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Applied Mathematical Sciences

Vladimir I. Arnold
Boris A. Khesin

Topological
Methods in
Hydrodynamics
Second Edition
Applied Mathematical Sciences

Volume 125

Series Editors
Anthony Bloch, Department of Mathematics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
MI, USA
C. L. Epstein, Department of Mathematics, University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia, PA, USA
Alain Goriely, Department of Mathematics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Leslie Greengard, New York University, New York, NY, USA

Advisory Editors
J. Bell, Center for Computational Sciences and Engineering, Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
P. Constantin, Department of Mathematics, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ,
USA
R. Durrett, Department of Mathematics, Duke University, Durham, CA, USA
R. Kohn, Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, New York University, New
York, NY, USA
R. Pego, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University,
Pittsburgh, PA, USA
L. Ryzhik, Department of Mathematics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
A. Singer, Department of Mathematics, Princeton University, Princeton, NY, USA
A. Stevens, Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Münster, Münster,
Germany
S. Wright, Computer Sciences Department, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI,
USA

Founding Editors
F. John, New York University, New York, NY, USA
J. P. LaSalle, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
L. Sirovich, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
The mathematization of all sciences, the fading of traditional scientific boundaries,
the impact of computer technology, the growing importance of computer modeling
and the necessity of scientific planning all create the need both in education and
research for books that are introductory to and abreast of these developments. The
purpose of this series is to provide such books, suitable for the user of mathematics,
the mathematician interested in applications, and the student scientist. In particular,
this series will provide an outlet for topics of immediate interest because of the
novelty of its treatment of an application or of mathematics being applied or lying
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A compliment to the Applied Mathematical Sciences series is the Texts in Applied
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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/34

Vladimir I. Arnold Boris A. Khesin
•

Topological Methods
in Hydrodynamics
Second Edition

123
Vladimir I. Arnold Boris A. Khesin
Russian Academy of Sciences Department of Mathematics
Steklov Mathematical Institute University of Toronto
Moscow, Russia Toronto, ON, Canada

ISSN 0066-5452 ISSN 2196-968X (electronic)

Applied Mathematical Sciences
ISBN 978-3-030-74277-5 ISBN 978-3-030-74278-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74278-2
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 1998, 2021
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In Lieu of a Preface to the Second Edition

Back in the mid-1980s Vladimir Igorevich Arnold once told us, his students,
how different the notion of “being young” (and in particular, being a young
mathematician) is in different societies. For instance, the Moscow Mathemat-
ical Society awards an annual prize to a young mathematician under thirty
years of age. The Fields Medal, as is well known, recognizes outstanding young
mathematicians whose age does not exceed forty in the year of the Interna-
tional Congress. Both of the above requirements are strictly enforced.
This can be compared with the Bourbaki group, which comprises young
French mathematicians and which, reportedly, has an age bar of fifty. However,
as Arnold elaborated the story, this limit is more flexible: upon reaching this
age, the Bourbaki member undergoes a “coconutization procedure.” The term
is derived from a tradition of a certain barbaric tribe that allows its chief to
carry out his duties until someone doubts his leadership abilities. Once the
doubt arises, the chief is forced to climb to the top of a tall palm tree, and
the whole tribe starts shaking it. If the chief is strong enough to hold on and
survives the challenge, he is allowed to climb down and continue to lead the
tribe until the next “reasonable doubt” in his leadership crosses someone’s
mind. If his grip is weak and he falls down from the 20-meter-tall tree, he
obviously needs to be replaced, and so the next chief is chosen. This tree is
usually a coconut palm, which gave the name to the coconutization procedure.
As far as coconutization at the Bourbaki group is concerned, according
to Arnold’s story, the unsuspecting member who reaches fifty is invited, as
usual, to the next Bourbaki seminar. Somewhere in the middle of the talk,
when most of the audience is already half asleep, the speaker, who is in on the
game for that occasion, inserts some tedious half-page long definition. It is at
this very moment that the scrutinized (“coconutized”) member is expected to
interrupt the speaker by exclaiming something like, “But excuse me, only the
empty set satisfies your definition!” If he does so, he has successfully passed
the test and will remain a part of Bourbaki. If he missed this chance, nobody
says a word, but he would probably not be invited to meetings any longer.

V
VI In Lieu of a Preface

Arnold finished this story by quoting someone’s definition of youth in

mathematics, which he liked best: “A mathematician is young as long as he
reads works other than his own”!
Soon after this “storytelling” occasion, Arnold’s fiftieth birthday was cel-
ebrated: in June 1987 his whole seminar went for a picnic in a suburb of
Moscow. Among Arnold’s presents were a “Return to Arnold” stamp to mark
the reprints he gave to his students to work on, an academic gown with a nicely
decorated “swallowtail,” one of low-dimensional singularities, and such. But
most importantly, he was presented with a poster containing a crossword puz-
zle of various notions from his many research domains. Most of the questions
were rather intricate, which predictably did not prevent Arnold from easily
cracking virtually everything. But one question remained unresolved: “A sim-
ple alternative of life” for a five-letter word (in English translation). None of
the ideas worked for quite some time. After a while, having made no progress
on this question, Arnold pronounced sadly, “Now I myself have been cocon-
utized....” But a second later, he perked up, a bright mischievous expression
on his face: “This is a PURSE”! (In addition to the pirate’s alternative “your
Purse or your Life”, the crossword authors meant the term “purse” in sin-
gularity theory standing for the description of the bifurcation diagram of the
real simple singularity D4+ , also called the hyperbolic umbilic — hence the
hint on “simple” alternative.)

