, “had no desire to
see us inoculated with importunate virtues.” The Honourable
Bertrand Russell had not then proposed that all teaching of history
shall be submitted to an “international commission,” “which shall
produce neutral text-books, free from patriotic bias.” There was
something profoundly fearless in our approach to life, in the
exposure of our unarmoured souls to the assaults of enthusiasms
and regrets.
The cynic who is impatient of primitive emotions, the sentimentalist
whose sympathy is confined exclusively to his country’s enemies,
grow more shrill-voiced as the exhaustion of Europe becomes
increasingly apparent. They were always to be heard by those who
paused amid the thunderings of war to listen to them; but their words
were lost in the whirlwind. It was possible for a writer in the “Survey”
to allude brutally in the spring of 1916 to the “cockpit of Verdun.” It
was possible for Mr. Russell to turn from the contemplation of Ypres,
and say: “The war is trivial for all its vastness. No great human
purpose is involved on either side, no great principle is at stake.” If
the spiritual fatigue of the looker-on had found an echo in the souls
of those who were bearing the burden and heat of the day, the world
would have sunk to destruction. “The moral triumph of Belgium,” said
Cardinal Mercier, when his country had been conquered and
despoiled, “is an ever memorable fact for history and civilization.”
Who shall be the spokesman of the future?
In the last melancholy pages of that able and melancholy book,
“The Economic Consequences of the Peace,” Mr. Keynes describes
the apathy of victorious England, too spent to savour victory. “Our
power of feeling or caring beyond the immediate questions of our
own material well-being is temporarily eclipsed. We have been
moved already beyond endurance, and need rest. Never, in the
lifetime of men now living, has the universal element in the soul of
man burnt so dimly.”
Never perhaps in the centuries, for when in the centuries has that
element been so ruthlessly consumed? England is like a swimmer
who has carried the lifeline to shore, battling amid the breakers,
tossed high on their crests, hurled into their green depths, pounded,
battered, blinded, until he lies, a broken thing, on the shore. The
crew is safe, but until the breath comes back to his labouring lungs,
he is past all acute consideration for its welfare. Were Mr. Keynes
generous enough to extend his sympathy alike to foes and friends,
he might even now see light shining on the horizon. It would do him
—it would do us all—good to meditate closely on the probable state
of Europe had Germany triumphed. The “hidden currents” of which
we are warned may be sweeping us on a reef; but the most
imminent and most appalling calamity has been averted. “Events are
wonderful things,” and we may yet come to believe with Froissart,
lover of brave deeds and honourable men, that “the most profitable
thing in the world for the institution of human life is history.”

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Nature Inspired Computing and

Optimization Theory and Applications

Nature Inspired Optimization Techniques for Image

Nature-Inspired Algorithms and Applied Optimization 1st

Nature-inspired Computation and Swarm Intelligence:

New Paradigm in Decision Science and Management

Innovations in Bio Inspired Computing and Applications

Advances in Nature and Biologically Inspired Computing

Capital And Imperialism: Theory, History, And The

A Theory Of Imperialism Utsa Patnaik

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10577

ISSN 2196-7326 ISSN 2196-7334 (electronic)

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

Nature-inspired computing provides promising and effective approaches for prob-

implementation context. Therefore, this book is intended as a practice-oriented

Bhubaneswar, India Srikanta Patnaik

The Nature of Nature: Why Nature-Inspired Algorithms Work . . . .... 1

Multimodal Function Optimization Using an Improved

Limiting Distribution and Mixing Time for Genetic Algorithms . . . .... 95

Hybridization of the Flower Pollination Algorithm—A Case Study in

3.2 Zeroth-level Classiﬁer Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

3.3 Mathematical Model of Attractor Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 310

3.4 A Geometrical Interpretation of Dilation

5 Path Sequence Generation and Prioritization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

4.2 Priority Based FGP Model with Penalty Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 460

Aldeida Aleti Faculty of Information Technology, Monash University, Clayton,

Iztok Fister Jr. Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science,

Antonio Orlandi UAq EMC Laboratory, Department of Industrial and

M.T. Ayvaz, Pamukkale University, Turkey

David Green, Aldeida Aleti and Julian Garcia

Keywords Nature-inspired algorithms · Dual-phase evolution · Evolutionary

1 Introduction: How Nature Works

Borrowing from nature has become a well-established practice in computing. The

D. Green · A. Aleti (B) · J. Garcia

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1

2 The Nature of Nature

Many natural processes have inspired optimization algorithms. However, most of

By mimicking natural processes, nature-inspired algorithms (NIAs) provide ways

2.1 Fitness Landscape

The notion of a ‘fitness landscape’ is an abstraction developed in evolutionary theory

2.2 Graphs and Phase Changes

Nature-inspired algorithms (NIAs) are sometimes termed meta-heuristics. This

3.1 Genetic Algorithm

3.2 Ant Colony Optimization

3.3 Simulated Annealing

Title: Points of friction

Author: Agnes Repplier

Release date: December 23, 2023 [eBook #72490]

Original publication: Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1920

Credits: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POINTS OF

BOSTON AND NEW YORK

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