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Power Plant Engineering

Dr Mohd Parvez

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Al-Falah University, Faridabad

(Guest Faculty in G B Pant Institute of Technology New Delhi)

(India)

1
 Course Description
Course Title: Power Plant Engineering Internal Marks: 60
Course Code: ME 405 External Marks: 90
L T P Structure: 3-1-0 Total Marks: 150
Credits: 3 Exam Duration: 2-30 hrs

Course Objectives
 understand the concept of energy conservation and power plant technology
 acquire basic knowledge about site selection of different types of power plants
 develop understanding about power plant cycles and power generation systems
 appreciate the role and utility of nuclear power plants and renewable energy sources in
the spectrum of energy conversion aspects
 explain economic and maintenance systems for power plants

Course Contents
Unit – 1
Energy conversion: Concept of energy conversion; Conventional and non – conventional
energy resources; Energy capacity and its utilization as a measure of country’s development;
Classification of power generation plants and factors affecting their site selection

Hydro – power plants: Plant layout; Run of river plants, pumped storage plants and
underground stations; Rainfall and run off measurements, flow duration curves and estimation of
the reservoir size; Plant auxiliaries – head water control, penstock, surge tank, turbine and its
governing mechanism

Unit – 2
Steam power plants: Plant layout; Coal handling – coal storage, preparation, feeding and
burning; Selection of fans for forced draft, induced draft and balanced draft; Heat recovery
equipment – economizers, air preheaters and superheaters; Boiler furnaces, capacity and size of
chimney; Ash handling system; Flue gas cleaning, particulate and gaseous emission control
methods
Steam generators and steam power cycles: Guide lines for selection of boilers for steam power
plants; High pressure boilers and super critical boilers; Fluidized bed boilers; Boiler

2
performances parameters; Boiler testing and safety regulations; Rankine cycle – superheat,
reheat and regeneration; Open and closed water heaters; Binary vapour cycle and cogeneration

Unit – 3
Nuclear power plants: Principle of nuclear energy, nuclear fuels and basic nuclear reactions;
Fuels used in reactors; Description of different types of nuclear reactors – boiler water reactor
(BWR), pressurized water reactor (PWR), fast breeder reactor (FBR), advanced gas cooled
reactor and CANDU reactor; Elements of a nuclear reactor – moderator, control rods and
coolant; Radiation hazards and radioactive waste disposal

Diesel and gas turbine power plants: Operation and performance of diesel engines; Selection
of engine type, fuel and fuel supply system; Gas turbines – open and closed cycles; Combustion
chambers; Operating characteristics and thermal refinements – regeneration, reheating and
intercooling; Combined gas power cycle

Unit – 4
Renewable energy sources: Thermal aspects of solar energy – measurement and utilization, flat
plate and concentrating collectors; Wind energy - horizontal and vertical axis wind mills;
Harnessing of energy from geo, biomass and tidal waves; Direct energy conversion (DEC);
Principles of fuel cell, thermo – electric, thermionic and magneto – hydrodynamic units; Types
of load and typical load curves
Power plant economics: Plant load factor and utilization factor; Fixed cost and operating cost;
Variable load operation and load sharing; Cost of electricity, energy audit and energy tariffs;
Maintenance of power plants

3
 Unit – 1
Energy conversion
1.1 Over view of power generation in India
Energy is one of the most essential requirement of living hood, moreover life blood for
civilization. It is a key element of interaction between nature and society and is important in
achieving a higher living standard for human as well as industrial growths. Over the past few
decades, energy is the backbone of technology. This makes energy resources extremely
significant for every country in the world and considered a key input for economic development.
The standard of living of the people of any country is considered to be proportional to the energy
consumption by people of that country. India has the fifth largest electricity producer in the
world and sixth largest energy consumer amounting for around 3.4% of global energy
consumptions. The scenario of total energy production in the world shown if Figure1.1 (Perez et
al).

Figure 1.1 The scenario of total energy production in the world

4
The energy consumptions per capita in the world are as:

Canada = 17179 kWh

USA = 13338 kWh
Australia = 11126 kWh
Japan = 8076 kWh
France = 7689 kWh
Germany = 7030 kWh
United Kingdom = 6206 kWh
Russia = 5642 kWh
Italy = 5644 kWh
India = 631 kWh
Most of the energy used in world is supplied by combustion of fossil fuels which are; coal, natural
gas, petroleum and nuclear known as non – renewable sources of energy. The demand of energy is
increasing day by day due to growth of population. Utilization of fossil fuels through combustion to
meet out the increasing energy demand results in the fast depletion of fossil fuel resources and
environmental degradation like acid rain, smog formation, global warming, ozone depletion, and
health hazards. In order to overcome this energy crisis and environmental pollution a great need is
arises to search a new alternative sources of renewable energy such as; solar energy, wind energy,
geothermal energy, hydropower energy, biomass energy and tidal energy. The use of these
renewable resources to power generation reduced the level of pollution and also reduced the cost.

Non – renewable resources of energy have the many important areas like:

 Electricity generation
 Transporting
Renewable resources provide energy in four important areas like:

 Electricity generation
 Water heating or cooling
 Transporting
 Rura

5
1.2 Important progress in power sector in India

The Indian power sector has made remarkable progress since independence. The total installation
capacity has gone up from 1364 MW in 1947 to 200,000 MW in 2012.
The utility electricity sector in India has one National Grid with an installed capacity of
340.53 GW as on 31 March 2018. Renewable power plants constituted 32.2% of total installed
capacity. During the fiscal year 2016-17, the gross electricity generated by utilities in India was
1,236.39 TWh and the total electricity generation (utilities and non utilities) in the country was
1,433.4 TWh. The gross electricity consumption was 1,122 kWh per capita in the year 2016-17.
India is the world's fifth largest producer and sixth largest consumer of electricity. Electric
energy consumption in agriculture was recorded highest (17.89%) in 2015-16 among all
countries. The per capita electricity consumption is low compared to many countries despite
cheaper electricity tariff in India.
Installed capacity of electricity produced in India March – 2018.

 Coal: 197,171.5 MW (57.9%)

 Large Hydro: 45,293.42 MW (13.3%)

 Small Hydro: 4,476.66 MW (1.3%)

 Wind Power: 32,957.46 MW (9.7%)

 Solar Power: 19,584.18 MW (5.8%)

 Biomass: 8,527.88 MW (2.5%)

 Nuclear: 6,780 MW (2.0%)

 Gas: 24,897.46 MW (7.3%)

 Diesel: 837.63 MW (0.2%)

6
 Growth of Installed Capacity in India

Thermal (MW) Renewable (MW) %

Gro
Install
Nucl Tot wth
ed
ear al (on
Capac Sub- Sub-
(MW Other (M yearl
ity Co G Dies Total Hyd Total
) Renew W) y
as on al as el Ther ro Renew
able basis
mal able )

31-Dec-
756 - 98 854 - 508 - 508 1,362 -
1947

31-Dec-
1,004 - 149 1,153 - 560 - 560 1,713 8.59%
1950

31-Mar-
1,597 - 228 1,825 - 1,061 - 1,061 2,886 13.04%
1956

31-Mar-
2,436 - 300 2,736 - 1,917 - 1,917 4,653 12.25%
1961

31-Mar-
4,417 137 352 4,903 - 4,124 - 4,124 9,027 18.80%
1966

31-Mar-
8,652 165 241 9,058 640 6,966 - 6,966 16,664 10.58%
1974

31-Mar- 14,87
168 164 15,207 640 10,833 - 10,833 26,680 12.02%
1979 5

31-Mar- 26,31
542 177 27,030 1,095 14,460 - 14,460 42,585 9.94%
1985 1

7
 Growth of Installed Capacity in India

Thermal (MW) Renewable (MW) %

Gro
Install
Nucl Tot wth
ed
ear al (on
Capac Sub- Sub-
(MW Other (M yearl
ity Co G Dies Total Hyd Total
) Renew W) y
as on al as el Ther ro Renew
able basis
mal able )

31-Mar- 41,23
2,343 165 43,764 1,565 18,307 - 18,307 63,636 9.89%
1990 6

31-Mar- 54,15
6,562 294 61,010 2,225 21,658 902 22,560 85,795 4.94%
1997 4

31-Mar- 62,13 11,16 105,04

1,135 74,429 2,720 26,269 1,628 27,897 4.49%
2002 1 3 6

31-Mar- 71,12 13,69 132,32

1,202 86,015 3,900 34,654 7,760 42,414 5.19%
2007 1 2 9

31-Mar- 112,0 18,38 199,87

1,200 131,603 4,780 38,990 24,503 63,493 9.00%
2012 22 1 7

31 Mar 192,1 25,32 326,84

838 218,330 6,780 44,478 57,260 101,138 10.31%
2017 63 9 1

31 Mar 197,1 24,89 340,52

838 222,906 6,780 45,293 65,546 110,839 4.19%
2018 71 7 6

8
1.3 Concept of energy conversion
One important property of energy is its ability to change from one form to another form. For
example, chemical energy from fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) can be converted into heat
energy when burned. The heat energy may be converted into kinetic energy in a steam turbine
and finally into electrical energy by a generator. The electric energy may subsequently be
converted into light, sound or kinetic energy in our homes through various household appliances.
The earliest machines were windmills that transformed the kinetic energy of wind
into mechanical energy for pumping water and grinding grain. They were subsequently adopted
to drive sawmills to provide the bellows action for furnaces and forges, to drive tilt hammers or
trip hammers for forging iron and to provide direct mechanical power for textile mills. Until the
development of steam power during the Industrial Revolution at the end of the 18th century,
waterwheels were the primary means of mechanical power production, rivaled only occasionally
by windmills. Thus, many industrial towns, especially in early America, sprang up at locations
where water flow could be assured all year. The transformation of energy is given in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 Transformation of energy

9
Conservation of energy was independently recognized by many scientists in the first half of the
19th century. The conservation of energy as kinetic, potential, and elastic energy in a closed
system under the assumption of no friction has proved to be a valid and useful tool. Heat was
identified as a form of energy by Hermann von Helmholtz of Germany and James Prescott
Joule of England during the 1840s. Joule also proved experimentally the relationship between
mechanical and heat energy at this time.
The French engineer Sadi Carnot described (in 1824) a theoretical power cycle of maximum
efficiency for converting thermal into mechanical energy. He demonstrated that this efficiency is
determined by the magnitude of the temperatures at which heat energy is added and waste heat is
given off during the cycle. A practical engine operating on the Carnot cycle has never been
devised, but the Carnot cycle determines the maximum efficiency of thermal energy conversion
into any form of directed energy. The Carnot criterion renders 100 percent efficiency impossible
for all heat engines.
Another impotent advances high pressure steam was achieved by Richard Trevithick in England
during the early years of the 19th century. Trevithick built the world’s first steam powered
railway locomotive in 1803. Two years later he adapted his high pressure steam engine to drive
an iron rolling mill and to propel a barge with the help of paddle wheels. While the steam engine
remained dominant in industry and transportation during much of the 19th century, engineers and
scientists began developing other sources and converters of energy. One of the most important of
these was the internal combustion engine. In such a device a fuel and oxidizer are burned within
the engine and the products of combustion act directly on piston. Another form of propulsive
engine, the rocket, attracted increasing attention during the final decades of the 19th century due
in part to the imaginative portrayals of space travel fabricated by Jules Verneand other science-
fiction writers.
Many of the energy converters widely used today involve the transformation of thermal
energy into electrical energy. The efficiency of such systems is, however, subject to fundamental
limitations, as dictated by the laws of thermodynamics and other scientific principles. During any
energy conversion, the amount of energy input is the same as the energy output. This concept is
known as the law of conservation of energy and sometimes referred to as the first Law of
thermodynamics. This law states: energy cannot be created nor destroyed but can be transformed
from one form to another. Thus, the total energy of an isolated system is always constant and

10
when energy of one form is expended an equal amount of energy in another form is produced. In
every energy conversion, some high grade energy is converted into low grade energy as heat.
Thus, the total amount of low grade energy in the universe is increasing while high grade energy
is decreasing. Even though energy is never destroyed, we usually complain that the world is
suffering from an energy shortage. Indeed we are suffering from shortage of high grade energy
that has the potential of producing useful power! Energy may change form, but the total amount
of energy in the universe stays the same. The conversion of energy from one form to another is
shown in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3 Energy conversion processes

In recent years, considerable attention has been devoted to certain direct energy conversion
devices, notably solar cells and fuel cells that bypass the intermediate step of conversion
to heat energy in electrical power generation.

1.4 Conventional and non – conventional energy resources

1.4.1 Conventional energy resources:

Energy that has been used from ancient times is known as conventional energy. Coal, natural
gas, oil, and firewood are examples of conventional energy sources. In otherworld’s, when we
cannot reuse the above source of energy after using it once we call them “conventional sources of
energy” as show in Figure 1.4.

11
 Figure 1.4 Conventional energy resources
1.4.2 Non conventional energy resources:
Natural resources like wind, tides, solar, biomass, etc generate energy which is known as “Non-
conventional resources”. These are pollution free and hence we can use these to produce a clean
form of energy without any wastage. Figure 1.5 shows the renewable and non renewable energy
resources.

Figure 1.5 Renewable and non renewable energy resources

12
The non-conventional resources are listed below:
• Solar energy
• Wind energy
• Hydroelectric energy (dams in rivers)
• Tidal energy
• Ocean wave energy
• Ocean thermal energy (the difference in heat between shallow and deep water)
• Geothermal energy (heat from deep under the ground)
• Biomass (burning of vegetation to stop it producing methane)
• Biofuel (producing ethanol (petroleum) from plants)
• Biogas

1.4.2.1 Solar energy

Solar energy is clean and eco – environmental friendly renewable energy resources. It is the most
abundant source of energy on earth, however, the abundance of solar irradiation is not equally
distributed over the earthy; the sunniest regions are located around the equator, receiving some
300W/m2 on average annually, which translates into about 7KW/m2 /day (NASA Atmospheric
Science Data centre 2005). Regions further away from the equator still receive enough solar
irradiation for applications exploiting solar thermal and photo voltaic conversion techniques.
India has high solar insulation levels with about 300 clear sunny days most parts of the country
receive 4-7 Kwh/m²/day with about 1500-2000 sunshine hours per week (depending upon
location), which is far more than current total energy consumption. Ministry of New and
Renewable energy (MNRE), Government of India estimates solar potential at over 10000 MW.
States on West part of India such as Rajasthan and Gujrat have the highest potential. Parts of
these states have the best solar irradiance in India with 4-7 Kwh/m²/day. Figure 1.6 shows the
typical arrangement of solar energy.

13
 Figure 1.6 Solar energy

One generally distinguishes three forms of solar conversion technologies to produce the
following:
1. Electricity (photo voltaic)
2. Low temperature heat (solar thermal)
3. High thermal heat (solar thermal power plant)
 The sun radiates energy in the form of electromagnetic waves
 It is clean, inexhaustible, universally available source of renewable energy
 The output of the sun is2.8 × 1023 Kw/year
 The sun has an effective black body temperature (Ts) of 5777 K.
 It is a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter with a diameter of 1.39×109 m and is, on an
average, 1.5 ×1011 m from the earth.
 The energy reaching the earth is 1.5 ×1018 Kw/year
 Radiation received on earth at noon 1 Kw/m2
 Solar power 178 billion Mw
 10,000 times the world demand
 Cost 20 crore/ Mw where as coal 4 crore/ Mw
Solar energy can be utilized directly in two ways:
1. By collecting the radiation heat and using it in thermal system

14
 2. By collecting and converting it directly it directly to electrical energy using a
photovoltaic system (solar photovoltaic)
Recently, the use of solar energy for both heating and cooling applications has received more
attentions, especially in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries, e.g. Saudi
Arabia. It is because; the electricity demands for both heating and cooling by the domestic
sector, during winter and summer, respectively, are quite high.