Arnold’s interest to fluid dynamics can be traced back to his “younger

years,” whatever definition one is using for that purpose. His 1966 paper in
the Annales de l’Institut Fourier had the effect of a bombshell. Now, over fifty
years later, virtually every paper related to the geometry of the hydrodynamic
Euler equation or diffeomorphism groups cites this work of Arnold’s early on.
In the next four or five years, Arnold laid out the foundations for the study
of hydrodynamic stability and for the use of Hamiltonian methods there,
described the topology of steady flows, etc. All these topics are described in
the present book.
Apparently, Arnold’s interest in hydrodynamics is rooted in Kolmogorov’s
turbulence study and began with the program outlined by Kolmogorov for
his seminar in 1958–1959 (and presented in Section I.12 below). Kolmogorov
conjectured stochastization in dynamical systems related to hydrodynamic
PDEs as viscosity vanishes, which would imply the practical impossibility of
long-term weather forecasts. Arnold’s take on hydrodynamics was, however,
completely different from Kolmogorov’s, in that it involved groups and topol-
ogy.1

Since the publication of the first edition of the book Topological Methods
in Hydrodynamics (over 20 years ago) and its Russian edition (over 10 years
1
See “On V.I. Arnold and Hydrodynamics” in the book ARNOLD: Swimming
Against the Tide, AMS, Providence RI, 2014.
In Lieu of a Preface VII

ago) there has appeared an enormous body of literature on topological fluid

mechanics. Many problems and open questions posed or discussed in the book
have been solved or substantially advanced. It would be natural to revise the
text to update the reader on recent developments in this vast area for the
second edition of the book.
However, after the untimely departure of Vladimir Igorevich Arnold in
2010, I would not like to substantially change the text of this book, which
was thoroughly discussed with him and verified on many examples. Instead,
the second edition, in addition to editorial corrections, contains a specially
prepared survey of recent developments in topological, geometric, and group-
theoretic hydrodynamics with an independent bibliography.
I hope that this new edition will be useful to mathematicians, physicists,
and students of various disciplines who are interested in various problems
of applied fluid dynamics, as well as in purely theoretical questions arising
in the topology and geometry of groups of diffeomorphisms and having a
hydrodynamic flavor.
I am particularly indebted to A. Izosimov, O. Kozlovsky, D. Kramer,
G. Misiolek, K. Modin, D. Peralta-Salas, and A. Shnirelman for fruitful dis-
cussions and to V. Shuvalov for his generous help with the book figures. This
work on the second edition was partially supported by an NSERC research
grant and a Simons Fellowship.

January 2021 Boris Khesin

Preface

“...ad alcuno, dico, di quelli, che troppo laconicamente vorrebbero

vedere, nei più angusti spazii che possibil fusse, ristretti i filosofici
insegnamenti, sı́ che sempre si usasse quella rigida e concisa
maniera, spogliata di qualsivoglia vaghezza ed ornamento, che é
propria dei puri geometri, li quali né pure una parola proferiscono
che dalla assoluta necessitá non sia loro suggerita.
Ma io, all’incontro, non ascrivo a difetto in un trattato, ancorché
indirizzato ad un solo scopo, interserire altre varie notizie, purché
non siano totalmente separate e senza veruna coerenza annesse al
principale instituto.”2

Galileo Galilei “Lettera al Principe Leopoldo di Toscana” (1623)

Hydrodynamics is one of those fundamental areas in mathematics where

progress at any moment may be regarded as a standard to measure the real
success of mathematical science. Many important achievements in this field are
based on profound theories rather than on experiments. In turn, those hydro-
dynamic theories stimulated developments in the domains of pure mathemat-
ics, such as complex analysis, topology, stability theory, bifurcation theory,
and completely integrable dynamical systems. In spite of all this acknowl-
edged success, hydrodynamics with its spectacular empirical laws remains a
challenge for mathematicians. For instance, the phenomenon of turbulence
2
“... Some prefer to see the scientific teachings condensed too laconically into the
smallest possible volume, so as always to use a rigid and concise manner that
whatsoever lacks beauty and embellishment, and that is so common among pure
geometers who do not pronounce a single word which is not of absolute necessity.
I, on the contrary, do not consider it a defect to insert in a treatise, albeit
devoted to a single aim, other various remarks, as long as they are not out of
place and without coherency with the main purpose,” see [Gal].

IX
X Preface

has not yet acquired a rigorous mathematical theory. Furthermore, the exis-
tence problems for smooth solutions of hydrodynamic equations of a three-
dimensional fluid are still open.
The simplest but already very substantial mathematical model for fluid
dynamics is hydrodynamics of an ideal (i.e., an incompressible and inviscid)
homogeneous fluid. From the mathematical point of view, a theory of such
a fluid filling a certain domain is nothing but a study of geodesics on the
group of diffeomorphisms of the domain that preserve volume elements. The
geodesics on this (infinite-dimensional) group are considered with respect to
the right-invariant Riemannian metric given by the kinetic energy.
In 1765, L. Euler [Eul] published the equations of motion of a rigid body.
Eulerian motions are described as geodesics in the group of rotations of three-
dimensional Euclidean space, where the group is provided with a left-invariant
metric. In essence, the Euler theory of a rigid body is fully described by
this invariance. The Euler equations can be extended in the same way to an
arbitrary group. As a result, one obtains, for instance, the equations of a rigid
body motion in a high-dimensional space and, especially interesting, the Euler
equations of hydrodynamics of an ideal fluid.
Euler’s theorems on the stability of rotations about the longest and short-
est axes of the inertia ellipsoid have counterparts for an arbitrary group as
well. In the case of hydrodynamics, these counterparts deliver nonlinear gen-
eralizations of Rayleigh’s theorem on the stability of two-dimensional flows
without inflection points of the velocity profile.
The description of ideal fluid flows by means of geodesics of the right-
invariant metric allows one to apply methods of Riemannian geometry to the
study of flows. It does not immediately imply that one has to start by con-
structing a consistent theory of infinite-dimensional Riemannian manifolds.
The latter encounters serious analytical difficulties, related in particular to
the absence of existence theorems for smooth solutions of the corresponding
differential equations.
On the other hand, the strategy of applying geometric methods to the
infinite-dimensional problems is as follows. Having established certain facts in
the finite-dimensional situation (of geodesics for invariant metrics on finite-
dimensional Lie groups), one uses the results to formulate the corresponding
facts for the infinite-dimensional case of the diffeomorphism groups. These fi-
nal results often can be proved directly, leaving aside the difficult questions of
foundations for the intermediate steps (such as the existence of solutions on a
given time interval). The results obtained in this way have an a priori charac-
ter: the derived identities or inequalities take place for any reasonable meaning
of “solutions,” provided that such solutions exist. The actual existence of the
solutions remains an open question.
For example, we deduce the formulas for the Riemannian curvature of
a group endowed with an invariant Riemannian metric. Applying these for-
mulas to the case of the infinite-dimensional manifold whose geodesics are
motions of an ideal fluid, we find that the curvature is negative in many di-
Preface XI

rections. Negativity of the curvature implies instability of motion along the

geodesics (which is well-known in Riemannian geometry of finite-dimensional
manifolds). In the context of the (infinite-dimensional) case of the diffeomor-
phism group, we conclude that the ideal flow is unstable (in the sense that a
small variation of the initial data implies large changes of the particle posi-
tions at a later time). Moreover, the curvature formulas allow one to estimate
the increment of the exponential deviation of fluid particles with close ini-
tial positions and hence to predict the time period when the motion of fluid
masses becomes essentially unpredictable.
For instance, in the simplest and utmost idealized model of the earth’s
atmosphere (regarded as a two-dimensional ideal fluid on the surface of a
torus), the deviations grow by the factor of 105 in 2 months. This circumstance
ensures that a dynamical weather forecast for such a period is practically
impossible (however powerful the computers and however dense the grid of
data used for this purpose).