1.4.2.2 Wind energy

Man has harnessed the energy in wind for thousands of years, for sailing boats, powering wind
mills and milling grains at land. Among all renewable energy sources, wind power is the most
mature in terms of commercial development. The amount of energy available in wind energy is
smaller than available from direct solar energy, only part of the solar energy reaching the
atmosphere is converted into wind energy as a result of solar – induced temperature difference
on earth. The origin of winds may be traced basically to uneven heating of the earth’s surface
due to the sun (or caused by the pressure gradient). This may be lead to circulation of widespread
winds on a global basis, producing planetary winds or may have a limited influence in smaller
area to caused local wind. Wind energy is used to generate electricity by wind turbines.
Wind energy, with an average growth rate of 30%, is the fastest growing source of renewable
energy in the world. India occupies the fifth place in the world in wind energy generation after
USA, Germany, Spain, and China and has an installed capacity of more than 9756 MW as of
January 31, 2009. New technological developments in wind energy design have contributed to
the significant advances in wind energy penetration and to get optimum power from available
wind. India has a good potential of wind throughout the country. Winds in India are influenced
by the strong south-west summer monsoon, which starts in May–June, when cool, humid air
moves towards the land and the weaker north-east winter monsoon, which starts in October,
when cool dry air moves towards the ocean. Figure 1.7 shows the line diagram of wind power
generation.

15
 Figure 1.7 Line diagram of wind power generation

The following are the important futures wind energy

 The rotation of the earth also contributes to wind speed and direction
 Moderate to high speed winds, typically from 5 m/s to about 25 m/s are considered
favourable for most of the turbine
 The global theoretical wind energy potential has been estimated to be some 2% of the
solar energy reaching the atmosphere (Hubbert, 1971)
 Mankind has used wind power for over 25 centuries. The oil crises in the 1970s prompted
large scale development of wind turbines for the generation of electricity
 At that time, typical turbine size was about 30 KW, with a rotor diameter of 10m
 The rapid growth in technology has led to present turbine size of 2-5 MW with rotor
diameters and hub heights in excess of 100m
 The most common configuration now is the vertical axis, three-bladed rotor turbine, with
the rotor in the upwind position
 The continuous development of turbines has been going hand in hand with improvements
in control and power regulation systems and conversion efficiencies that now are
typically around 50%, i.e. 85% of the Betz limit (European Wind Energy Association,
2003). Since the 1990s, offshore wind power has been developed, motivated by the
higher and more predictable wind speeds at sea
 For suitable areas a value of 4 MW/Km2 is taken, somewhat lower than current practice
in wind forms

16
1.4.2.3 Hydroelectric energy (dams in rivers)

Hydroelectric energy (power) is produced as water passes through a dam and into a river below.
The more water that passes through a dam, the more energy is produced. Once a dam is built, an
artificial manmade lake is created behind the dam. Electricity is produced by a device called a
turbine. Turbines contain metal coils surrounded by magnets. When the magnets spin over the
metal coils, electricity is produced. Turbines are located inside dams. The falling water spins the
magnets. Figure 1.8 shows the schematic diagram of hydroelectric power system.

Figure 1.8 Schematic diagram of hydroelectric power system

Dams provide clean, pollution free energy, but they can also harm the environment such as Tehri
dam in Uttaranchal in India. The following are the important points related the hydroelectric
power plants:
 Hydropower is obtained by allowing water to fall through a turbine to turn a shaft
 Hydropower and geothermal energy sources have a number of characteristic in common

17
 Both require facilities located in a suitable geological setting
 Both are flexible in output capability and can be turned up and down or off and can with
little difficulty
 For hydropower, optimum sites are usually in mountainous country
 These sites are difficult to develop and often far from the main energy market
 On a worldwide basis, hydropower installations produce more energy than do geothermal
sources
 The United States hydropower facilities produce about 10 times more energy than do
geothermal facilities
 The requirements for a hydropower site are: a river with a reliable flow of water, in a
Canyon with high walls and a narrow spot at which a dam can be built
 This site should be selected to provide a maximum difference in the height of the water
above and below the dam
 The Canyons walls must have sufficient strength to support a dam
 Large river flow produces more potential energy, higher the dam the less water required
to produce a specific amount of energy
 This leads to the ideal dam site for the production of hydropower as a vigorous river
flowing in a narrow Canyon with high rock walls
 In hydroelectric power plants the energy of water is utilized to drive the turbine which, in
turn, runs the generator to produce electricity
 Rain falling upon the earth’s surface has potential energy relative to the oceans towards
which it flows
 This energy is converted to the shaft work where the water falls through an appreciable
vertical distance
 Hydro or water power is important only next to thermal power
 Nearly 20 percent of the total power of the world is met by hydropower stations
 There are some countries like Norway and Switzerland where the hydropower forms
almost the total installed capacity

18
1.4.2.4 Tidal energy

Tidal energy is one of the oldest forms of energy generation. It is an important form of renewable
energy that converts the natural rise and falls of the tides into electricity. These tides are caused
by the combined effects of gravitational forces exerted by the sun, moon and the rotation of the
earth. The ocean level difference caused due to tides contains large amount of potential energy as
shown in Figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9 Shows how tides is developed and used for power generation
The rotation of earth causes to high tides and to low tides to occurs daily. The level difference
between the high and low tide is known as tidal range. The highest level of tidal water is known
as flood tide or high tide (spring tides) and may be occur on full moon, when the forces of the
sun and moon on the earth add together. When the gravitational forces due to sun and moon on
earth oppose each other, tides of minimum range are obtained and this lowest level of tides is
known as low or ebb (Neap) tides. Neap tides occur at the first and third quarter of the moon.
Only sites with large tidal ranges above 5 meters or more are considered suitable for power
generation.
 Tidal stream generators make use of the kinetic energy of moving water to power
turbines, in a similar way to wind turbines
 Tidal mills were in use on the coasts of Spain, France, UK and China during medieval
period around 1100AD
 A tidal power plant in St. Malo (France), electric power output 240 MW
 An experimental tidal power plant with an electric power output of 800 KW in
Kislogubsk (Russia)

19
  In Indian potential for tidal energy exists in Gulf of Kutch (Gujarat), Sunderban area of
West Bengal
 The total tidal power potential is estimated to be around 8000 MW in India
 Exceptionally high tides with a tidal range of 11 m occurs in the Bay of Fundy on the
Atlantic coast of Canada near Maine
 Total tidal power potential is estimated in the world around 3000000 MW
1.4.2.5 Wave energy

Wave energy also known as ocean wave energy, is another type of ocean based renewable
energy that uses the power of the wave to generate electricity. Unlike tidal energy which uses the
ebb and flow of the tides, wave energy uses the vertical moment of the surface water that
produces tidal waves. These waves are caused by the transfer of energy from surface winds to
the sea. The wave power than converts the periodic up and down moment of the ocean waves
into electricity by placing equipment on the surface of the oceans that captures the energy
produced by the wave moment and converts this mechanical energy into electrical power. The
rate of energy transfer depends upon the wind speed and the distance over which it interacts with
water. This energy in waves is harnessed, available in the form of mechanical energy using wave
energy converters and known as wave devices or wave machines as shown in Figure 1.10.

Figure 1.10 shows the wave energy converted into electrical power
 Wave’s energy is actually a concentrated form of solar power generated by the action of
wind blowing across the surface of the oceans water to produce power

 The energy flux in waves is more than that available from solar, wind and other
renewable sources

20
  Large waves appearing off Europe might have been initiated in stormy weather in the mid
Atlantic or Caribbean sea

 United Kingdom, west coast of United States and south coast of New Zealand have good
wave climates

 The resource potential near coastline is estimated as 2000000 MW

 Wave’s power is usually expressed in kilowatts per m

 Wave energy devices may be classified as: off-shore or deep water (water depth of 40 m)
shoreline devices

1.4.2.6 Ocean thermal energy

Ocean thermal energy exists in the form of temperature difference between the warm surface
water and the colder deep water. A heat engine generates power utilizing a well established
thermodynamic principle, where heat flows from a high temperature source to a low temperature
sink through an engine, converting part of the heat into work. In ocean thermal energy, the
surface water works as a heat source and the deep water as a heat sink to convert part of the heat
to mechanical energy and hence into electrical energy. The facility proposed to achieve this
conversion is known as ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC). A minimum temperature
difference of 20 0C is required for practical energy conversion. The thermal gradient is converted
into electrical energy; the warm water can be used to heat and vaporize a liquid known as
working fluid (water, ammonia). The working fluid develops pressure as it is caused to
evaporate. This expanding vapor runs through a turbine generator and is then condensed back
into a liquid by cold water brought up from depth and cycle is repeated. A line diagram of OTEC
is shown in Figure 1.11.
 OTEC is firm power (24/7), a clean energy source, environmentally sustainable and
capable of providing massive level of energy
 The first plant for utilizing the ocean thermal energy had a capacity of 40 KW was tested
in Cuba in 1930 by Claude
 The first modern OTEC power plant which was located near Hawaii (USA) had a thermal
capacity of 2.5 MW

21
  The current OTEC project is being set up in India for power generation expected up to
200KW likely to be commissioned in 2019

Figure 1.11 shows a line diagram of OTEC

1.4.2.7 Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy is one of the potential alternative sources of energy available in the form of
the vast natural reservoir of heat energy in the earth’s interior. Right from the inception of the
civilization, people from all over the world have been using geothermal energy in the form of hot
springs for different purposes like bathing and washing clothes.
Basically, geothermal energy is a form of energy conversion in which heat energy from within
the earth is captured. This is the thermal energy contained in the rock and fluid in the earth crust.
This energy exists in the form of steam, hot water, or hot and molten rock. It is released naturally
in the form of geysers, hot springs and volcanic eruptions. Although the amount of thermal
energy within the earth is very large, useful geothermal energy is limited to certain sites only, as
it is not feasible to access and extract heat from a very deep location. Low temperature resources
i.e., geysers have been used for hot baths, cooking, space and water heating. Most geothermal
resources produce low grade heat at about 50 – 70 0C, which can be used directly for thermal
application. Whereas, geothermal heat is available at temperatures above 90 0C are used for

22
electrical power production from turbines. Over the last few decades, it has been successfully
catering to both industrial and domestic energy requirements in many parts of the world.
The world’s total electrical power generating capacity from geothermal resources is about 12700
MW (2015). Figure 1.12 shows the line diagram of geothermal.

Figure 1.12 shows the line diagram of geothermal

The following are the important points related the geothermal energy
 Geothermal energy is obtained by extracting heat from water or rocks deep under the
ground
 It requires facilities located in a suitable geological setting
 The optimum sites are usually in mountainous country that is difficult to develop and
often far from the main energy market
 It is flexible in its output capability and can be turned up and down, or off and on, with
little difficulty
 The technology exists to drill geothermal wells a number of Kilometers deep, but the cost
of the well increases with depth
 As a result, practical geothermal sites require that there be high temperature rocks and/or
water within approximately 300 meters of the surface
 If the temperature of the site is high, the thermal energy can be used for heating or
generating electric
 Many sites have low temperatures suitable only for heating buildings

23
 In most places the soil reaches a constant temperature between 18 and 20 degree at a
depth of 5 to 10 meters
 If a large heat exchanger is buried at this depth than a heat pump can use the thermal
mass of the ground as an energy storage device
 In the winter heat is pumped out of the ground to heat the house
 This cools the soil, in summer heat is pumped back into the ground
 This cools the house in the hot weather
 In heat from pumped from the house for cooling is put back into the ground to warm it
for the next winter cycle
 The technique works but has not been shown to be useful for home heating under most
circumstances
 At number sites, the hot water produced by the well contains a high concentration of
dissolved mineral salts (brine) that cause operational and corrosion problems with the
equipment
 Disposal of the brine can present a difficult environmental protection challenge
 The most promising of geothermal plants is in Puga valley of Ladakh.
 There are seven geothermal plants in India: the Himalayas, Sohana, west coast, Cambay,
Son – Narmada – Tapi (Sonata), Godavari and Mahanadi
 Despite these short comings, modest geothermal electric power plants are in operation in
New Zealand, Italy and in California, Iceland satisfies much of their domestic heat
requirements with hot water from low temperature geothermal sources
 Geothermal energy is currently produced in places where the geological conditions are
suitable
 Calpine Energy Inc. San Jose California currently operates 850 mega watts of geothermal
sources
 Italy and New Zealand has been successful in drilling a productive well, the 1500 meter
deep well was drilled in the sulfur springs area of the Island
 This well produces a mixture of water and steam super heated to 300 degrees Celsius
 It has the potential for the generation of about 10 mega watts of electric power

24
  Unlike many other renewable energy sources, geothermal is very reliable and will
continue to be harvested at suitable sites
1.4.2.8 Biomass energy
The energy obtain from biomass is known as biomass energy. It is a renewable energy resource
derived from solid waste material of various human, animals, plants and natural activities. It is
derived from numerous sources, including the byproduct from the wood industry, agricultural
crops, raw material from the forest, house hold wastes and discarded material from food
processing plants as shown in Figure 1.13.

Figure 1.13 shows the important types of biomass material

Out of above renewable source of energy biomass looks as one of the most promising and viable
alternatives because use of biomass provides substantial benefits as for as the environment is
concerned and it rank 4 th as an energy resource, providing approximately 14% of the worlds
energy need. Since a huge amount of agriculture waste is available in country like India is
creates problem of waste disposal. Utilization of biomass like agriculture waste, municipal
waste, hospital waste, etc. results in the following advantages:
 Minimization of waste

25
  Additional power generation which reduces a considerable load on fossil fuels power
grade
 Reduced of pollution level in the atmosphere
 Biomass absorbs CO2 during growth and emits it during combustion hence it is a CO2
neutral fuel
There are two approaches of utilization of biomass for power generation:
 Direct combustion of biomass
 Biomass gasification
The direct combustion of biomass provides a lower efficiency and a high environmental impact,
due to the increase of particulate matter and various, unburned hydrocarbons. A promising way
to use biomass for power generation is through biomass gasification which enhanced the overall
efficiency of power production from biomass from (15%-20%) to (35%-40%) at reduced
environmental impact.
In the last few years, many researchers have focused on biomass gasification using a gas turbine,
steam turbine combined cycle plant with integral biomass gasifier
Biomass Gasification
Gasification is a waste to energy technology seems to be one of the best options available
because it requires minimum fuel processing provides power at higher efficiency and emit least
harmful pollutions after combustion of syngas turbine. Gasification is a thermo-chemical
conversion technology that converts solid biomass materials into a combustible gas called a
producer gas or syngas. Syngas is a mixture of CO, H2, CH4, CO2, H2O and N2 and tars.
Combustion, of syngas depends on:
 Fuel composition
 Gasifying medium
 Operating pressure and temperature
 Moisture contents of the fuel
Several types of gasifiers have been developed, most important types are:
 Fixed bed gasifiers
 Fluidized bed gasifiers
 Entrained flow gasifiers

26
Fluidized bed gasifiers are a more recent developed and takes the advantages of excellent mixing
characteristics and high reaction rates at temperature of (800 0C- 1000 0C) and at pressure of 15-
25 bars, depending on the operating pressure ratio of the gas turbine. Fluidized bed gasifiers are
named because the bed material (biomass) moves like a fluid due to the levitation of biomass by
the air flow. The fluidization occurs when the pressure drop across the gasification bed
multiplied with the area of the bed.