The table of contents is essentially self explanatory. We have tried to make

the chapters as independent of each other as possible. Cross references within
the same chapter do not contain the chapter number.
For a first acquaintance with the subject, we address the reader to the
following sections in each chapter: Sections I.1-5 and I.12, Sections II.1 and
II.3-4, Sections III.1-2 and III.4, Section IV.1, Sections V.1-2, Sections VI.1
and VI.4.
Some statements in this book may be new even for the experts. We mention
the classification of local conservation laws in ideal hydrodynamics (Theorem
I.9.9), M. Freedman’s solution of the A. Sakharov–Ya. Zeldovich problem on
the energy minimization of an unknotted magnetic field (Theorem III.3.1), a
discussion of the construction of manifold invariants from the energy bounds
(Remark III.2.6), a discussion of a complex version of the Vassiliev knot in-
variants (in Section III.7.E), a nice remark of B. Zeldovich on the Lobachevsky
triangle medians (Problem IV.1.4), the relation of the covariant derivative of
a vector field and the inertia operator in hydrodynamics (Section IV.1.D), a
digression on the Fokker–Planck equation (Section V.3.C), and the dynamo
construction from the geodesic flow on surfaces of constant negative curvature
(Section V.4.D).
The main text of the book was also updated according to the 2007 Rus-
sian edition and it discusses several new developments. The latter include the
relation between the Eulerian and Lagrangian instability [Pre], Fredholmness
of the geodesic exponential map on the diffeomorphism groups in the 2D set-
ting [EbM, EbMP], universality of the Monge–Ampère equation in problems
of fluid dynamics and optimal mass transport, a solution of the “short paths”
problem in the definition of the asymptotic Hopf invariant [Vog], as well as a
Brownian interpretation of the higher-dimensional analogue of this invariant
[Riv, Kh3]. The section written by A. Shnirelman was extended by adding a
XII Preface

description of weak solutions of the 2D Euler equation in terms of continuum

braids [Shn9]. Many open questions related to hydrodynamics were discussed
in the book [Arn26].
Acknowledgments

We greatly benefited from the help of many people. We are sincerely grate-
ful to all of them: F. Aicardi, J.-L. Brylinski, M.A. Berger, Yu.V. Chekanov,
S. Childress, L.A. Dickey, D.G. Ebin, Ya. Eliashberg, L.D. Faddeev, V.V. Fock,
M.H. Freedman, U. Frisch, A.D. Gilbert, V.L. Ginzburg, M.L. Gromov,
M. Henon, M.-R. Herman, H. Hofer, Yu.S. Ilyashenko, K.M. Khanin,
C. King, A.N. Kolmogorov, E.I. Korkina, V.V. Kozlov, O.A. Ladyzhen-
skaya, P. Laurence, J. Leray, A.M. Lukatsky, M. Lyubich, S.V. Man-
akov, J.E. Marsden, D. McDuff, A.S. Mishchenko, H.K. Moffatt, R. Mont-
gomery, J.J. Moreau, J. Moser, N. Nekrasov, Yu.A. Neretin, S.P. Novikov,
V.I. Oseledets, V.Yu. Ovsienko, D.A. Panov, L. Polterovich, M. Polyak,
T.S. Ratiu, S. Resnick, C. Roger, A.A. Rosly, A.A. Ruzmaikin, A.D. Sakharov,
L. Schwartz, D. Serre, B.Z. Shapiro, A.I. Shnirelman, M.A. Shubin,
Ya.G. Sinai, S.L. Sobolev, D.D. Sokolov, S.L. Tabachnikov, A.N. Todorov,
O.Ya. Viro, M.M. Vishik, V.A. Vladimirov, A. Weinstein, L.-S. Young,
V.I. Yudovich, V.M. Zakalyukin, I.S. Zakharevich, E. Zehnder, V. Zeitlin,
Ya.B. Zeldovich, A.V. Zorich, V.A. Zorich and many others.
Section IV.7 was written by A.I. Shnirelman, and an initial version of
Section VI.5 was prepared by B.Z. Shapiro. Remark II.4.11 was written by
J.E. Marsden. Special thanks go to O.S. Kozlovsky and G. Misiolek for the
numerous discussions on different topics of the book and for their many use-
ful remarks. O.S. Kozlovsky has also provided us with his recent unpub-
lished results for several sections in Chapter V (in particular, for Sections
V.1.B,V.2.C,V.3.E).
Boris Khesin is deeply indebted to his wife Masha for her tireless moral
support during the seemingly endless work on this book. We are grateful to
A. Mekis and V. Shuvalov for their help with figures and to D. Kramer for
his careful reading of the manuscript.
B.K. appreciates the kind hospitality of the Max-Planck Institut in Bonn,
Institut des Hautes Etudes Scientifiques in Bures-sur-Yvette, Research Insti-
tute for Mathematical Sciences in Kyoto, and Forschungsinstitut für Mathe-
matik in Zürich during his work on this book. The preparation of this book

XIII
XIV Acknowledgments

was partially supported by the Russian Basic Research Foundation, project

96-01-01104 (V.A.), by the Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellowship, and by the
NSF and NSERC research grants DMS-9627782 and OGP-0194132 (B.K.).
Contents

In Lieu of a Preface to the Second Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XIII