1.4.2.9 Biofuel energy

Biofuels are combustible fuels produced from biomass (agriculture and forest residues, energy
crops). The term biofuel is usually used to liquid fuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel that are
used as replacement of petroleum and diesel fuel. The simplest way to distinguish between the
two is to remember ethanol is an alcohol and biodiesel is oil, can be combusted in diesel engine.
Biofuel can also include solid fuels like wood pellets and biogas or syngas as shown in Figure
1.14. Biofuels are grouped as:
 First generation biofuels are produced from food crops. For ethanol feedstock’s includes
sugarcane, maize where as for biodiesel, feedstock’s are naturally occurring vegetable oil
such as soybean and canola
 Second generation biofuels are produced from cellulosic material such as wood, grasses
and inedible parts of plants
 Third generation biofuels are produced using the liquid production from algae
 The advanced biofuel which is a new technological field is uses waste such as garbage,
animal fats, and spent cooking oil to produce liquid fuel
 Ethanol is an alcohol used as a blending agent with gasoline to increase octane and cut
down carbon monoxide and other smog-causing emissions. The most common blend of
ethanol is E10 (10% ethanol, 90% gasoline)
 Biodiesel can be blended with petroleum diesel in any percentage, including B100 (pure
biodiesel) and the most common blend, B20 (a blend containing 20% biodiesel and 80%
petroleum diesel)
 It is produced by combining alcohol with vegetable oil, animal fat, or recycled cooking
grease

27
 Figure 1.14 shows how to produce the Biofuel
1.4.2.10 Biogas
Biogas is a renewable source of energy that belongs to the family of biofuels. It typically refers
to a gas produced by the fermentation of organic materials in the absence of oxygen or air with
the help of bacteria to breakdown materials to intermediates such as alcohols and fatty acids. In
otherworld’s we say that, the anaerobic fermentation of biodegradable materials such as biomass,
manure, sewage, municipal waste and crops produces biogas as shown in Figure 1.15.

Figure 1.15 shows how to produce Biogas

28
Biogas comprises primarily methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and has a small amounts of
hydrogen sulphide (H2S), moisture etc. The gases methane, hydrogen and carbon dioxide can be
combusted with oxygen and the energy release allows biogas to be used as a fuel for any heating
purpose such as cooking. It can also be used in anaerobic digesters in a gas engine to convert the
energy in the gas into electricity and heat. Biogas can be compressed, like natural gas and used to
power motor vehicles. Points to be remember:
 Biogas is also known as swamp gas
 In India biogas is commonly known as Gobar gas
 Biogas consists of 60-65% methane, 35-40% carbon dioxide

1.5 Energy capacity and its utilization as a measure of country’s development

India energy sector is one of the most critical components of an infrastructure that affects India
economic growth and also one of the largest industries in India. Therefore, economic growth in
India, being dependent on the power sector, has necessitated an enormous growth in electricity
demand over last two decades. India is both a major energy producer and consumer. India
currently ranks as the world’s fifth largest energy producer, accounting for about 3.4% of the
world’s total annual energy production and is the sixth largest energy consumer, accounting for
3.6% of the world’s total annual energy consumption. Due to demand and supply imbalance,
transmission and distribution losses go on increasing. Thus, India is a net energy importer,
mostly due to the large imbalance between oil production and consumption. As per data for
India, the total annual primary energy production is 340526 MW (March 2018). The Indian
power sector is largely coal based with total installed capacity comprising of 197171 MW (57%)
for coal based, 24897 MW (7.3%) for gas based, 838 MW (0.2%) for diesel based, 6780 MW
(2%) for Nuclear based, 45293 MW (13.3) for hydro based and 65546 MW (19.25%) from
renewable source of energy (Kumar, Bhattacharyya and Gupta, Journal of the Institute of
Engineers (India): Series B - Springer).
The direct impact of energy consumption on influence the economic growth of our country,
besides it also examined the influence of various forms of energy consumption growth. There is
a strong relationship between economic development and energy consumption. The growth of an
economy with its global competitiveness, hinges on the availability of cost effective and eco

29
friendly energy sources whereas the level of economic development has been observed to be
depended on energy demand.

Energy consumption pattern in India is very interesting of the total energy production are as:
 Industrial (45%)
 Domestic (22%)
 Agriculture (18%)
 Commercial (8%)
 Other works (7%)
From the above energy consumption pattern it is clear that, industrial sector is the major energy
consuming sector in India and uses about 45 % of the total commercial energy available in the
country. The main reason for higher energy consumption in Indian industries are obsolete
technology, lower capacity, utilization, causal metering and monitoring of energy consumption,
lower automation, raw material quality and poor handling, operating and maintenance practices.
India has seen an expansion in the total energy use for the past five decades, with a shift from
non commercial energy to commercial energy sources. The trends in the production of primary
commercial energy in the past five decades indicate coal as the most abundant among all
commercial energy sources. Petroleum and natural gas sector has significant growth in the
domestic production and supply. Despite increasing dependency on commercial fuels, a sizeable
quantum of energy requirements especially in the rural household sector, is met by non-
commercial energy sources, which include fuel wood, crop, residue, and animal waste. However,
other forms of commercial energy of much higher quality and efficiency are steadily replacing
the traditional energy resources being consumed in the rural sector. Resources augmentation and
growth in energy supply has not kept pace with increasing demand and, therefore, India
continues to face serious energy shortages. This has led to increased reliance on imports to meet
the energy demand (Renjish Kumar and Dr. Vimala, Asia Pacific Journal of Research-2016).
From the above it may be concluded that energy is a critical building block for the development
of the economy of a country and it is considered as a gross domestic product (GDP) multiplier.
Therefore, to deliver sustainable growth rate of 8 – 9% through the next 15 years till 2031-32,
India needs to increase its primary energy supply 3 – 4 times and its electricity generation
capacity about 6 times from the present available electricity generation.

30
1.6 Classification of power generation plants and factors affecting their site selection
A power generation plants (power plants) may be defined as a machine or assembly of
equipment that generates and delivers a flow of mechanical or electrical energy. There are
several types of power generation plants, mainly depends on the types of fuel used and types of
prime mover used. Since for the purpose of bulk power generation, only three major types of
power generation plants are there which are as follows:
1. Thermal power generation
2. Nuclear power generation
3. Hydro – electric power generation
Apart from these major types of power generation, we can resort to small scale power generation
techniques and may be classified as (conventional and non conventional power generation):
1. Diesel power generation
2. Gas turbine power generation
3. Steam engine power generation
4. Solar power generation
5. Geothermal power generation
6. Tidal power generation
7. Wind power generation
8. Biomass/ biogas power generation
A typical power generation plant is shown in Figure 1.16

Figure 1.16 show the power generation plant

31
1.6.1 Thermal power generation
A thermal power station is the most conventional method of generating electric power with
reasonably high efficiency. It uses coal as the primary fuel to boil the water available to
superheated steam for running the steam turbine. Generally in India, bituminous coal or brown
coal are used as fuel of boiler which has volatile content ranging from 8 to 33% and ash content
5 to 16 %. To enhance the thermal efficiency of the plant, the coal is used in the boiler in its
pulverized form. In other words, a thermal power plant is a kind of power generation plant where
we convert the chemical energy of fossil fuels like coal, oil, gas (thermal energy) into to electric
power. Around the world we use steam turbine to rotated generator and generate electricity such
type of plant is known as steam power plants. A steam power plant continuously converts heat
(energy released by burning of fuel) into work (shaft work), in which a working fluid (water)
repeatedly performs a successions processes. The turbines in the power plants require large
quantity of steam which is produced in steam generators (boiler) at high pressure. Figure 1.17
illustrates a steam power plant as a bulky energy converter from fuel to electricity using water as
a working medium.
Steam

Boiler Turbine

WT

Q1 Exhaust
Heat Rejected Steam
Heat Supply
Hot Water
(35 0C)

Cold Water
Water Condenser (25 0C)
Q2

Pump
WP

Figure 1.17 shows the line diagram of steam (thermal) power plant

32
Components of steam power plant
Boiler
A boiler a closed vessel in which the heat produced by combustion of fuel (Coal or oil) is
transferred to water for its conversion into steam at the desired temperature and pressure. The
heat energy of combustion gasses raise steam by heating feed water.

̇ 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚̇(ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ℎ𝑖𝑛 )
𝑄𝑚̇ = 𝑚𝑓

𝑚̇ = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 (𝐾𝑔/𝑠)

CV = calorific value of fuel (KJ/Kg)

𝑚̇ = 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝐾𝑔/𝑠)

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑇 − 𝑊𝑃 𝑄1 − 𝑄2
𝜂𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = = =
𝑄1 𝑄1 𝑄1

Turbine

The steam generated in the boiler is supplied to steam turbine where it expands adiabatically up
to the condenser pressure. A steam turbine is basically is a prime mover which continuously
converts the energy of high pressure, high temperature steam supplied by a steam generator into
the shaft work with a low temperature steam exhausted to a condenser. A turbine is an assembly
of nozzle and blades.

𝑊̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) (𝐾𝑊)

𝑚̇ = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 (𝐾𝑔/𝑠)

h1= specific enthalpy of steam at turbine inlet (KJ/kg)

h2= specific enthalpy of steam at turbine outlet (KJ/kg)

Condenser

A condenser where the exhaust steam from the turbine is condensed operates at a pressure lower
than atmosphere. The steam is condensed in the condenser by rejecting heat to cooling water
circulated in the condenser.

𝑄̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑤 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (𝐾𝑔/𝑠)

𝑚̇𝑤 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝐾𝑔/𝑠)

33
Cp = specific heat of water (KJ/Kg-K)

T1 = Inlet temperature of cooling water (0C)

T2= Outlet temperature of cooling water (0C)

𝑄̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇(ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ℎ𝑖𝑛 ) (𝐾𝑔/𝑠)

Pump

The function of the pump is to feed the water to the boiler at a pressure slightly higher than
required pressure to overcome pressure losses. This pump draws its power from the grid.

𝑊̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇(ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ℎ𝑖𝑛 )

𝑚̇ = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝐾𝑔/𝑠)

hout = enthalpy of water at pump outlet (KJ/Kg)

hin = enthalpy of water at pump inlet (KJ/Kg)

1.6.2 Nuclear power generation

The nuclear power generation (plants) are similar to conventional steam power plants excepting
the nuclear reactors and heat exchanger tubes which take the place of boiler and furnace. One of
the outstanding facts about nuclear power is the large amount of energy that can be released from
a small mass of active material. Complete fission of one kg of uranium contains the energy
equivalent of 4500 tonnes of coal or 2000 tonnes of oil. The nuclear power is not only available
in abundance but it is cheaper than the power generated by conventional sources. U235, U233
(isotopes of uranium) Pu239 (plutonium) are used as nuclear fuels in nuclear reactors (thermal
reactors) and are known as fissile (or fissionable) materials. Out of these, only U235 occurs in
nature. Uranium reserves in the world are small (expected to last hardly for 59 years at present,
i.e. at the 2008 rate of consumption) and its recovery is expensive. Major available sources of
uranium are in Australia, Canada and Kazakhstan and to a later extent the USA.
Nuclear power is a least cost, low emission technology that can provide base-load power. As on
August 2008, there are around 439 nuclear power plants in the world, operating in 31 countries
and generated 16% of the world’s electricity. France produces 78% of its total electrical power
generation by nuclear means. The line diagram of nuclear power plant is shown in Figure 1.18.

34
 Figure 1.18 shows the line diagram of nuclear power plants

The following factors go in favour of nuclear energy:

 Practically independent of geographical factors
 No combustion products
 Clean source of power which does not contribute to air pollution
 Fuel transportation networks and large storage facilities not required
 Controlled fusion reaction has not been achieved yet
 Many power plants, including nuclear power plants, heat water are used to produce
electricity. These power plants use steam from heated water to spin large turbines that
generate electricity
 It is predicted that by year 2500 some breakthrough will take place in fusion technology
and once this happens, nuclear fusion reaction will be the main source of energy on the
earth

1.6.3 Hydroelectric power generation

In hydroelectric power plants the energy of water is utilized to run the turbine which, in turn,
runs the generator to produce electricity. Rain falling upon the earth’s surface has potential
energy relative to oceans towards which it flows. This energy is converted to shaft work where
the water falls through an appreciable vertical distance, whereas this turbine shaft is coupled to

35
the electric generator to store the available power. The hydraulic power is thus a naturally
available renewable source of energy.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑊𝑄𝐻. ƞ (Watts)
W = Specific weight of water, N/m3
Q = rate of water flow, m3/sec
H = height of falls or head, m
Ƞ = efficiency of conversion of potential energy into mechanical energy
The generation of electric energy from falling water is only a small process in the mighty heat
power cycle known as hydrological cycle or rain evaporation cycle as shown in Figure 1.19.

Figure 1.19 Hydroelectric power generation

Hydroelectric projects are developed for the following purpose:

1. To control the floods in the rivers
2. Generation of power
3. Storage of irrigation water
4. Storage of the drinking water supply
The following are the important points for subject point of views:
 Hydro power is important only next to thermal power
 20% of the total power of the world is met by hydropower stations
 There are some countries like Norway and Switzerland where the hydropower forms
almost the total installed capacity
 First hydroelectric power plant was initiated in India in 1897 in Darjeeling

36
1.7 Factors affecting for site selection of power generation plants

Selecting a proper site for a thermal power generation plant is important for its long term
efficiency and a lot many factors come into play when deciding where to install the plant. In
general, both the construction and operation of a power generation plant requires the existence of
some conditions such as water resources and stable soil type. There are other important criteria
that should be considered for the final selection of site for power generation plants such as
population and protected areas. The following list covers most of the factor that should be
considered before final selection of sites for power generation plant (Sambasivarao et al. 2014;
Journal of Basic and Applied Engineering Research):
 Supply of fuel
 Geology and soil type
 Availability of water
 Transportation facilities
 Nearness to load centres
 Distance from populated areas
Guidelines of central electricity authority
1. Choice of location based on the following
 Accessibility by road and rail
 Availability of land, water and coal for the final installation capacity
 Coal transportation logistics
 Power evacuation facilities
 Availability of construction material, power and water
 Preliminary environmental feasibility
2. Land requirement for large capacity power generation plant is about 0.2 Km2 per 100
MW for the main power house excluding land for water reservoir
3. The land for housing is taken as 0.4 Km2 per project
4. Land requirement for ash pond is about 0.2 Km2 per 100 MW considering 50% of ash
utilized.
5. Water requirement is about 40 cusecs per 1000 MW

37
 6. First priority is given to the sites those are free from forest, habitation and irrigated/
agricultural land
7. Second priority is given to those sites that are barren i.e. wasteland, intermixed with any
other land type
8. Location of thermal power generation is avoided in the coal bearing area
9. Coal transportation is preferred by dedicated marry – go- round rail system
Table 1.2 shows the important factors and sub-factors for selection of location of power
generation plant (Sharma et al. 2015; International Journal of Advanced Technology Engineering
and Science
Factors Sub – factors
Availability of resources  Land availability
 Water availability
 Fuel availability
 Skilled manpower availability
Economical impact  Land acquisition cost
 Investment cost
 Operation and maintenance cost
 Payback period
 Future development limitations
 Possibility of site expansion
Environmental concern  Degradation of local air quality
 Land use impact
 Dust
 Noise
 Effect on water bodies
Social concern  Job creation
 Public acceptance
 Number of relocation
 Distance from public area
Accessibility  Road/Rail/Airport accessibility
 Transmission grid accessibility
 Electricity consumption point
 Urban are accessibility

38
1.7.1 Other important points to be remembers
 A thermal power plant 400 MW capacity requires nearly 6000 tons of coals every day
 Thermal plants produce 40 million kJ of heat to the environment through condenser water
and exhaust gases
 Thermal pollution of atmosphere can be reduced using the low grade energy exhausted
steam
 Sound proofing can be done to reduce the noise
 Main pollutants from thermal plants are SO2, CO2, CO as minute particles such as fly ash

39
 Unit – 2
Hydro – power plants

2.1 Introduction

A power plant which utilized the potential energy of water at a high level for the generation of
electrical energy is known as hydro power plant. Hydro power plants are unique compared to
other power supply options such as thermal power plant. Worldwide, hydro is an important
source of sustainable power supply and its role is expected to increase, especially in developing
countries.
In hydro power plants the kinetic energy developed due to gravity in falling water from higher to
lower head, is utilized to rotate a turbine to produce electricity. The potential energy stored in the
water at upper water level will release as kinetic energy when it falls to the lower water level.
This turbine rotates when following water strikes the turbine blades. To achieve a head
difference of water, hydro power plants are constructed in hilly areas. In the way of the river in
hilly areas, an artificial dam is constructed to create required water head and then dam water is
allowed to fall towards downstream in a controlled way to turbine blades. As a result, the turbine
rotates due to the water force applied to its blades and hence the alternator rotates since the
turbine shafts are coupled with alternator shaft. The main advantage of hydro power plant is that
it does not require any fuel. It only requires water head which is naturally available after the
construction of the required dam as shown in Figure 2.1 and Figure 2. 2 show the hydro power
plant.

Figure 2.1 Dam for water collection

40
 Figure 2.2 hydro power plants

2.2 Plant layout

A hydro power plant converts the hydraulic potential energy from water into electrical energy. A
typical layout of plant is shown in Figure 2.3. The different parts of hydro power plants are as:
1. Dams 2. Penstock and Tunnel 3. Surge Tank 4. Turbine

Figure 2.3 Plant layout (Hydro power plant)

41
The type of the hydro power plant will determine the general layout of the plant in Figure 2.4. In
case of vertical turbine, the most convenient and economical layout will be placing the turbines
in parallel line to the length of the turbine house. The spacing between the machines will be
determined by the size of the scroll case, width of the flume or by the overall diameters of the
alternators. If the machines are horizontal, the most suitable layout will be arranging the turbine
at right angle to the length of the turbine house. A repair should be provided at one end of the
turbine house close to the workshop and sufficient space should be provided for dismasting and
repair purpose.

Switch house

Loading House
bay Sets

Turbine house

Figure 2.4 Plant layout

2.3 Run – of – river plants
Run of river plant is a type of hydro electric power generation where there is no water storage is
provided. Run of river power plant may either have no storage at all or limited amount of
storage. The storage reservoir is referred to as pondage. In run of river plants, civil work only
serves the function of regulating the level of water at intake. Therefore, these types of plants does
not effect on the local environment as in case of large hydro power plants. There are two types of
run of river plants:
1. Run – of – river plant without pondage
2. Run – of – river plant with pondage

2.3.1 Run – of – river plant without pondage

A run – of – river plant without pondage has no control over river flow or does not store water
and uses the water as it comes. There is no control on flow of water so that during floods or low
loads, water is wasted while during low run of plant capacity, the utility of these plants is much

42
less than those of other types. During good flow conditions these plants may cater to base load of
the system, when flow reduces they may supply peak demands whereas the firm capacity
depends on minimum flow of river.

2.3.2 Run – of – river plant with pondage

The pontage is usually refers to the collection of water behind the dam at the plant and increase
the stream capacity for a short period, for example one week. Basically, storage means collection
of water in upstream reservoirs and this increases the capacity of the stream over an extended
period of several months. The storage plant may work satisfactorily as base load (high water
flow) and during dry season it may be peak load plants.

2.4 Pumped storage plants

The most efficient methods to store and deliver large quantities of electricity pump storage hydro
plants store and generate energy by moving water between two reservoirs at different elevations.
A pumped storage plant generates electricity by allowing water to fall through a turbine
generator. The pumped storage plants works like a conventional hydroelectric station, except the
same water can be used over and over again as shown in Figure 2.5. Water power uses no fuel in
power generation; therefore their operating cost is very low.

The advantages of these types of plant is that, during times of low electricity demand, such as in
night or weekends, excess energy is used to pump water to an upper reservoir. The turbine acts

43
as a pump, moving water back uphill. During periods of high electricity demand, the store water
is released through turbine. The pumped storage power plants have worked as explain below and
shown in Figure 2.6:

Figure 2.6 Pumped storage hydro plant

Upper reservoir
When power from the plant is needed, water stored in an upper reservoir is released into
an underground tunnel.
Intake tunnel
The water reached down the intake tunnel.
Turbine
The force of the water drives huge turbines, which are underground at the base of dam.
The spinning turbines are connected to large generators, which produce the electricity.
Discharge tunnel
The water then flows through a discharge tunnel into a lower reservoir.
Recharging
When demand for electricity is low, the turbines spin backward and pump the water back
up into the upper reservoir to make it available to generate electricity when it’s needed.

44
Important points
 These plants can have either vertical shaft arrangement or horizontal shaft
arrangement
 The latest design is to use Francis turbine which is just the reverse of centrifugal
pump
 Duke energy operates two pumped storage plants: Jocassee and Bad Creek. Pumped
storage can be employed to capture unused elec tricity during times of low use
 It also allows us to keep our coal fired and nuclear plants running longer and more
efficiently
 When the plants are not producing power, they can used as a pumping station
which pump water from tail race side to the higher level reservoir
 Water is pumped up at the top reservoir in the night when the demand of power
across the country is low

45
 Figure 2.7 Loads curves for pumped storage plant
 The first hydroelectric plant making use of pumped storage start function in 1882 in
Switzerland
 India biggest pumped storage power plant was built in Ayodhya Hills at Purulia (West
Bengal). Its installed capacity is 900 MW and it was commissioned in 2007.
 The 1,000MW Tehri pumped storage plant (PSP) is part of the 2,400MW Tehri Hydro
Power Complex being built on the river Bhagirathi, in the Indian state of Uttarakhand
start operating in 2016
2.5 Underground Pumped storage plants

Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) is one of the most commonly used storage systems because it
allows large amounts of electricity to be stored and produced. Pumped storage hydropower
plants, which consist of two reservoirs located at different heights, allow a large percentage of
about 70% of the excess electricity generated during the low demand periods to be reused.
However, PSH technology is constrained by topography and land availability because it requires
a minimum elevation difference between the two reservoirs as well as large volumes. In addition,
PSH plants are controversial due to their impacts on landscape, land use, environment and
society.
Conversely, underground pumped storage plant (UPSP) is an alternative to store and manage
large amounts of electricity that is not limited by topography. UPS plants consist of two
reservoirs; the upper reservoir is located at the surface or at shallow depth, while the lower
reservoir is underground. Although the underground reservoir can be drilled, the cheapest
alternative consists of using abandoned works, such as deep or open pit mines. Impacts on land
use, vegetation and wildlife produced by UPSH are lower than those of PSH because (at least)
one of the reservoirs is underground. However, it is needed to consider the effects of UPS plants
on surrounding porous media to quantify the total environmental impact. Social impacts of
UPSH plants are also lower because (1) less relocations are required (the lower reservoir is
underground) and (2) the reuse of abandoned mines contributes adding value to local
communities after the cessation of mining activities. In addition, sedimentation problems should
be also lower in UPS plants because used groundwater is filtered by the porous medium.
Sedimentation problems could probably appear by eroded materials from the open pit walls.
Figure 2.8 shows the underground pumped storage plant.

46
 Figure 2.8 underground pumped storage plant
2.6 Underground hydropower stations
An underground hydropower station is one in which whole of the generating equipment is placed
in an underground chamber. Basically, an underground power station is a type of hydroelectric
power station constructed by excavating the major components (e.g. machine hall, penstocks,
and tailrace) from rock, rather than the more common surface-based construction methods as
shown in Figure 2.9. Often underground power stations form part of pumped storage
hydroelectricity schemes. Their basic function is to level load. They use cheap or surplus off-
peak power to pump water from a lower lake to an upper lake. Then, during peak periods (when
electricity prices are often high), the power station generates power from the water held in the
upper lake.
The underground arrangement has the following advantages:
 Better rock bearing properties
 Surface topography does not at all interfere in planning the design and location of the
principal works
 This arrangement provides good security
 Maintenance cost of the underground power station are less as compared to surface
power station
 Land acquisition problem is minimum
 A tail race tunnel may be easier to design and construct compared to the head race
pressure tuunel

47
 Figure 2.9 Underground hydropower station
2.7 Rainfall and run off measurements
The quantity of water, usually expressed in millimeters or inches, that is precipitated in liquid
form in a specified area and time interval is known as rainfall. Rainfall is often considered to
include solid precipitation such as snow, hail, and sleet as well.
Basically, rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that have condensed from atmosphere water
vapor and then become heavy enough to fall under gravity. Rain is a main component of water
cycle and is responsible for depositing fresh water on the earth for living hoods and other day to
day activities. It is a major source of provides water for hydroelectric power plants and irrigation.
The major cause of rain falling is moisture moving along three dimensional zones of temperature
and moisture contrasts known as weather fronts. If enough moisture and upward motion is
present, precipitation falls from convective clouds (those with strong upward vertical motion)
such as cumulonimbus (thunder clouds) which can organize into narrow rainbands. In mountain
areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of
the terrain at elevation which forces moist air to condense and falls out as rainfall along the sides
of mountains. There are three types of rainfalls which are as:
1. Conventional rainfall
2. Cyclonic rainfall

48
 3. Orographic rainfall
2.7.1 Conventional rainfall
The convectional rain is caused by convection where the surface layer of the atmosphere is
heated causing the moisture laden air to rise. As it rises it cools to form clouds. The unequal
heating of the earth’s surface causes convection. Convectional rain can also be found whole
year in the regions near the equator.

2.7.2 Cyclonic rainfall

This type of rain is caused by depressions. Cyclonic rain originates where warm tropical air
meets cold polar air. The worm air overrides the cold air. When contrasting air masses makes
contact, an abrupt zone or boundary is formed. This boundary is called FRONT and is
accompanied by rather abrupt changes in temperature, pressure and humidity. When a mass of
warm air movies into a colder region, then warm air overrides the cold air mass, forcing the cold
air to reheat and this situation is known as WORM FRONT. This condition is responsible for
several days of rains.

2.7.3 Orographic rainfall

Rain which mountains standing in the path of moisture-laden air cause; the air is forced to rise
and is therefore cooled. If enough water vapors are present it is deposited on the windward side
of the mountains.

2.8 Run off measurements

The term ‘Runoff’ is usually used to distinguish the flow of water running off the land's surface
during and shortly after rainfall, from the longer term flow of groundwater to rivers. This
distinction is achieved by the analysis of flow data from perennial streams and rivers in humid
climates, but in many agrohydrological and water harvesting situations, groundwater
contributions are not present and all flow is runoff. This will almost certainly be the case in arid
and semi-arid climates.
The collection of runoff data is very site and specific purpose, both in terms of the kind of
information that will be required and the manner in which it is best obtained. Runoff events are
less frequent than rainfall events, in all climates. In areas of low rainfall, where agrohydrological

49
and water harvesting projects are usually located, the number of runoff events may be fewer than
ten per season. This compounds the unhelpful fact that problems with equipment and
installations are not encountered until runoff occurs. If these problems are not rectified quickly, a
large proportion of a season's data can be easily lost. Moreover, both equipment and
experimental designs have to cope with a large range of runoff volumes and peak flows, so
careful planning and a quick response to unexpected situations are very important in the success
of collecting comprehensive, accurate information.
Run – off can be measured daily, monthly, seasonal or yearly. It can be measured by the
following methods:
1. From rainfall records
2. Empirical formulae
3. Run – off curves and tables
4. Discharge observation method
2.8.1 From rainfall records
In this method consistent rainfall record for a sufficiently long period is taken and then average
depth of rainfall over the catchment is determined. Then considering all the factors which affect
run – off process, a coefficient is arrived at for that catchment. Now a simple equation can be
used to find out the run – off over the catchment.
Run – off = rainfall × coefficient
2.8.2 Empirical formulae
In this method an attempt is made to derive a direct relationship between the rainfall and
subsequent run – off. For this purpose some constants are established which give fairly accurate
result for a specific region. Some important formulae are given below:
a) Khosla,s formula
R P – 4.811 T
where R = Annual run – off in mm
P = Annual rainfall in mm
T = Mean temperature in 0C
b) Inglis formulae for hilly and plain areas
For Ghat region
R = 0.88 P – 304.8

50
For plain region
(𝑃 − 177.8) × 𝑃
𝑅=
2540
c) Lacey’s formula
𝑃
𝑅=
3084𝐹
1+
𝑃𝑆
Where R = Monsoon run – off in mm
P = Monsoon rainfall in mm
S = Catchment area factor
F = Monsoon duration factor
Estimates of runoff are made for two reasons:
1. They are essential guides in the decision of which system of runoff measurement to use, either
volumetric or continuous. After this decision has been made, these estimates must be used to
determine the size and capacity (peak flow and flow volume) of the equipment.
2. If the measurement of runoff is not to be undertaken, then calculations must be made to
estimate the design specifications of bunds, channels etc. that are to be used in the mechanics of
water harvesting and field layouts.
2.9 Flow duration curves
Flow duration curve is another useful form to represent the run – off data for the given time. It
is one of the most fundamental pieces of information that feeds into the design of a hydropower
project to understand how and why a hydropower design, understanding the flow duration curve
is good place to start. A flow duration curve shows the relation between flows and lengths of
time during which they are available. This curve is plotted between flow available during a
period versus the fraction of time. The flow duration curve can be plotted from a hydrograph
from the available run –off data. Now the flow duration curve taking 100 percent time on X –
axis and run – off on Y – axis as show in Figure 2.10. If the head of discharge is known, the
possible power developed from water in kW can be determined from the following equation:
𝑤𝑄𝐻
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑘𝑊) = × ƞ0
1000
where Q = Discharge, m3/sec
H = Head available, m
51
 W = Weight density of water, N/m3
ƞ0 = overall efficiency

Figure 2.10 Flow duration curve

This has been explained with the help of the following examples:
Example 2.1

The mean monthly discharge at a particular site is given in Table 2.1. Draw the hydrograph and
the flow duration curve.