I Group and Hamiltonian Structures of Fluid Dynamics . . . . . 1

1 Symmetry groups for a rigid body and an ideal fluid . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Lie groups, Lie algebras, and adjoint representation . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 Coadjoint representation of a Lie group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.A Definition of the coadjoint representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.B Dual of the space of plane divergence-free vector fields . 12
3.C The Lie algebra of divergence-free vector fields and its
dual in arbitrary dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4 Left-invariant metrics for an arbitrary group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5 Applications to hydrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6 Hamiltonian structure for the Euler equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7 Ideal hydrodynamics on Riemannian manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.A The Euler hydrodynamic equation on manifolds . . . . . . . 33
7.B Dual space to the Lie algebra of divergence-free fields . . 34
7.C Inertia operator of an n-dimensional fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8 Proofs of theorems about divergence-free fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
9 Conservation laws in higher-dimensional hydrodynamics . . . . . . 45
10 The group setting of ideal magnetohydrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . 52
10.A Equations of magnetohydrodynamics and the
Kirchhoff equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
10.B Magnetic extension of any Lie group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
10.C Hamiltonian formulation of the Kirchhoff and
magnetohydrodynamics equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
11 Finite-dimensional approximations of the Euler equation . . . . . 59
11.A Approximations by vortex systems in the plane . . . . . . . 59

XV
XVI Contents

11.B Nonintegrability of four or more point vortices . . . . . . . . 61

11.C Hamiltonian vortex approximations in three dimensions 62
11.D Finite-dimensional approximations of diffeomorphism
groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
12 The Navier–Stokes equation from the group viewpoint . . . . . . . 66

II Topology of Steady Fluid Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

1 Classification of three-dimensional steady flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.A Stationary Euler solutions and Bernoulli functions . . . . . 73
1.B Structural theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2 Variational principles for steady solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.A Minimization of the energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.B The Dirichlet problem and steady flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.C Relation of two variational principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.D Semigroup variational principle for two-dimensional
steady flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3 Stability of stationary points on Lie algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4 Stability of planar fluid flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.A Stability criteria for steady flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.B Wandering solutions of the Euler equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5 Linear and exponential stretching of particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.A The linearized and shortened Euler equations . . . . . . . . . 105
5.B The action–angle variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.C Spectrum of the shortened equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.D The Squire theorem for shear flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.E Steady flows with exponential stretching of particles . . . 110
5.F Analysis of the linearized Euler equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.G Inconclusiveness of the stability test for space steady
flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6 Features of higher-dimensional steady flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.A Generalized Beltrami flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.B Structure of four-dimensional steady flows . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.C Topology of the vorticity function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.D Nonexistence of smooth steady flows and sharpness of
the restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

III Topological Properties of Magnetic and Vorticity Fields . . . 127

1 Minimal energy and helicity of a frozen-in field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
1.A Variational problem for magnetic energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
1.B Extremal fields and their topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
1.C Helicity bounds the energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
1.D Helicity of fields on manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2 Topological obstructions to energy relaxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.A Model example: Two linked flux tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.B Energy lower bound for nontrivial linking . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Contents XVII

3 Sakharov–Zeldovich minimization problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

4 Asymptotic linking number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.A Asymptotic linking number of a pair of trajectories . . . . 149
4.B Digression on the Gauss formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.C Another definition of the asymptotic linking number . . . 154
4.D Linking forms on manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5 Asymptotic crossing number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.A Energy minoration for generic vector fields . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.B Asymptotic crossing number of knots and links . . . . . . . . 165
5.C Conformal modulus of a torus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6 Energy of a knot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.A Energy of a charged loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.B Generalizations of the knot energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
7 Generalized helicities and linking numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.A Relative helicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
7.B Ergodic meaning of higher-dimensional helicity integrals 179
7.C Higher-order linking integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.D Calugareanu invariant and self-linking number . . . . . . . . 189
7.E Holomorphic linking number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8 Asymptotic holonomy and applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8.A Jones–Witten invariants for vector fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8.B Interpretation of Godbillon–Vey-type characteristic
classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

IV Differential Geometry of Diffeomorphism Groups . . . . . . . . . . 207

1 Preliminaries in differential geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
1.A The Lobachevsky plane of affine transformations . . . . . . 208
1.B Curvature and parallel translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
1.C Behavior of geodesics on curved manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
1.D Relation of the covariant and Lie derivatives . . . . . . . . . . 214
2 Sectional curvatures of Lie groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
3 Geometry of the group of torus diffeomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
3.A The curvature tensor for the group of torus
diffeomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
3.B Curvature calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
4 Diffeomorphism groups and unreliable forecasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.A Curvatures of various diffeomorphism groups . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.B Unreliability of long-term weather predictions . . . . . . . . . 231
5 Exterior geometry of the group of diffeomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . 232
6 Conjugate points in diffeomorphism groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7 Getting around the finiteness of the diameter of the group of
volume-preserving diffeomorphisms (by A. Shnirelman) . . . . . . . 239
7.A Interplay between the internal and external geometry
of the diffeomorphism group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
7.B Diameter of the diffeomorphism groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
XVIII Contents

7.C Comparison of the metrics and completion of the

group of diffeomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.D The absence of the shortest path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
7.E Discrete flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
7.F Outline of the proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
7.G Generalized flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
7.H Approximation of generalized flows by smooth ones . . . . 254
7.I Existence of cut and conjugate points on
diffeomorphism groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
8 Infinite diameter of the group of symplectomorphisms . . . . . . . . 258
8.A Right-invariant metrics on symplectomorphisms . . . . . . . 259
8.B Calabi invariant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
8.C Bi-invariant metrics and pseudometrics on the group
of Hamiltonian diffeomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
8.D Bi-invariant indefinite metric and action functional on
the group of volume-preserving diffeomorphisms of a
three-fold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

V Kinematic Fast Dynamo Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

1 Dynamo and particle stretching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
1.A Fast and slow kinematic dynamos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
1.B Nondissipative dynamos on arbitrary manifolds . . . . . . . 278
2 Discrete dynamos in two dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
2.A Dynamo from the cat map on a torus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
2.B Horseshoes and multiple foldings in dynamo
constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
2.C Dissipative dynamos on surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
2.D Asymptotic Lefschetz number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
3 Main antidynamo theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
3.A Cowling’s and Zeldovich’s theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
3.B Antidynamo theorems for tensor densities . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
3.C Digression on the Fokker–Planck equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
3.D Proofs of the antidynamo theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
3.E Discrete versions of antidynamo theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
4 Three-dimensional dynamo models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
4.A “Rope dynamo” mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
4.B Numerical evidence of the dynamo effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
4.C A dissipative dynamo model on a three-dimensional
Riemannian manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
4.D Geodesic flows and differential operations on surfaces
of constant negative curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
4.E Energy balance and singularities of the Euler equation . 317
5 Dynamo exponents in terms of topological entropy . . . . . . . . . . 317
5.A Topological entropy of dynamical systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Contents XIX

5.B Bounds for the exponents in nondissipative dynamo

models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
5.C Upper bounds for dissipative L1 -dynamos . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

VI Dynamical Systems with Hydrodynamic Background . . . . . . 321

1 The Korteweg–de Vries equation as an Euler equation . . . . . . . . 321
1.A Virasoro algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
1.B The translation argument principle and integrability
of the higher-dimensional rigid body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
1.C Integrability of the KdV equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
1.D Digression on Lie algebra cohomology and the
Gelfand–Fuchs cocycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
2 Equations of gas dynamics and compressible fluids . . . . . . . . . . . 337
2.A Barotropic fluids and gas dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
2.B Other conservative fluid systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
2.C Infinite conductivity equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
3 Dynamical systems on the space of knots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
3.A Geometric structures on the set of embedded curves . . . 345
3.B Filament-, Nonlinear Schrödinger-, and Heisenberg
chain equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
3.C Loop groups and the general Landau–Lifschitz equation 353
4 Sobolev’s equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
5 Elliptic coordinates from the hydrodynamic viewpoint . . . . . . . . 360
5.A Charges on quadrics in three dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
5.B Charges on higher-dimensional quadrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

Appendix (by B. Khesin)

Recent Developments in Topological Hydrodynamics . . . . . . 393
A. I Group and Hamiltonian Structures of Fluid Dynamics . . . . . . . . 393
I.1 The hydrodynamic Euler equation as the geodesic flow . 393
I.2 Arnold’s framework for the Euler equations . . . . . . . . . . . 395
I.3 Hamiltonian approach to incompressible fluids . . . . . . . . 396
I.4 Isovorticed fields, Casimirs, and coadjoint orbits of
the group of volumorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
I.5 Singular vorticities: point vortices and finite-
dimensional approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
I.6 Singular vorticities: vortex filaments and membranes . . . 402
I.7 Compressible fluids and semidirect product algebras . . . 404
I.8 Nonuniqueness of weak solutions and the
Navier–Stokes equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
I.9 Variational principles for groupoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
A. II Topology of Steady Fluid Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
II.1 Structure of steady flows in 3D: Beltrami fields . . . . . . . . 408
XX Contents

II.2 Generalized Beltrami fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

II.3 Steady solutions via symplectic and contact geometry . . 410
II.4 Eulerian and Lagrangian instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
II.5 KAM and near-steady solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
A. III Topological Properties of Magnetic and Vorticity Fields . . . . . 413
III.1 Helicity and asymptotic linking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
III.2 Vortex and magnetic reconnections in viscous fluids . . . . 415
A. IV Differential Geometry of Diffeomorphism Groups . . . . . . . . . . . 416
IV.1 Otto calculus on the space of densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
IV.2 Curvatures, conjugate points, and shock waves on
diffeomorphism groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
IV.3 Various metrics on diffeomorphism groups and spaces
of densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
IV.4 Fredholmness of exponential maps on diffeomorphism
groups and smoothness of Euler solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
A. V Kinematic Fast Dynamo Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
V.1 Kinematic dynamo equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
V.2 Dynamo models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
V.3 Suspension of the cat map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
V.4 Tokamaks and stellarators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
A. VI Dynamical Systems with Hydrodynamic Background . . . . . . . 427
VI.1 Group and bihamiltonian properties of the KdV, CH,
and HS equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
VI.2 Variations on the Sobolev equation and billiard maps . . 429
VI.3 Symplectic geometry of knots and membranes . . . . . . . . . 430
VI.4 Hasimoto and Madelung transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
I
Group and Hamiltonian Structures of Fluid
Dynamics

The group we will most often be dealing with in hydrodynamics is the infinite-
dimensional group of diffeomorphisms that preserve the volume element of the
domain of a fluid flow. One can also relate many rather interesting systems
to other groups, in particular, to finite-dimensional ones. For example, the
ordinary theory of a rigid body with a fixed point corresponds to the rota-
tion group SO(3), while the Lobachevsky geometry has to do with the group
of translations and dilations of a vector space. Our constructions are equally
applicable to the gauge groups exploited by physicists. The latter groups oc-
cupy an intermediate position between the rotation group of a rigid body and
the diffeomorphism groups. They are already infinite-dimensional but yet too
simple to serve as a model for hydrodynamics.
In this chapter we study geodesics of one-sided invariant Riemannian met-
rics on Lie groups. The principle of least action asserts that motions of physical
systems such as rigid bodies and ideal fluids are described by the geodesics in
these metrics given by the kinetic energy.

1 Symmetry groups for a rigid body and an ideal fluid

Definition 1.1 A set G of smooth transformations of a manifold M into

itself is called a group if
(i) along with every two transformations g, h ∈ G, the composition g ◦ h
belongs to G (the symbol g ◦ h means that one first applies h and then g);
(ii) along with every g ∈ G, the inverse transformation g −1 belongs to G as
well.
From (i) and (ii) it follows that every group contains the identity trans-
formation (the unit) e.
A group is called a Lie group if G has a smooth structure and the opera-
tions (i) and (ii) are smooth.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

V. I. Arnold and B. A. Khesin, Topological Methods in Hydrodynamics,
Applied Mathematical Sciences 125, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74278-2_1
2 I. Group and Hamiltonian Structures of Fluid Dynamics

Example 1.2 All rotations of a rigid body about the origin form the Lie
group SO(3).

Example 1.3 Diffeomorphisms preserving the volume element in a domain

M form a Lie group. Throughout the book we denote this group by SDiff(M )
(or by D to avoid complicated formulas).
The group SDiff(M ) can be regarded as the configuration space of an in-
compressible fluid filling the domain M . Indeed, a fluid flow determines for
every time moment t the map g t of the flow domain to itself (the initial posi-
tion of every fluid particle is taken to its terminal position at the moment t).
All the terminal positions, i.e., configurations of the system (or “permutations
of particles”), form the “infinite-dimensional manifold” SDiff(M ). (Here and
in the sequel we consider only the diffeomorphisms of M that can be connected
with the identity transformation by a continuous family of diffeomorphisms.
Our notation SDiff(M ) stands only for the connected component of the iden-
tity of the group of all volume-preserving diffeomorphisms of M .)
The kinetic energy of a fluid (under the assumption that the fluid density
is 1) is the integral (over the flow domain) of half the square of the velocity
of the fluid particles. Since the fluid is incompressible, the integration can be
carried out either with the volume element occupied by an initial particle or
with the volume element dx occupied by that at the moment t:

1
E= v 2 dx,
2 M
∂ t
where v is the velocity field of the fluid: v(x, t) = ∂t g (y), x = g t (y) (y is an
initial position of the particle whose position is x at the moment t); see Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. The motion of a fluid particle in a domain M .