Month Discharge, m3/s Month Discharge, m3/s

January 200 July 2000
February 450 August 2400
March 600 September 1800
April 1200 October 1200
May 1500 November 800
June 1600 December 400

Solution: The hydrograph has been plotted in Figure 2.11. From this the flow duration curve
can be drawn by finding the length of time, during which certain flows are available as shown in
Figure 2.12. For example of flow of 200 m3/s is available for 12 months, flow of 400 m3/s for 11
months and so on Table 2.2 gives these data in tabulated form:

52
Discharge, m3/s Length of time, months Percentage time
200 12 100
400 11 91.5
450 10 83.33
600 9 75
800 7 58.2
1200 6 50
1500 5 41.66
1600 4 33.33
1800 3 25
2000 2 16.67
2400 1 8.34

Figure 2.11Hydrograph

53
 Figure 2.12 Flow duration curve
2.10 Estimation of the reservoir size

The term reservoir size or capacity, is applies to the area and may be defined as the area or
capacity of the reservoir, usually in acre – feet. Dam design and reservoir operation utilize
reservoir capacity and water surface elevation data.
The storage capacity of a reservoir is conceptually divided into a number of zones based on the
useful purposes that a reservoir is required to serve. Fig. 2.13 gives a schematic diagram of
various storage zones of a reservoir. Dead storage zone is the bottom-most zone of a reservoir.
Major storage space is occupied by the conservation zone. If the reservoir is operated to control
floods then the flood control storage is provided above the conservation zone flowed by the
surcharge storage. The procedure for fixing size of various storage zones is described in the
following.
2.10.1 Dead storage capacity
Dead storage is provided in a reservoir chiefly to serve two purposes:
a) The river, during its course to the reservoir, picks up sizeable amount of sediment and
carries it along either as suspended load. Upon entering a reservoir, the velocity of flow
becomes virtually zero and hence its carrying capacity is lost. So the sediment settles
down and it keeps on accumulating as the time passes on. On account of this

54
 accumulation, the effective storage capacity of the reservoir and hence its reliability goes
on reducing with time.
b) Many times the water released from the reservoir is passed through the turbines of power
plants located downstream of the dam to generate hydroelectric power. For efficient working
of turbines, it is necessary that head variation must be within a specified range and a
minimum head must always be available. This minimum head corresponds to the top of the
dead storage zone.

River
Free board Top of dam

MWL Surcharge storage

Spillway
Flood control storage

FRL

Conservation
zone
Undersluic
es
Dead storage
level Dead storage Dam

Figure 2.13 Schematic diagram of a reservoir showing the various zones

Where FRL: Full reservoir level

MWL: Maximum water level

2.10.2 Storage requirement for conservation purposes

A number of techniques are available for computing storage capacity for conservation purposes
like irrigation, municipal and industrial water supply, hydropower generation etc. Depending
upon the type of data and the computational technique used the popularly used reservoir capacity
computation procedures are classified into following categories:
a) Critical Period Techniques
b) Simulation/Optimization Techniques

55
c) Probability Matrix Methods
These methods use statistical laws to analytically solve the storage-yield analysis problems. Well
known methods in this class are the Moran's method and the Gould's method. These methods are
not used in practice.
2.11 Layout and components of hydroelectric plant
Figure 2.14 shows the most important components of hydroelectric power plants and how it
converts energy from water into electric energy. The most important part of the hydroelectric
power plant is the dam, which acts as the water reservoir. Water flowing in the river is comprised
of kinetic energy and potential energy. In hydroelectric power plants the potential energy of
water is utilized to produce electricity. There several important components of the hydroelectric
power plant which we will go over in this brief and informative article.
1. Dam
The dam is the most important component of hydroelectric power plant. The dam is built on a
large river that has abundant quantity of water throughout the year. It should be built at a location
where the height of the river is sufficient to get the maximum possible potential energy from
water.
2. Water reservoir
The water reservoir is the place behind the dam where water is stored. The water in the reservoir
is located higher than the rest of the dam structure. The height of water in the reservoir decides
how much potential energy the water possesses. The height of water is the more its potential
energy. The high position of water in the reservoir also enables it to move downwards
effortlessly. The height of water in the reservoir is higher than the natural height of water
flowing in the river, so it is considered to have an altered equilibrium. This also helps to increase
the overall potential energy of water, which helps ultimately produce more electricity in the
power generation unit.
3. Intake or control gates
These are the gates built on the inside of the dam. The water from reservoir is released and
controlled through these gates. These are called inlet gates because water enters the power
generation unit through these gates. When the control gates are opened the water flows due to
gravity through the penstock and towards the turbines. The water flowing through the gates
possesses potential as well as kinetic energy.

56
 4. The penstock
The penstock is the long pipe or the shaft that carries the water flowing from the reservoir
towards the power generation unit, comprised of the turbines and generator. The water in the
penstock possesses kinetic energy due to its motion and potential energy due to its height. The
total amount of power generated in the hydroelectric power plant depends on the height of the
water reservoir and the amount of water flowing through the penstock. The amount of water
flowing through the penstock is controlled by the control gates.
5. Water turbines
Water flowing from the penstock is allowed to enter the power generation unit, which houses the
turbine and the generator. When water falls on the blades of the turbine the kinetic and potential
energy of water is converted into the rotational motion of the blades of the turbine. The rotating
blades cause the shaft of the turbine to also rotate. The turbine shaft is enclosed inside the
generator. In most hydroelectric power plants there is more than one power generation unit.
There is large difference in height between the level of turbine and level of water in the reservoir.
This difference in height, also known as the head of water, decides the total amount of power
that can be generated in the hydroelectric power plant.
There are various types of water turbines such as Kaplan turbine, Francis turbine, Pelton wheels
etc. The type of turbine used in the hydroelectric power plant depends on the height of the
reservoir, quantity of water and the total power generation capacity.
6. Generators
It is in the generator where the electricity is produced. The shaft of the water turbine rotates in
the generator, which produces alternating current in the coils of the generator. It is the rotation of
the shaft inside the generator that produces magnetic field which is converted into electricity by
electromagnetic field induction. Hence the rotation of the shaft of the turbine is crucial for the
production of electricity and this is achieved by the kinetic and potential energy of water. Thus in
hydroelectricity power plants potential energy of water is converted into electricity.

57
 Figure 2.14 Layout of hydro plant

2.12 Hydro plant auxiliaries

The following auxiliaries are essential for starting the generating unit:

1. Exciter
2. Governor oil system
3. Lubricating oil pump

The station can start usually independent of external power, but stand by auxiliary are needed for
emergency service. Exciter for the main generator may be direct connected, motor generator type
engine driven. The exciter is an essential piece of equipment and it is important to select a drive
that is reliable. The pressurized oil system for the governor is driven from the turbine shaft and
sufficient pressure is usually maintained in the oil tanks during the shutdown, so that the turbine
can be started. The lubricating oil pumps may be driven from the turbine shaft and would work
as soon as the unit starts.

During starting of hydro plants following auxiliary is need but indirectly:

a) Coolant pumps
b) Air compressors

58
 c) Drainage pumps
d) Fans and cooling oil pumps
e) Cranes
f) Gate hoists
g) Valves
h) Battery charging unit

These auxiliaries are generally electrically driven. Water may be used to cool the bearings of the
turbine and generator and transformers and it’s circulated through water pumps.
A number of other important auxiliary systems and related controls are provided throughout the
hydro power plants to support the operation of the generating units. These are as follows:

1. Switchyard systems
2. Alterative current (AC) station service. Depending on the size, multiple sources are
supplied, with emergency backup provided by diesel generator
3. Direct current (DC) station service. It is normally provided by one or more battery, for
supply of protection, control, emergency lighting
4. Lubrication systems, particularly for supply to generator and turbine bearings
5. Drainage pumps for removing leakage water from the plant
6. Air compressors, for supply to the governors, generator brakes and other systems
7. Cooling water systems for supply to the generator air coolers, generator and turbine
bearings, and step up transformer
8. Fire detection and extinguishing systems
9. Intake gate or isolation valve systems
10. Draft tube gate systems
11. Reservoir and tailrace water level monitoring
12. Synchronous condenser equipment, for dewatering the draft tube to allow the runner to
spin in air during synchronous condenser operation
13. Service water systems
14. Overhead crane
15. Heating, ventilation and air conditioning
16. Environmental systems

59
 2.12.1 Head water control
Head is the height difference between where the water enters into the hydro system and where it
leaves it, measured in meters. Typically this could be the height of a weir at the turbine entrance
or if the site is undeveloped it would be between where the hydro intake screen would be and
where the water discharges from the turbine and returns to the watercourse.
In hydropower plant, head of water play an important role and to get as much head as possibly,
because more head means more power (and energy) for not much more cost and therefore higher
return on investment. Depending on how much flow required, the minimum amount of head
required for a viable hydro system varies. If there is low head and low flow, then installing a
hydro system won’t be very cost effective. Typically a head in excess of 2 meters is the absolute
minimum requirement, but more is much better.
Head is the change in water levels between the hydro intake and the hydro discharge point. It is a
vertical height measured in meters. Figure 2.15 show, how the head would be measured on a low
head and a high head site. The more head have the higher, the water pressure across the hydro
turbine and the more power it will generate. Higher heads are not only better because they
generate more power, but also because the higher water pressure means you can force a higher
flow rate through a smaller turbine, and because turbine cost is closely related to physical size,
higher head turbines often cost less than their low head cousins even though they might generate
the same power. The cost of drive train is closely related to how much torque it has to transmit,
so higher heads = less torque = less cost
Sometimes it is possible to clear silt or re-grade a tailrace or discharge channel to lower the
downstream water levels slightly which increases the overall head at the site. Or it may be
possible to raise the water level on the upstream side by raising weir crests or sluices, though this
must be done carefully to avoid increasing flood risk, and sometimes requires the construction of
new spillways or installation of fail-safe tilting weirs to ensure that flood risk isn’t increased
during extreme flood events. Generally speaking the cost of even small increases in head at low
head sites is repaid hundreds of times over from increased energy production for the next few
decades, so is always worth the effort.

60
 Figure 2.15 Diagram of measuring head at a low head hydropower site
2.12.2 Penstock
Penstocks are pipes or long channels that carry water down from the hydroelectric reservoir to
the turbines inside the actual power station. Generally, they are made of steel and water under
high pressure flows through the penstock. It is an important component of a hydroelectric plant
and allows the water to move to the turbine. Grates or filters can be attached to the ends of
penstocks to trap large debris such as branches. This ensures that debris cannot enter the channel
and block it as shown in Figure 2.16.

Figure 2.16 Penstock

61
The amount of water that is allowed to flow through the penstock can be controlled with a sluice,
which is simply a gate that can be raised and lowered to increase or decrease the amount of water
allowed to flow through. When the sluice is fully open, water flows freely down through the
penstock. However, when it is closed slightly there is a limitation to how much water can flow,
and thus less water enters the penstock.
It is important to be able to control the amount of water that can enter the penstock for a number
of reasons, mainly because it allows people to regulate the amount of water that exits the
penstocks at the other end. During dry seasons, penstocks are generally allowed to be wide open
to allow water through, while they are closed partially during wet seasons to prevent flooding.
Containment ponds are generally built before the entrance to the penstock to hold water that is
not being let through the penstock. If these were not constructed, the water build up would put
additional pressure on the sluice. As well, the ability to close off the penstocks ensures that they
can be regularly inspected, serviced, and repaired. The penstocks generally require regular
cleanings to remove debris. During these cleanings, holes, cracks, and other problems can be
discovered and fixed. This helps prevent catastrophic dam failures.
2.12.3 Surge tank
A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank in which water level rises or falls to reduce the pressure
swing at the turbine inlet which are transmitted in a fully closed circuit. Surge tanks are installed
on large pipelines to relieve excess pressure caused by water hammer and to provide a supply of
water to reduce negative pressure if the valve is opened suddenly.
A simple surge tank is a vertical standpipe connected to a pipe line. The valve might represent
turbine gates which may open or closed rapidly with changes in load on the generators. Surge
tanks are usually open at the top and of sufficient height so that they will not overflow. The
bottom of the surge tank must be far enough below reservoir level so that the tank contains water
at all the times to prevent air from entering the pipe. In general a surge tank serves the following
purposes:
1. To reduce the distance between the free water surface and turbine thereby reducing the
water hammer effect on penstock and also protect upstream tunnel from high pressure
raises.

62
 2. To serve as supply tank to the turbine when the water in the pipe is accelerating during
increased loads conditions and as a storage tank when the water is decelerating during
reduced loads condition.
3. Surge tanks reduce the pressures only in the pipe from the tank to the reservoir, and
hence the tank should be as close to the turbine as possible.
4. A surge tank is not economical on an extremely high head line because of the great height
of tank required. In such cases, a decrease in the delivery of water to the turbine is best
accomplished by use of defection nozzles or bypasses, which do not require an immediate
decrease in flow through the pipe itself.
5. Surge tanks are often built partially or wholly underground. An underground surge tank
on the Appalachia project of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is 233 ft high with a
riser 16 ft in diameter and a tank 66 ft in diameter.
2.12.4 Types of surge tanks
There are different types of surge tanks which are as follows:
1. Simple surge tank
2. Inclined surge tank
3. The expansion chamber and gallery type surge tank
4. Restricted orifice surge tank
5. Differential surge tank
2.12.4.1 Simple surge tank
A simple surge tank is a vertical stand pipe connected to the penstock as shown in Figure 2.17.

From the
reservoir
Simple
surge tank

Prime
mover
Figure 2.17 Simple surge tank

63
In the surge tank if the overflow is allowed, the raise in pressure can be eliminated but overflow
surge tank is seldom satisfactory and usually uneconomical. Surge tanks are built high enough so
that water cannot overflow even with a full load change on the turbine.
2.12.4.2 Inclined surge tank
When a surge tank inclined to horizontal its effective water surface increases and therefore, less
height surge tank is required of the same diameter if it is inclined as shown in Figure 2.18. This
type of surge tank is more costly than simple type of surge as well as difficult in construction. It
may be used in rarely, unless the topographical conditions are in fervor.

Inclined
surge tank

Conduit

Conduit

Figure 2.18 Inclined surge tank

2.12.4.3 Expansion chamber surge tank

This type of a surge tank has an expansion tank at top and expansion gallery at the bottom as
shown in Figure 2.19. The upper expansion chamber must be above the maximum reservoir level
and bottom gallery must be below the lowest steady running level in the surge tank. Besides this
the intermediate shaft should have a stable minimum diameter.

Figure 2.19 Expansion chamber surge tank

64
 2.12.4.4 Restricted orifice surge tank
It is also called throttled surge tank. The main objective of providing a throttle or orifice is to
create an appreciate friction loss when the water is flowing from the tank as shown in Figure
2.20. When the load on the turbine is reduced, the surplus water passes through the throttle and a
retarding head equal to the loss due to throttle is built up in the conduit. The size of the throttle
can be designed adopted is usually such as initial retarding head is equal to the rise of water
surface in the tank when the full loads is rejected by the turbine.

Figure 2.20 Restricted orifice surge tank

2.12.4.5 Differential surge tank

A differential surge tank has a riser with a small hole at its lower end through which water
enters in it as shown in Figure 9.21.

Figure 9.21 Differential surge tank

65
The function of the surge tank depends upon the area of hole. Differential surge tanks have a
vertical riser about the same diameter as the pipe. The flow of water into the main tank is limited
by the capacity of openings in the riser or an opening around the base of the riser. Water levels
fluctuate more rapidly in the riser than in the tank, with the result that the fluctuations are out of
phase and the oscillations in the riser are damped out more quickly than in a simple surge tank.
The diameter of the outer tank of a differential surge tank needs to be only about 70 percent as
great as that of a simple surge tank to achieve the same effect.
2.13 Classification of hydroelectric power plants
Hydro power plant is classified according to their capacities such as:
 Large hydro power plant (>100 MW)
 Medium hydro power plant (15- 100MW)
 Small hydro power plant (1-15 MW)
 Mini hydro power plant (>100 MW)
It may be further classified in the following ways:
a) According to the availability of head
i) High head power plants
ii) Medium head power plants
iii) Low head power plants
b) According to nature of load
i) Based load plants
ii) Peak load plants
c) According to quantity of water available
i) Run – of – plant without pondage
ii) Run – of – plant with pondage
iii) Hydroelectric plants with storage reservoirs
iv) Pump storage plants
2.13.1 High head power plants
These plants work under a head of 100 m and above. Water is stored in lakes or high mountains
during rainy season or when snow melts. Surplus water is discharge by spillway. Tunnel through
the mountain has a surge chamber and regulating valves at its exit as show in Figure 9.22. the

66
water is taken from the reservoir through tunnels which distribute the water to penstock through
which the water is conveyed to the turbines. Pelton wheel is the common prime mover.

Figure 2.22 High head power plant

2.13.2 Medium head power plants
These plants operate under heads varying from 30 m to 100 m. Francis turbine is the common
prime mover. Forebay before the penstock acts as the water reservoir and also as surge tank as
shown in Figure 2.23.

Figure 2.23 Medium head power plant

2.13.3 Low head power plants
A dam is constructed across a river and a sideway stream diverge from the river at the dam. Later
this channel joins the river further downstream as shown in Figure 2.24. At the mouth of the

67
canal, head gates are fitted to control the flow in the canal. If there is any excess water due to
increased flow in the river or due to decrease of load on the plant, it will flow over the top of the
dam or a waste weir can be constructed along the forebay so that the excess water flows over it
into the river. Francis turbine or Kaplan turbine is used for power generation.

Figure 2.24 Low head power plant

2.14 Turbine and its governing mechanism

Hydraulic turbines are directly coupled to the electric generators. The generators are always
required to run at a constant speed irrespective of the variations in the loads. This constant speed
of the generators is obtained by the governor. Therefore, the function of the governing is to attain
the speed regulation according to the loads conditions. This is achieved by controlling the flow
of water entering the turbine by the automatic adjustment of the guide vanes in the case of
reaction turbines and of the nozzle needle in the case of Pelton turbine.
Basically, governor is a heart component of the turbine which controls it during steady state and
transient conditions. The governor does this function by controlling the steam flow through the
turbine by adjusting the control value. The governor is a control component with advanced
protections for the turbine which ensure safe operation of the turbine. Governing system of the
turbine does the following functions:
 Controls the turbine speed during start-up or in no load condition to permit the unit to be
synchronized with the grid
 Controls the turbine load when running in parallel with the grid/generating sets
 All protective functions to ensure the safe operation of the unit

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  Control valve to supply fluid under pressure to the power cylinder (servomotor) in order
to actuate the turbine control mechanism.
 The restoring or follow – up linkage to hold the servomotor in correct fixed position
when the turbine output and load demand are equalized
 The fluid pressure supply required for the action of the servomotor
In case of Pelton and Francis turbines, large volumes of water are conducted to the turbines by
means of penstocks. Due to the change of load on the turbines, this mass of water cannot be
deaccelerated or accelerated quickly, otherwise there will be water hammer phenomenon that
may be burst the penstocks. To avoid this, a surge tank is provided at the end of the penstock
above the power house. Therefore, to overcome this problem, the regulation below the penstock
connection, at the time of load decrease on the Pelton turbines the governor decreases the flow of
water from the power of nozzle and the excess water is diverted with the help of auxiliary relief
nozzles. Whereas as in case of Francis turbine, there are pressure regulators which discharge the
water from the casing to the tail race at the time of load drop. The regulators will close as fast as
the guide vanes open and vice versa or the regulator opens on the sudden load drop and then
gradually closes as the governor operates the guide vanes. Figure 9.25 shows a simplified
arrangement of water turbine governor.

Figure 9.25 Turbine governing

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 Unit – 3
Steam power plants
3.1 Introduction
A steam power plant continuously converts the energy stored in fossil fuels (coal) into shaft
work and ultimately into electricity. The working fluid is water which is in liquid phase and
sometimes in vapour phase during its cycle operations.
In all over the worlds, steam power plant is the important source to produce the electricity. The
major portion of electricity demand is fulfilled by the steam power plant. It is also called as
thermal power plant. In steam power plants, water is heated, turns into steam and spins
a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator. It provides the electricity requirement to
different areas.
In otherworld’s, in steam power plants, the thermal energy contained in water vapour is used to
power a steam turbine which in turn drives the generator. In the process, conventional fuels such
as oil, natural gas, hard coal or brown coal are used to fire the steam boiler. In coal-fired power
plants, coal is the only fuel used, whereas waste incineration facilities can also use treated waste
in order to generate electricity. The major components of this power plant are boiler, steam
turbine, condenser and water feed pump. In most of the places in the world the turbine is steam
driven as shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 Steam power plant

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 3.2 Layout of steam power plants
Figure 3.2 shows the typical layout of a steam power plant demonstrating the relevant components
which performs their specialized function for the efficient working. The various component of the
steam power plant are:
1. Coal Storage: It is the place where coal is stored which can be utilized when required.
2. Coal Handling: Here the coal is converted into the pulverized form before feeding to the
furnace. A proper system is designed to transport the pulverized coal to the boiler furnace.
3. Boiler: It converts the water into high pressure steam. It contains the furnace inside or outside
the boiler shell. The combustion of coal takes place in the furnace.
4. Air-preheater: It is used to pre-heat the air before entering into the boiler furnace. The pre
heating of air helps in the burning of fuel to a greater extent. It takes the heat from the burnt
gases from the furnace to heat the air from the atmosphere.
5. Economizer: As its name indicates it economizes the working of the boiler. It heats the feed
water to a specified temperature before it enters into the boiler drum. It takes the heat from the
burnt gases from the furnace to do so.
6. Turbine: It is the mechanical device which converts the kinetic energy of the steam to the
mechanical energy.
7. Generator: It is coupled with the turbine rotor and converts the mechanical energy of the turbine
to the electrical energy.
8. Ash Storage: It is used to store the ash after burning of the coal.
9. Dust Collector: It collects the dust particle from the burnt gases before it is released to the
chimney.
10. Condenser: It condensate the steam that leaves out turbine. It converts the low pressure steam to
water. It is attached to the cooling tower.
11. Cooling Tower: It is a tower which contains cold water. Cold water is circulates to the
condenser for the cooling of the residual steam from the turbine.
12. Chimney: It is used to release the hot burnt gases or smoke from the furnace to the environment
at appropriate height. The height of the tower is very high such that it can easily throw the smoke
and exhaust gases at the appropriate height. And it cannot affect the population living near the
steam power plant.
13. Feed Water pump: It is used to transport the feed water to the boiler.

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 Figure 3.2 Layout of steam power plant

3.3 Working of steam power plants

In the steam power plant, the pulverised coal is fed into the boiler and it is burnt in the furnace.
The water present in the boiler drum changes to high pressure steam. From the boiler the high
pressure steam passed to the super heater where it is again heated upto its dryness. This super
heated steam goes to the steam turbine where they expanded and strikes the turbine blades with a
high speed and the turbine starts rotating at high speed. A generator is attached to the rotor of the
turbine and as the turbine rotates it also rotates with the speed of the turbine. The generator
converts the mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical energy. After striking on the turbine
the saturated steam exhaust and enters into the condenser. The saturated steam gets condensed
with the help of cold water from the cooling tower. The condensed water with the feed water
enters into the economizer. In the economizer the feed water gets heated up before entering into
the boiler. This heating of water increases the efficiency of the boiler. The exhaust gases from
the furnace pass through the super heater, economizer and air pre-heater. The heat of this exhaust
gases is utilized in the heating of steam in the super heater, feed water in the economizer and air

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 in the air pre-heater. After burning of the coal into the furnace, it is transported to ash handling
plant and finally to the ash storage.
3.3.1 The step by step working of steam power plant
 The pulverised coal is fed into the boiler where the pulverised coal is burnt into the
furnace
 Due to heat from the furnace, the water present in the boiler drum changes to the high
pressure steam.
 From the boiler this high pressure steam is passed to the super heater where it is again
heated up to its dryness.
After that this, super heated steam strikes the turbine blades with a high speed and the turbine blades
starts rotating to at high speed. Here the stored potential energy of the steam is gets converted into
mechanical energy.
 A generator is coupled with the turbine rotor. As the turbine rotates, the generator also rotate
with same speed and mechanical energy of the turbine gets converted into electrical energy.
 Steam after hitting the turbines blades lost its most of the energy and leaves the turbine with
low pressure steam.
 This low pressure steam enters into the condenser. Cold water circulates in the condenser
from the cooling tower. Here the low pressure wet steam is converted into water.
 After that condensed water with the feed water passed to the economizer where it gets heated
up by the economizer. And finally the feed water enters into the boiler by a feed water pump
to repeat the cycle.
 The burnt flue gases from the furnace passes through the super heater, economizer and air
pre-heater. This heat of the flue gases is used to heat the steam in the super heater to its
dryness, to heat feed water in the economizer before entering into the boiler and to heat air
form the atmosphere in the air pre-heater before it enters into the furnace.
 The ash from the furnace is transported to ash handling plant and finally to the ash storage.
3.3.2 Efficiency of steam power plant
The power plant that operates on coal constitutes almost 41% of the world’s electricity
generation.
 It is the modified Rankine thermodynamic cycle on which the coal fired power plant
operates.
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  The overall efficiency of the coal power plant ranges from 32% to 42%. And this is
calculated by the superheat pressures, and super heat and reheat temperatures of steam.
 Most of the large power plants that operates at steam pressures of 170 bar,570 0C
superheat and 570 0C reheat steam temperatures can achieve the efficiency ranges from
35% to 38%.
 The efficiency of the super critical power plants operating at 220 bar steam pressure,
600/600 0C superheat/reheat temperatures can achieve is 42%.
 The efficiency in the range of 45 to 48% can be achieved by the ultra-super critical power
plants operating at 300 bar pressure, 600/600 0C superheat/reheat steam temperatures.
3.3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
The advantages and disadvantages of steam power plant are as follows:
Advantages
 As compared with power generating plant, it has low initial cost and hence economical
 Less land area is required as compared with the hydro power plant
 Coal is used as fuel and the cost of coal is cheaper than petrol and diesel fuel. So the
power generation cost is economical
 This power plant has easy maintenance cost
 Steam power plant can be installed in any area where water sources and transportation
facility are easily available
Disadvantages
 The running cost of steam power plant is comparatively high because of fuel, and
maintenance of plant
 The overall efficiency of steam power plant, than is about 35 % to 41% which is low
 Due to the release of burnt gases of the coal or fuel, it contributes to the global warming
to a larger extent
 The heated water that is thrown in the rivers, ponds etc puts and adverse effect on the
living organism of water and disturbs the ecology
3.4 Coal handling plant
In a coal based steam power plants, the initial process in the power generation is coal handling.

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A coal preparation plant also known as coal handling and preparation plant is a facility that
washes coals of soil and rock, crushes it into graded sized chunks, stockpiles grades preparing it
for transport through railways to power station and then delivered in the storage yard. The coal
then unloaded from the point of delivery to wagon tippler. The coal is taken from unloading site
to storage by means of conveyors belt as shown in Figure3.3. The belt delivers the coal to ground
level (0 m) to the pent house and then transfers the coal to next belt to breaker house. The
breaker house consists of a rotary machine which rotates the coal and separates the light dust
from it through the action of gravity and this dust send to reject bin house by the help of belt.
The conveyer belt further elevates the coal to transfer it to the crusher where it crushes the coal
up to the required size of 50 mm, which is suitable for milling system. From the milling house
the fine powder of the coal movies to furnace in boiler.

Figure 3.3 Coal Handling

Due to the increasing capacity of the steam power plant, the cost of the coal may be as high as
60% to 70% of the total station operation cost. Of course this cost is nearly half or more,
contributed by transportation and handling of coal. Therefore, the coal handling should be done
expeditiously and economically. The following points are important and should be considered
while designing a coal handling plant:
 The coal handling methods should be simple and required a minimum of operatives

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  The coal handling operation should be minimum
 The coal handling plant should be such a way as to avoid double handling. For example,
once the store is full, the coal should be kept as reserve for emergencies and fresh
supplies should reach directly to the boiler house instead to take the coal to store house
 The coal handling unit should be centralized to reduce the cost and to facilitate inspection
and maintenance
3.4.1 Coal storage
Coal is the primary fuel being used for power generation in thermal power plants. Most of the
power generation in India is generated by coal based power plants where coal is received from
coal mines by means of transportation (by belt conveyors, by rail or by ship depending upon the
distance and availability of transport). Then the Coal is dropped in a coal yard and stored in
stockpiles. Therefore, the main purpose of coal storage is to insure against complete shutdown of
steam power occurring from failure of normal operating supplies to come. Storage also
permits some choice of the date of purchase, allowing the purchase to take advantage of
seasonal market conditions. The storage of coal is primarily a matter of protection against
coal strikes, failure of transportation system any natural hazards and general coal
shortage. There are two types of coal storage:
1. Open coal storage
2. Covered coal storage
Most of the coal storage in the power plant is open type. But with the passage of time, various
problems are experienced with open storage system and potential need for covered coal storage
system is felt. The salient features and benefits of the covered coal storage as compared to open
coal storage are as follows:
 Reduction in spontaneous combustion of coal by virtue of no exposure to sun
 Minimum dust emission in the stockpile/storage
 No air pollution
 Elimination of rainfall and moisture problem
 Prevention of loss of gross calorific value (GCV) of coal

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Stocking of coal in covered coal storage system not only minimizes the above various problems
that had occurred in stocking of coal in open coal storage system, but also improves combustion,
boiler efficiency and overall power generation in thermal power plant.
3.4.2 Coal preparation
The raw coal extracted out from the coal mine is processed through different techniques to achieve
the desired qualities. These result in higher economic value of run – of – mine (ROM) coal.
Therefore, coal preparation is the removal of undesirable material from the run – of – mine coal
by employing separation processes which are able to differentiate between the physical and
surface properties of the coal and the impurities. Through coal preparation, a uniform product is
achieved. The purposes of coal preparation are as:
 Remove extraneous, non-combustible material such as (Ash reduction, lower particulates,
reduced ash handling at power station, sulfur reduction (lower SO X emissions), carbon
and NOX emissions reduction)
 Reduced transportation costs per unit of heat
 Guarantee consistent heat value – Improved plant efficiency
The environmental impacts of burning of coal should also to be kept in mind. The mineral
matters of the coal should be reduced during its processing such that, the emissions of sulphur
dioxide (SO2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and particulate matters are minimized during burning. The
technology of coal washing or coal preparation is applied to produce specific desirable coal
products from the ROM coal without the change of the physical identity.
In the early days, the coal in the form of lumps were supplied for domestic use and the
intermediate sizes were kept for the industrial use, whereas, the fines were rejected. The sizing
facilities were gradually developed. The sophisticated handling and screening facilities were
introduced into the market as per customer requirements. Recently, the demand of smaller sized
coal has increased.
Coal preparation includes blending and homogenization, size reduction, grinding, screening and
handling. The most important step is coal beneficiation or cleaning. The cost of coal preparation
depends on the methods used and also on the degree of beneficiation required, which is greatly
determined by the market demand of the product. Almost all coal used for electric power
generation and industrial boilers is either pulverized or crushed and sized before burning. The
presence of non combustible material or ash in ROM coal increases in net heat content but it