Suppose that a configuration g changes with velocity ġ. The vector ġ be-
longs to the tangent space Tg G of the group G = SDiff(M ) at the point g.
The kinetic energy is a quadratic form on this vector space of velocities.
2. Lie groups, Lie algebras, and adjoint representation 3

Theorem 1.4 The kinetic energy of an incompressible fluid is invariant with

respect to the right translations on the group G = SDiff(M ) (i.e., with respect
to the mappings Rh : G → G of the type Rh (g) = gh).

Proof. The multiplication of all group elements by h from the right means
that the diffeomorphism h (preserving the volume element) acts first, before a
diffeomorphism g changing with the velocity ġ. Such a diffeomorphism h can
be regarded as a (volume-preserving) renumeration of particles at the initial
position, y = h(z). The velocity of the particle occupying a certain position at
a given moment does not change under the renumeration, and therefore the
kinetic energy is preserved. 

Similarly, the kinetic energy of a rigid body fixed at some point is a

quadratic form on every tangent space to the configuration space of the rigid
body, i.e., to the manifold G = SO(3).

Theorem 1.5 The kinetic energy of a rigid body is invariant with respect
to the left translations on the group G = SO(3), i.e., with respect to the
transformations Lh : G → G having the form Lh (g) = hg.

Proof. The multiplication of the group elements by h from the left means
that the rotation h is carried out after the rotation g, changing with the
velocity ġ. Such a rotation h can be regarded as a revolution of the entire
space, along with the rotating body. This revolution does not change the
length of the velocity vector of each point of the body, and hence it does not
change the total kinetic energy. 

Remark 1.6 On the group SO(3) (and more generally, on every compact
group) there exists a bi-invariant (or two-sided invariant) metric. On the
infinite-dimensional groups of most interest for hydrodynamics, there is no
such Riemannian metric. However, for two- and three-dimensional hydrody-
namics, on the corresponding groups of volume-preserving diffeomorphisms
there are bi-invariant nondegenerate quadratic forms in every tangent space
(see Section IV.8.C for the two-dimensional case, and Sections III.4 and IV.8.D
for three dimensions, where this quadratic form is “helicity”).

2 Lie groups, Lie algebras, and adjoint representation

In this section we set forth basic facts about Lie groups and Lie algebras in
the form and with the notations used in the sequel.
A linear coordinate change C sends an operator matrix B to the matrix
CBC −1 . A similar construction exists for an arbitrary Lie group G.
4 I. Group and Hamiltonian Structures of Fluid Dynamics

Definition 2.1 The composition Ag = Rg−1 Lg : G → G of the right and

left translations, which sends any group element h ∈ G to ghg −1 , is called
an inner automorphism of the group G. (The product of Rg−1 and Lg can
be taken in either order: all the left translations commute with all the right
ones.) It is indeed an automorphism, since

Ag (f h) = (Ag f )(Ag h).

The map sending a group element g to the inner automorphism Ag is a

group homomorphism, since Agh = Ag Ah .
The inner automorphism Ag does not affect the group unit. Hence, its
derivative at the unit e takes the tangent space to the group at the unit to
itself.

Definition 2.2 The tangent space to the Lie group at its unit is called the
vector space of the Lie algebra corresponding to the group.
The Lie algebra of a group G is usually denoted by the corresponding
Gothic letter g.

Example 2.3 For the Lie group G = SDiff(M ), formed by the diffeomor-
phisms preserving the volume element of the flow domain M , the correspond-
ing Lie algebra consists of divergence-free vector fields in M .

Example 2.4 The Lie algebra so(n) of the rotation group SO(n) consists of
skew-symmetric n × n matrices. For n = 3 the vector space of skew-symmetric
matrices is three-dimensional. The vectors of this three-dimensional space are
said to be angular velocities.

Definition 2.5 The differential of the inner automorphism Ag at the group

unit e is called the group adjoint operator Adg :

Adg : g → g, Adg a = (Ag∗ |e )a, a ∈ g = Te G.

(Here and in the sequel, we denote by Tx M the tangent space of the manifold
M at the point x, and by F∗ |x : Tx M → TF (x) M the derivative of the mapping
F : M → M at x. The derivative F∗ of F at x is a linear operator.)
The adjoint operators form a representation of the group: Adgh = Adg Adh
by the linear operators acting in the Lie algebra space.

Example 2.6 The adjoint operators of the group SDiff(M ) define the dif-
feomorphism action on divergence-free vector fields in M as the coordinate
changes in the manifold.
The map Ad, which associates the operator Adg to a group element g ∈ G,
may be regarded as a map from the group to the space of the linear operators
in the Lie algebra.
2. Lie groups, Lie algebras, and adjoint representation 5

Definition 2.7 The differential ad of the map Ad at the group unit e is called
the adjoint representation of the Lie algebra:
d 
ad = Ad∗e : g → End g, adξ =  Adg(t) ,
dt t=0
where g(t) is a curve on the group G starting at the point g(0) = e with the
velocity ġ(0) = ξ (Fig. 2). Here, End g is the space of linear operators taking
g to itself. The symbol adξ stands for the image of an element ξ, from the Lie
algebra g, under the action of the linear map ad. This image adξ ∈ End g is
itself a linear operator in g.

Fig. 2. The vector ξ in the Lie algebra g is the velocity at the identity e of a path
g(t) on the Lie group G.

Example 2.8 Let G be the rotation group in Rn . Then

adξ ω = [ξ, ω],
where [ξ, ω] = ξω − ωξ is the commutator of skew-symmetric matrices ξ and
ω. In particular, for n = 3 the vector [ξ, ω] is the ordinary cross product ξ × ω
of the angular velocity vectors ξ and ω in R3 .

Proof. Let t → g(t) be a curve starting at e with the initial velocity ġ = ξ,

and let s → h(s) be such a curve with the initial velocity h = ω. Then
g(t)h(s)g(t)−1 = (e + tξ + o(t))(e + sω + o(s))(e + tξ + o(t))−1
= e + s[ω + t(ξω − ωξ) + o(t)] + o(s)
as t, s → 0. 