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reduces the dust, ash content, transportation, and shipping costs. Ash content also increases wear
in coal grinding equipment and boilers.
Typical steps in coal preparation include:
 Crushing
 Screening into different size fractions
 Physical, chemical or mechanical processes to remove undesired impurities
 Dewatering
 Thermal drying
 Blending
 Agglomeration or briquetting
3.4.3 Coal feeding and burning
The terms coal feeding means feeding of coals into furnace with the help of coal feeder as shown
in Figure 3.3. Coal feeding system raises boiler efficiency and lowers power plant costs by
providing continuous, accurately metered delivery of feed of coals, even into high pressures.
System lowers emissions by stabilizing combustion and eliminating feeding problems. Electric
Power Research Institute tests confirmed that the system`s accurate fuel feeding stabilized
combustion, allowed reduced boiler excess air up to 33 percent, improved boiler efficiency 0.93
percent, reduced maintenance costs 6 percent and lowered fuel costs. System has only one
moving part and responds instantaneously to varying demand, feeding a broad range of particle
sizes, including coals with heavy loading of fines and high moisture content.
The coal feeder representing innovations that influenced all industries which are using coal fired
boilers. A variety of mechanical feeders, including drag-chain conveyors and rotary
pocket feeders, historically have been used to volumetrically control the flow of fuel
to coal pulverizers on power generators.
On the other hand, coal burning means burning of coal in the furnace in the presence of
oxygen/air to provide the heat.
A black or dark-brown combustible mineral substance consisting of carbonized vegetable matter,
used as a fuel. Compare anthracite, bituminous coal, lignite. A piece of glowing, charred,
or burned wood or other combustible substance. Coal contains sulfur and other elements,
including dangerous metals such as mercury, lead, and arsenic, that escape into the air

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when coal is burned. Burning coal also produces particulates that increase air pollution and
health dangers. Burning coal emits large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Figure 3.3 Coal feeder

3.5 Selection of fans for forced draft
Fans that are used to pressurize a space or create mechanical air pressure in a system are referred
to as forced draft fans. Occasionally, manufacturing spaces are required by specifications to be
maintained at a specific positive pressure. This requirement is common in clean room processes
for scientific work. Forced draft is also used to identify the combustion process used in large
boilers. When mechanical ventilation is supplied to these boilers, the heat transfer rate increases;
the boiler can be reduced in size to produce the same amount of energy as natural draft.
The forced draft fan is a fundamental part of most boiler systems and is the element responsible
for creating draft inside of the boiler. The forced draft fan provides the pressure and flow
required to push air, fuel and the resulting flue gases created from combustion through the boiler,
catalysts, economizer, duct work and stack. Forces draft fans are manufactured in several
different arrangements, depending on the size of the boiler. The auxiliary pieces that often
accompany the force draft fan include inlet silencers, dampers and damper actuators. Force draft
fans are designed to be driven by a steam turbine or an electric motor with an operational
variable frequency driver. In the forced fan draft, a fan installed near or at the base of boiler grate
delivered air to the furnace under pressures varying from 2.5 cm to about 7.5 cm of water. The

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pressure helps in circulation of flue gases through components of the boiler and then through
chimney to atmosphere as shown in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4 Forced draft fan

In a boiler arrangement, a forced draft fan will draw in air and force it into the combustion
chamber of the boiler, where it mixes with the fuel being supplied as shown in Figure 3.5. Forced
draft fans are typically used to regulate the proper amount of air-to-fuel ratios in an effort to
maximize fuel efficiency and to minimize the emissions, such as NOx (Nitrogen Oxides).

Exhaust to
atmosphere

Forced
Boiler
draft fan
Chimney

Grate Economize Air preheater

r

Figure 3.5 schematics of force draft fan

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 3.6 Induced fan draft
In the induced fan draft, the fan is placed near or at the base of the chimney. The fan creates the
depression which induces the flow of air through the grate. The air sucked in makes it possible to
burn a large amount of fuel a limited combustion space. The induced draft augments the draft
created by the existing chimney and the system is usually employed when the boiler is provided
with economizers and pre – heaters as shown in Figure 3.6 and Figure 3.7.
Induced draft fans are commonly used to draw flue gases from the combustion chamber and
through the rest of the system to the stack. They help most to regulate the pressure inside of the
boiler system. In smaller boiler systems, the use of either an forced draft or induced fan is
sufficient, but in large operations, such as the 600 MW power plant I work at, both forced draft
and induced draft fans are used together to regulate all of the above mentioned factors
simultaneously. Exhaust to
atmosphere

Boiler Induced
draft fan
Chimney

Air inlet
Grate Economize Air preheater
r
Figure 3.6 Schematics of induced draft fan
Induced draft fan is always located between dust collector and chimney. Induced draft fan will
take the hot flue gases from furnace via dust collector (dust separation system or Fume
Extraction system) and will deliver to chimney. Induced draft fan will handle the flue gases i.e.
hot air.
Induced draft fan will produce the pressure lower than the atmospheric pressure in the system or
we may say that ID fan will produce the negative pressure in the furnace to remove the flue gases
from furnace via electrostatic precipitators and to push the flue gases to chimney.
Do not get confused about the dust collector system. Dust collector system also designated as
fume extraction system or dust separation system. Somewhere we also used to electrostatic
precipitators in place of dust collector system for removing dust particle from flue gases for
maintaining the clean environment.

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 Figure 3.7 Induced draft fan

3.7 Balance draft fan

A combination of induced and forced draft system is called balanced draft. In this combination,
the induced draft fan removes the gases from furnace and force draft fan over comes the
resistance of fuel bed of its compete and proper combination as shown in Figure 3.8.

Exhaust to
atmosphere

Forced Induced
Boiler
draft fan draft fan
Chimney

Grate Economize Air preheater

r
Figure 3.8 Schematics of balanced draft fan
 Air supplied to furnace with help of forced draft fan which helps in combustion process
and induced draft fan evacuates the flue product from furnace

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  Draft is adjusted in a way that air supplied to furnace is + ve pressure whereas furnace
pressure is maintained below atmospheric pressure (-ve)
3.8 Heat recovery equipment
Heat recovery equipments can be available in a variety of forms. But all involves some form of
heat exchanger. Heat recovery systems can come in a variety of forms, but all involve
some form of heat exchanger. This sits in the building, usually in the loft or on the roof,
and pipes feed down from it into each room, drawing out the stale air and replacing it
with warmed, clean air.
The collection and reuse of heat arising from a process that would otherwise be lost.” More
simply put, “Unnecessarily wasted heat.”Using energy for heating, cooling, ventilation or
industrial process? It is common sense to assume the building is unnecessarily wasting heat.
3.8.1 Economizers
An economizer is used to heat the water which is being fed into the boiler shell. The heat
required for this purpose is extracted from the waste flue gases going out of the boiler. It is also a
type of heat exchanger having exhaust gas and feed water. It also help in removal of dissolved
gases by preheating of water and thus minimizing tendency of corrosion. It is placed between the
exits of the furnace and entry into the chimney. Thus economizer increases the efficiency of the
boiler as shown in Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.9 Economizers

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3.8.2 Air Pre heater
The function of an air pre heater is to heat the air before it is supplied to the furnace of the boiler
as shown in Figure 3.10. It is placed near chimney and above economizer. There are three types
of air pre heater:
1. Tubular type
2. Plate type
3. Regenerative type
It is also uses the heat of the waste flue gases.

Figure 3.10 Air Pre heaters

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3.8.3 Super heater
It is an important device of steam generating unit. Generally boiler generates wet steam as shown
in Figure 3.11. By heating further it can be converted into dry-saturated steam. The steam
temperature can further be increased to any desired degrees by passing it through super heater.
The super heater receives heat from furnace itself. Since the temperature of superheated steam is
more, it can do more mechanical work. Therefore, a super heater increases the efficiency of the
boiler.

Figure 3.10 Air Pre heaters

3.9 Boiler furnaces

In the process of generating steam in a boiler, a furnace is provide to controlled, efficiency
conversion of the chemical energy of fuel to heat energy which, in turn, is transferred to the heat
absorbing surfaces of the steam generator.
A boiler furnace is a device used for high temperature heating. The name furnace derives from
Latin word fornax, which means oven. A furnace is a large appliance that provides heated air for
a home or building. A boiler furnace is, essentially, a large box that is heated by a commonly
available fuel source. Most modern furnaces use natural gas, while some use heating oil or wood

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pellets. Regardless of the type of fuel employed, a furnace will distribute heated air in a similar
manner.
The furnace is that part of the boiler where fuel is burnt. The problem of the furnace walls is very
complex. They should be as hot as possible for maximum heat transfer to water and for complete
combustion. On the other hand, these should be cooled so that their strength does not falls due to
high temperature and there is minimum maintenance. For this purpose, the construction of the
furnace walls should be done in judicious manner. Furnaces can be broadly divided into two
types:
1. Grate fired furnace
2. Chamber type or flame type furnace
Grate fired furnaces are suitable for burning solid fuels like coal, wood chips, bagasse, urban
waste and so on as shown in Figure 3.11. In grate fired furnaces combustion of volatiles, fine
carbon particles and carbon monoxides occurs in the space above the fuel bed. In a chamber type
or flame furnace as shown in Figure 3.12, which is used for firing pulverized coal, fuel oil and
gas, a mixture of fuel and air is delivered into the furnace chamber. The fuel ignites and burns as
it flows in the furnace space.
3.10 Capacity and size of chimney
A chimney is a structure that provides ventilation for hot flue gases or smoke from a boiler,
stove, furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere. The height of a chimney influences its
ability to transfer flue gases to the external environment via stack effect as shown in Figure 3.11.
Since the ground level concentration of pollutant is a function of exit velocity of flue gas and the
stack top diameter, which varies for the different capacity of power plant, the stack height
formula is generated for 110 MW and 500 MW capacity thermal power plants separately.
Chimneys at power plants are designed to release the gases above the inversion layer. The
exhaust from the power plants consist of particulate matter, various oxides of nitrogen, sulfur at
very high temperature. At higher heights wind speed will be more and disperses the pollutants
properly. If chimneys are shorter in height below the inversion layer, all the oxides may be
trapped in atmosphere resulting in health hazards to living organisms. Wind speed, Inversion
layer and landscapes play a significant role in designing the chimney. The working of chimney is
based on natural draft or stack effect. The hot air being lighter rises to the top. The taller chimney
produced more draft. The height and diameter of a properly designed chimney depend upon the

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amount of fuel to be burned, its nature, design of the flue, with its arrangement relative to the
boiler or boilers, and the altitude of the plant above sea level. There are so many factors involved
that as yet there has been produced no formula which is satisfactory in taking them all into
consideration, and the methods used for determining stack sizes are largely empirical. In this
chapter a method sufficiently comprehensive and accurate to cover all practical cases will be
developed and illustrated.

Figure 3.11 Chimney

The height of thermal power plant chimney are directed by the Air pollution standards have
became stringent. The height of the chimney has increased from 100 m to 150 m to 220 m to 275
m. In recent time 275 m chimney has become a standard. Figure 3.11 shows the different types
of chimney used in thermal power plants.

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 Figure 3.12 Different types of chimney used in thermal power plants
3.11 Ash handling
Ash handling refers to the method of collection, conveying, interim storage and load out of
various types of ash residue left over from solid fuel combustion processes. The common type of
ash resulting from the combustion of coal, wood and solid fuels etc.
A huge quantity of ash is produced in central stations, some time being much as 10 to 20% of the
total quantity of coal burnt a day as shown in Figure 3.12.

Figure 3.12 Ash handling system

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Hundreds of tonnes of ash may have to be handled every day in large power stations. A station
using low grade fuel (coal) has to deal with large quantity of ash. Handling of ash includes:
 Its removal from the furnace
 Loading on the conveyers and delivery to the fill or dumped from where it can be
disposed off
3.11.1 Ash handling system
Ash handling systems may employ different forms of pneumatic ash conveying or mechanical ash
conveyors.
There are various types of ash handling systems to handle bottom ash or bed ash generated by
the solid fuel fired boilers. The system has to be selected based on many factors like type of
boiler, size of boiler, amount of bottom ash generated, method of final handling etc. Factors like
availability of other resources like water, land etc. also need to be considered while selecting the
system.
There are three types of ash handling system; pneumatic, hydraulic and mechanical ash handling
system. Hydraulic ash handling equipment is usually used to convey bottom ash.

3.11.1.1 Mechanical ash handling system

Figure 3.13 shows a mechanical handling system. This system is generally employed for low
capacity power plant using coal as a fuel. The hot ash released from the boiler furnaces is made
to fall over the belt conveyor after cooling it through water seal. This cooled ash is transported to

89
an ash bunker through the belt conveyor. From ash bunker the ash is removed to the dumping
site through truck.
In Thermal Power Plant’s coal is generally used as fuel and hence the ash is produced as the
byproduct of Combustion. Ash generated in power plant is about 30- 40% of total coal
consumption and hence the system is required to handle Ash for its proper utilization or disposal.
A Mechanical Ash Handling System is often the best choice for fluidized bed ash where
headroom is restricted under the boiler. The Mechanical Ash Handling System handles the ash
by Bottom Ash Handling System, Fly Ash Handling System, Ash disposal system up to the Ash
disposal area and water recovery system from ash pond and Bottom ash overflow.

Figure 3.13 Mechanical ash handling system

3.11.1.2 Hydraulic ash handling system
The hydraulic conveying system is a typical bottom ash handling system adopted by many
domestic coal fired power plants. One is the dewatering bin recovery system with a dewatering
bin and the other is the hydraulic conveying system without a dewatering bin to convey ash
directly to an ash dump. In this system ash is carried with the flow of water high velocity through
a channel and finally dumped in the sump. This system is subdivided as follows:
a) Low pressure system
b) High pressure system
a) Low pressure system: In this system a trough or drain is provided below the boilers and the
water is made to flow through the drain (trough) as shown in Figure 3.14. The ash directly falls
into the drains (trough) and is carried by water sumps. In the sump the ash and water are made to
pass through a screen so that water is separated from ash; this water is pumped back to the drain

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(trough) for reuse and ash is removed to the dumping yard. The ash carrying capacity of this
system is 50 tonnes/hour and distance covered is 500 meters.

Figure 3.14 Low pressure system

b) High pressure system: The hoppers below the boilers are fitted with water nozzles at the top
and on the sides. The top nozzles quench the ash while the side ones provide the driving force for
the ash. The cooled ash is carried to the sump through the drain (trough) as shown in Figure3.15.
The water is again separated from ash and recirculated.
The ash carrying capacity of this system is as large as 120 tonnes per hour and the distance
covered is as large as 1000 meters.
Advantages of hydraulic system
1. The system is clean and healthy
2. Working parts do not come into contact with the ash
3. It is dustless and totally closed
4. It can also be used to handle stream of molten ash
5. Its ash carrying capacity is considerably large, hence suitable for large thermal power
plants

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 Figure 3.15 High pressure system
3.11.1.3 Pneumatic ash handling system
A typical ash handling system may employ vacuum pneumatic ash collection with ash conveying
from several ash pick up stations and resulting in delivery to an ash storage silo for interim
holding prior to load out for disposal or reuse as shown in Figure 3.16. Pressurized pneumatic
ash conveying may also be employed.