Example 2.9 Let G = Diff(M ) be the group of diffeomorphisms of a mani-

fold M . Then
adv w = −{v, w}, (2.1)
where {v, w} is the Poisson bracket of vector fields v and w.
6 I. Group and Hamiltonian Structures of Fluid Dynamics

The Poisson bracket of vector fields is defined as the commutator of the

corresponding differential operators:

L{v,w} = Lv Lw − Lw Lv . (2.2)

The linear first-order differential operator Lv , associated

 ∂fto a vector field v,
is the derivative along the vector field v (Lv f = vi ∂xi for an arbitrary
function f and any coordinate system).
The components of the field {v, w} in an arbitrary coordinate system are
expressed in terms of the components of w and v according to the following
formula:
 ∂wi ∂vi
{v, w}i = vj − wj .
j
∂x j ∂x j

It follows from the above that the field {v, w} does not depend on the coor-
dinate system (x1 , . . . , xn ) used in the latter formula.
The operator Lv (called the Lie derivative) also acts on any tensor field
on a manifold, and it is defined as the “fisherman derivative”: the flow is
transporting the tensors in front of the fisherman, who is sitting at a fixed
place and differentiates in time what he sees. For instance, the∂ffunctions are
transported backwards by the flow, and hence Lv f = vi ∂xi . Similarly,
differential forms are transported backwards, but vector fields are transported
forwards. Thus, for vector fields we obtain that Lv w = −{v, w}.
The minus sign enters formula (2.1) since, traditionally, the sign of the
Poisson bracket of two vector fields is defined according to (2.2), similarly to
the matrix commutator. The opposite signs in the last two examples result
from the same reason as the distinction in invariance of the kinetic energy: It
is left invariant in the former case and right invariant in the latter.
Proof of Formula (2.1). Diffeomorphisms corresponding to the vector fields
v and w can be written (in local coordinates) in the form

g(t) : x → x + tv(x) + o(t), t → 0,

h(s) : x → x + sw(x) + o(s), s → 0.

Then we have g(t)−1 : x → x − tv(x) + o(t), whence

h(s)(g(t))−1 : x → x − tv(x) + o(t) + sw(x − tv(x) + o(t)) + o(s)

 
∂w
= x − tv(x) + o(t) + s w(x) − t v(x) + o(t) + o(s),
∂x
and
  
∂v ∂w
g(t)h(s)(g(t))−1 : x → x + s w(x) + t w(x) − v(x) + o(t) + o(s).
∂x ∂x

2. Lie groups, Lie algebras, and adjoint representation 7

Example 2.10 Let G = SDiff(M ) be the group of diffeomorphisms preserv-

ing the volume element in a domain M . Formula (2.1) is valid in this case,
while all the three fields v, w, and {v, w} are divergence free.

Definition 2.11 The commutator in the Lie algebra g is defined as the op-
eration [ , ] : g × g → g that associates to a pair of vectors a, b of the tangent
space g (at the unit of a Lie group G) the following third vector of this space:

[a, b] = ada b.

The tangent space at the unit of the Lie group equipped with such an operation
[ , ] is called the Lie algebra of the Lie group G.

Example 2.12 The commutator of skew-symmetric matrices a and b is

ab − ba (in the three-dimensional case it is the cross product a × b of the
corresponding vectors). The commutator of two vector fields is minus their
Poisson bracket. The commutator of divergence-free vector fields in a three-
dimensional Euclidean space is given by the formula

[a, b] = curl (a × b),

where a × b is the cross product. It follows from the more general formula

curl (a × b) = [a, b] + a div b − b div a,

and it is valid for an arbitrary Riemannian three-dimensional manifold M 3 .

The latter formula may be obtained by the repeated application of the homo-
topy formula (see Section 7.B).

Remark 2.13 The commutation operation in any Lie algebra can be defined
by the following construction. Extend the vectors v and w in the left-invariant
way to the entire Lie group G. In other words, at every point g ∈ G, we define
a tangent vector vg ∈ Tg G, which is the left translation by g of the vector
v ∈ g = Te G. We obtain two left-invariant vector fields ṽ and w̃ on G. Take
their Poisson bracket ũ = {ṽ, w̃}. The Poisson bracket operation is invariant
under the diffeomorphisms. Hence the field ũ is also left-invariant, and it is
completely determined by its value u at the group unit. The latter vector
u ∈ Te G = g can be taken as the definition of the commutator in the Lie
algebra g:
[v, w] = u.
The analogous construction carried out with right-invariant fields ṽ, w̃ on the
group G provides us with minus the commutator.

Theorem 2.14 The commutator operation [ , ] is bilinear, skew-symmetric,

and satisfies the Jacobi identity:
8 I. Group and Hamiltonian Structures of Fluid Dynamics

[λa + νb, c] = λ[a, c] + ν[b, c];

[a, b] = −[b, a];
[[a, b], c] + [[b, c], a] + [[c, a], b] = 0.

Remark 2.15 A vector space equipped with a bilinear skew-symmetric op-

eration satisfying the Jacobi identity is called an abstract Lie algebra. Every
(finite-dimensional) abstract Lie algebra is the Lie algebra of a certain Lie
group G.
Unfortunately, in the infinite-dimensional case this is not so. This is a
source of many difficulties in quantum field theory, in the theory of com-
pletely integrable systems, and in other areas where the language of infinite-
dimensional Lie algebras replaces that of Lie groups (see, e.g., Section VI.1
on the Virasoro algebra and KdV equation). One can view a Lie algebra as
the first approximation to a Lie group, and the Jacobi identity appears as
the infinitesimal consequence of associativity of the group multiplication. In
a finite-dimensional situation a (connected simply connected) Lie group itself
can be reconstructed from its first approximation. However, in the infinite-
dimensional case such an attempt at reconstruction may lead to divergent
series.
It is easy to verify the following

Theorem 2.16 The adjoint operators Adg : g → g form a representation of

a Lie group G by the automorphisms of its Lie algebra g:

[Adg ξ, Adg η] = Adg [ξ, η], Adgh = Adg Adh .

Definition 2.17 The set of images Adg ξ of a Lie algebra element ξ, under
the action of all the operators Adg , g ∈ G, is called the adjoint (group) orbit
of ξ.

Examples 2.18 (A) The adjoint orbit of a matrix, regarded as an element

of the Lie algebra of all complex matrices, is the set of matrices with the same
Jordan normal form.
(B) The adjoint orbits of the rotation group of a three-dimensional Eu-
clidean space are spheres centered at the origin, and the origin itself.
(C) The Lie algebra sl(2, R) of the group SL(2, R) of real matrices with
the unit determinant consists of all traceless 2 × 2 matrices:
 
a b
sl(2, R) :=
c −a

with real a, b, and c. Matrices with the same Jordan normal form have equal
values of the determinant Δ = −(a2 + bc). The adjoint orbits in sl(2, R) are
defined by this determinant “almost uniquely,” though they are finer than in
the complex case. The orbits are the connected components of the quadrics
2. Lie groups, Lie algebras, and adjoint representation 9

β q

α p

a b c

Fig. 3. (a) The (co)adjoint orbits in the matrix algebra sl(2, R) are the connected
components of the quadrics. The adjoint (b) and coadjoint (c) orbits of the group of
affine transformations of R.

a2 + bc = const = 0, each half of the cone a2 + bc = 0, and the origin

a = b = c = 0; see Fig. 3a.
(D) The adjoint orbits of the group G = {x → ax + b | a > 0, b ∈ R} of
affine transformations of the real line R are straight lines {α = const = 0},
two rays {α = 0, β > 0}, {α = 0, β < 0}, and the origin {α = 0, β = 0} in
the plane {(α, β)} = g, Fig. 3b .
(E) Let v be a divergence-free vector field on M . The adjoint orbit of v for
the group SDiff(M ) consists of the divergence-free vector fields obtained from
v by the natural action of all diffeomorphisms preserving the volume element
in the domain M . In particular, all such fields are topologically equivalent. For
instance, they have equal numbers of zeros, periodic orbits, invariant surfaces,
the same eigenvalues of linearizations at zeros, etc.

Remark 2.19 For a simply connected bounded domain M in the (x, y)-
plane, a divergence-free vector field tangent to the boundary of M can be
defined by its stream function ψ (such that the field components are −ψy and
ψx ). One can assume that the stream function vanishes on the boundary of
M . The Lie algebra of the group SDiff(M ), which consists of diffeomorphisms
preserving the area element of the domain M , is naturally identified with the
space of all such stream functions ψ.

Theorem 2.20 All momenta In = ψ n dx dy are constant along the adjoint

M
orbits of the group SDiff(M ) in the space of stream functions.

Proof. Along every orbit all the areas S(c) of the sets “of smaller values”
{(x, y) | ψ(x, y) < c} are constant. 
Another random document with
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Legates, papal, 91, 310.
Leo III deprives Lichfield, ch. vi;
charges against, 188-90;
crowns Charlemagne as Emperor, 190.
Libraries, at the Cathedral Church of Tours, 220;
Marmoutier, 221;
St. Martin’s, 222;
Tours and the neighbourhood, 219, 222;
York, 84, 85.
Libri Carolini, 183.
Lichfield, made an Archbishopric, ch. v.
Lindisfarne, 125-7, 132.
Liturgies, 260.
Louis, son of Karl, 31.
Lucia, see Gisla.
Luitgard, 245.

M
Malmesbury, William of, 51, 92, 113, 224, 272;
property restored, 106.
Maluin, 317.
Manuscripts, Alcuin sends to York for, 203;
of Coronation Forms, 261-3.
Marmoutier, 212.
Martin, see St.
Martinensian Bishops, 217, 228.
Mayo of the Saxons, 153-6.
Mercia, Archbishopric of, ch. v.
Missions, 285.
Monasteries, suppression of, 59-61;
hereditary descent, 62;
bad state of, 65.

N
Nathanael, see Fredegisus.
Nicephorus, 323.
Ninian, 301.
Northumbria, list of kings, 122-4.

O
Oeren, 6.
Offa, ch. v; Appendix B.
Orleans, 206, 232.
Osbald, 141.
Osred, 123.
Osulf, 23, 25.
Oswulf, 122.

P
Pallium, for York, 76, 77;
for Lichfield, ch. v.
Pandect, 258.
Pastoral Care, the, 169-71.
Paul, see Peter and.
Pepin, son of Karl, 31, 252.
Peter and Paul, Saints, 187, 197, 320-3.
Peter, St., his long letter to the Franks, 199.
Pettau, 303.
Pilgrimages, evils of, 65.
Popes, gifts to, 92, 111;
charges against, 188-190;
adoration by, 191.
Purton, 106.
Pyttel, 317.

R
Raganard, 27-9.
Remedius (Remigius), 269.
Ripon, 8.
Rotruda (Columba), 193, 253, 256;
letter to Alcuin, 254.
Runes, 9, 296, 297.
Rustica, Romana, 293.

S
Sanctuary, right of, ch. xiv.
Saxon, early, 295.
Scriptures, revision of, 253-9.
Sigha, 16.
Sigulf, 1, 20, 27, 49.
Silk robes, 290, 302.
Singing, 260.
Spurn Point, 4.
St. Martin, scenes in his life, 38-41, 44;
at Tours, 212, 214, 221.
St. Martin’s, Tours, fire at, 36;
status of, 216;
bishops of, 217, 228.
Sulpicius Severus, 38, 44, 221.
Synod, Mercian, 92, 317;
Northumbrian, 311.

T
Tetbury, 106.
Theodulf of Orleans, 206, ch. xiv, 245;
describes Karl, 245;
describes Alcuin, 45 n., 235.
Theophylact, legate, 310.
Theotisc (Deutsch), 294.
Tithes, 287.
Tours, Alcuin settles at, 202;
character of the brethren, 204, ch. xiv;
its amenity defended by Alcuin, 209;
fees at the School, 209;
the Church of St. Martin, 210-13;
the Cathedral Church, 213, 214;
Public Library, 214-16, 219-23;
Secularisation of St. Martin’s, 216-18;
two sets of bishops, 217, 228.
Transubstantiation, 179, 184.
Trèves, 6.

U
Uulfhard, 22, 205.
Uilhaed (Willehad), 285.

V
Vetulus, 1.
Violence in Northumbria, 123.

W
Waldramn, 27, 44.
Wearmouth, 127, 135.
Westbury on Trym, 114.
Whithorn, 301.
Wido, 239.
Wighod, 311.
Wilgils, 4, 5.
Willibrord, 2-9.
Wine, 45 n., 205-8, 267, 277.
Withso (variously spelled), 27.

Y
York, Bishops and Saints of, ch. iv;
Cathedral Church of, 80-4;
Library of, 84, 85;
School of, 53, 68-70.

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