Figure 3.16 Pneumatic ash handling system

This system can handle abrasive ash as well as fine dusty materials such as fly ash and soot. It is
preferable for the boiler plants from which ash and soot must be transported some far off
distance for final disposal. The ash carrying capacity of this system varies from 25 to 15 tonnes
per hour.

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Very finely sized fly ash often accounts for the major portion of the material conveyed in an ash
handling system. It is collected from bag house type dust collectors, electrostatic precipitators
and other apparatus in the flue gas processing stream.
Ash mixers (conditioners) and dry dustless telescopic devices are used to prepare ash for transfer
from the ash storage silo to transport vehicles:
 Pipe & Fittings
 Ash Receivers
 Double Dump Gate Airlock Valves
 Rotary Airlock Feeders
 Disc Type Ash Intake Valve
 Exhausters (Vacuum Pneumatic System)
 Blowers (Pressure Pneumatic System)
 Dust Collectors
 Ash Conditioners
 Dry Unloaders
 Clinker Grinders
 Storage Silos
 Bottom Ash Hoppers
 Computerized Controls

3.11.2 Ash handling equipment

Ash handling equipment is one of the most crucial links in the solid fuel, biomass boiler, and
combustion systems chain. Located in plants around the world, ash handling systems are set up
in harsh environments where they endure intense temperatures. As a result of such hardship,
many systems fail to operate properly, leaving plant managers struggling to keep up with an
often unreliable system and excess ash debris.

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3.12 Flue gas cleaning
One of the greatest contemporary challenges is to ensure air quality. Our flue gas cleaning plants
for power stations and industrial facilities contribute a significant part to this process by
complying with the most stringent environmental standards. Flue gas cleaning removes
powdered and gaseous residues left by the combustion process from the flue gas and entails dust
removal, desulfurization, and denitrification. To extract sulfur from the flue gas, the gas is
sprayed with limewater, which reacts chemically with the components that contain sulfur. The

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flue gas is treated with ammonia water to remove nitrogen. Dust is removed via baghouse and
electric filters that are cleaned mechanically; these filters are not part of the automation process.
3.12.1 Solution
Using frequency converters to monitor motor speed is a solution that is especially beneficial for
pumps for injecting limewater and ammonia water. This enables risks caused by deficient flue
gas desulfurization and denitrification to be detected at an early stage. In addition to frequency
monitoring, the signal converters provide other services, including slip and rotation direction
detection. Transmitter power supplies and fill level transmitters are used to monitor delivery
rates and fill level, and to achieve a continuous supply of both media. As the dosing of ammonia
water depends on a range of factors, including the temperature of the flue gas, the relevant trip
values are determined via temperature converters.
The cleaning technologies commonly applied in coal fired power plants are SCR catalysts for
nitrogen oxide reduction, electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) for particle separation, and limestone
scrubbing processes for desulphurization. These technologies have been reliable in service for
many years. Besides the essential tasks of cleaning facilities, they can also cope with e.g. the
removal of gaseous mercury from the flue gas. Mercury can be found in flue gas in its oxidized
and elemental form. Due to sorption on fly ash, a fraction of mercury also occurs in particle-
bound form, which consequently can be removed in the ESP. While oxidized mercury can be
separated in wet desulphurization plants due to its solubility in water, elemental mercury is for
the most part emitted. SCR catalysts, though, can enhance the oxidation of elemental mercury,
thus improving the overall removal rate of mercury from flue gas. The IFK has been occupied
for years with investigations on the mercury behaviour in flue gas cleaning. Besides fundamental
considerations, this work includes testing of new catalysts and experimental investigations on
laboratory scale of the mercury behaviour in a desulphurization plant. Over and above, ageing or
deactivation of SCR catalysts and their behaviour in co-firing special fuels such as sewage
sludge are subject of studies.
A possibility of separating CO2 from power plant flue gases and biogas is chemical scrubbing by
the use of amines or amino acid salt solutions. The scrubbing agent is put into contact with the
CO2 rich gas in counter-flow in an absorption column where it absorbs CO2 by chemical
reaction. The CO2 loaded scrubbing agent is afterwards regenerated by applying heat in a
desorption unit. The CO2 in this process escapes from the scrubbing agent and can subsequently

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be compressed and liquefied. The advantage of amine gas treating lies in the already available
experience with that technology gained in gas preparation and in the possibility to integrate the
technology into the existing flue gas cleaning tract as an additional cleaning stage. Chief
drawback is the high power demand for the separation of CO 2, which can be decreased by
improvements on the process-engineering side and by novel scrubbing solutions. For this reason,
the IFK is doing research both investigating new scrubbing solutions and improving the existing
scrubbing processes in laboratory and semi-industrial experimental plants. In addition to
scrubbing processes, a novel technology for CO 2 removal from gases by adsorption on solid
sorbents is developed and investigated in laboratory and technical scale.
Measurement Technologies
For characterisation and interpretation of combustion processes and the improvement in the
efficiency of flue gas cleaning devices, various measurement technologies are applied. For the
measurement of O2, CO2, CO, NOx, SO2, etc. in the combustion chamber and the flue gas path,
heated and cooled sampling probes are used. For the detection of concentration and speciation of
mercury, continuous and discontinuous measurements are developed and performed in
laboratory, technical and full scale plants.
3.13 Particulate
Particulate matter (PM), also known as particle pollution, includes the tiny particles of fly ash
and dust that are expelled from coal-burning power plants. Particulate pollution is a mixture of
soot, smoke, and tiny particles formed in the atmosphere from sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen
oxides (NOx) and ammonia (NH3).
A part of the harmful emissions from coal fired power plants and other sources are minute
particles called PM10 and PM2.5. Read on to know about their sources and effects.
These fine particles emitted from the power plants disperse over a wide area and are harmful to
human beings as they enter the respiratory tract and cause many chronic health problems. Based
on their size, they are known as PM10 and PM2.5.
Pollution due to particulate matter in the air is one of the six criteria pollutants in the National
Air Quality Standard by the US EPA and also by other regulatory authorities worldwide.
Documented health hazards world-wide prompted regulators to specify special regulations to
contain the emission of these small particles into the atmosphere. Due to the very small size, this
finds its way into the respiratory tract of humans and is identified as a potential health hazard for

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the population exposed to it. These particles embedded in the respiratory tract can cause
respiratory tract infections, asthmatic complaints, and chronic bronchitis.
Dust from power plants was one of the main emission problems of old coal fired power plants.
Visibility and ophthalmic problems were the result of exposure to this dust content. Effects on
respiratory diseases were not documented. Power plants then had only mechanical cyclones that
separated around sixty to seventy percent of the ash.
As the power plant numbers and capacities increased regulations were in place limiting the dust
emission from these plants. The advent of reliable Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP’s) and reliable
fabric filters helped in considerably reducing dust or particulate emission. Reduction of the
earlier limits of 350 μg/m3 to the current values of 150 μg/m3or below is to eliminate these health
hazards. Together with regulations that require higher chimney stacks, dust fallout on ground
level is predicted to be at acceptable levels.
Even in countries like India which fire high ash content coals, the new breed of ESPs and Fabric
Filters, coupled with high power electronics and software are able to contain the emission limits
within the current regulatory limits. Proper sizing, design operation and maintenance of ESP’s
are the main criteria. Technology is available. ESPs today can capture 99.5 % of the ash that
enters the ESP.
Earlier standards specified only the total dust emission without considering the size of the
particles. Considering the documented evidence of health hazards associated with very fine
particles, particulate emission regulations are now made in two parts namely PM

Particulate matter less than 10 micrometers and PM2.5 particulate matter less than 2.5
micrometers. Particles greater than 10 microns settle to the ground with less chance of entering
the respiratory tract.
The current National Ambient Air Quality Standards of US EPA identifies PM 10 and PM2.5 as
part of the six criteria pollutants. The limits of PM10 are 150 μg/m3 average on a 24 hour basis
and PM2.5 is 15 μg/m3 on an annual average basis. The Indian Ambient Air Quality Standards for
PM10 is 100 μg/m3 and PM2.5 at 60 μg/m3.
The particulate matter themselves can be divided into two as to their formation.
First is the primary particle that forms directly at the source like the ash formed during the
combustion of the Coal or dust formed during combustion.

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The other category is the secondary particles formed due to chemical reactions from gaseous
emissions from the primary source. Majority is from vehicular emissions.
Most of the particulate emissions from Coal fired plants fall in the PM 10 category. The
contribution to PM2.5 from power plants is the secondary particles formation due to the SOX and
NOX emissions from the plant. The current emission criteria do not include the formation of
secondary particle by the sources, but in the future, these may also be part of the pollution
criteria.

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 Unit – 4
Steam generators and steam power cycle
4.1 Introduction
Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator.
After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser. The greatest variation
in the design of steam electric power plants is due to the different fuel sources.
A steam generator is a form of low water-content boiler, similar to a flash steam boiler. The
usual construction is as a spiral coil of water-tube, arranged as a single, or monotube, coil.
Circulation is once-through and pumped under pressure, as a forced-circulation boiler. In
otherworld’s a large apparatus used for converting hot water into steam at high pressure and
often with supplementary coils to superheat the steam.
On the other hand, power plants generate electrical power by using fuels like coal, oil or natural
gas. A simple power plant consists of a boiler, turbine, condenser and a pump. Fuel, burned in
the boiler and superheaters, heats the water to generate steam. The steam is then heated to the
superheated state in the superheaters. This steam is used to rotate the turbine which powers the
generator. Electrical energy is generated when the generator windings rotate in a strong magnetic
field. After the steam leaves the turbine it is cooled to its liquid state in the condenser. The liquid
is pressurized by the pump prior to going to the boiler. A simple power plant is described by a
Rankine cycle as shown in Figure 4.1.

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High pressure boilers
A boiler is called a high pressure boiler when it operates with a steam pressure above 80 bars.
The high pressure boilers are widely used for power generation in thermal power plants.
Examples: Lamont boiler, Benson boiler, Loeffler boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
In a high pressure boiler, if the feed water pressure increases, the saturation temperature of water
rises and the latent heat of vaporization decreases. The feed water can be heated to saturation of
temperature in the economizer with the help of waste heat. Recovery from the exhaust gases is
escaping to the chimney. Then the boiler supplies only latent heat of vaporization and superheat.
Water tubes boilers are generally preferred for high pressure boiler.
The modern high pressure boilers employed for power generation is for steam capacities 30 to
650 tonnes/h and above with a pressure upto 160 bar and maximum steam temperature of about
540 0C. Thus, a boiler operation at high pressure will require less heat addition for steam
generation.
High pressure boilers have the following functions:
1. Forced circulation of water: In all modern high-pressure boilers, the force circulation of
water is maintained with the help of pumps. It increases the help of pumps. It raises the
mean temperature of heat addition and evaporation capacity if the boiler.
2. Large number of small diameter tubes: The surface-area-to-volume-ratio (area density)
increases with the use of small-diameter tubes. It helps in a high rate of the heat transfer to
water flowing inside the tubes. Therefore, a large number of small density tubes in a
zigzag manner are used for water circulation in forced circulation. Further, use of a short
tube reduces the pressure loss and gives the better control the quality of steam.
3. Higher steam pressure and temperature: The steam is generated at a pressure of 80 to
300 bars and temperature of 450°C to 585°C with two superheaters in series. The use of
such stream is very suitable for power generation. It increases the thermal efficiency of the
plant and reduces the moisture contents in low-pressure stages of expansion in the turbine.
4. Improved mode of heat transfer: modern high-pressure boilers use the heat transfer by
radiation along with conduction and convection. The total heat-receiving equipment is
divided into several parts. So they can easily be located in various zones of the furnace for
most efficient heat transfer to the water circuit.

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 5. Improved mode of heating: the high-pressure boilers use the following methods for
improved heat transfer rate:
 Evaporative of water above the critical pressure of steam.
 Heating of water by mixing superheated steam for high heat transfer rate.
 Increasing the combustion of air velocity over the tube.
6. Pressurized combustion: For increasing the combustion rate and thus heat-release rate,
pressurized air is used in the furnace. It gives a large amount of heat in a small space.
7. Compactness: The high rate of heat transfer inside the boiler reduces the overall size of
the boiler, and the boiler becomes compact.
8. High efficiency: High-pressure boilers have better firing methods, monitoring, furnace
conditions, control flue gases and water velocity.
9. Intensive heating: The furnace temperature in high-pressure boilers is high enough and
therefore, 70% of heat is transferred to water by radiation. This is a faster way of heat
transfer.
10. Once through construction: In high pressure boiler operating at and above the critical
pressure, the water directly flashes into steam in the tube itself. It eliminates the need of a
boiler drum.
Binary Vapor Cycle

The vapor exiting the turbine is then condensed by cold air radiators or cold water and cycled

back through the heat exchanger. A binary vapor cycle is defined in thermodynamics as a

power cycle that is a combination of two cycles, one in a high temperature region and the other

in a lower temperature region.

 The first thing that is notice, about the T – S diagram is that there are two-phase

envelopes.

 A vapor cycle that is a combination of two cycles one in high temperature cycle (topping

cycle) and the other in a low temperature region (bottoming cycle).

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 This means that the working fluid in the high temperature cycle must be heated to a

higher temperature before it boils.

 Because the high temperature cycle absorbs heat at a very high temperature, its thermal

efficiency is higher

 The heat rejected by the topping cycle is taken as source by bottoming cycle.

 A binary cycle utilizes two working fluids, usually mercury and water.

 For mercury which has critical temperature of 588.4 0C and critical pressure of 21 bar.

 For water which has critical temperature of 374.15 0C and critical pressure of 22.65 bar.

 Mercury vapor expands down in a turbine to atmospheric temperature; its pressure would

almost be perfect vacuum.

 At normal condenser pressure of 0.04 bar, it is at 216.7 0C temperature and has lot of

thermal energy sufficient to generate steam.

 So in Binary vapor cycle, mercury is used in the high temperature range of the cycle and

water in the low temperature range.

 For vaporization of one Kg of water vapor 8 kg to 19 kg of mercury has to be considered.

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Cogeneration

It is a simultaneous production of electrical energy or power and thermal energy or (useful heat)
Cogeneration is the production of more than one useful form of energy (such as process heat and
electric power) from the same energy source. Cogeneration systems often capture otherwise
wasted thermal energy usually from an electricity producing device like a heat engine e.g. steam
turbine, gas turbine, diesel engine and use it for space and water heating, industrial process
heating or as a thermal energy source for another system component.
The principle technical advantage of cogeneration system is their ability to improve the
efficiency of a fuel use in the production of electrical and thermal energy. Different types of
cogeneration have different fuel use characteristic and produce different proportions of
electricity and steam. The electrical advantages of cogeneration lead to significant environmental
advantages. That is the increase in efficiency and corresponding decrease in fuel use by a

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cogeneration system, compared to other conventional process for thermal and electrical energy
production, normally yield large reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. These reductions can
be as large as 50% in some situations, white the same thermal and electrical services are
provided. Cogeneration systems in many situations have economic advantage relative to separate
process for thermal and electrical energy production.
Cogeneration systems utilizing in internal combustion engines and gas turbines in open cycle are
the most utilized technologies worldwide. Heavy fuel fired diesel power plants run on relatively
inexpensive diesel fuel, a low grade product of oil refineries. Such power plants can be set up
quickly, normally in less than twelve months to generate hundreds of megawatts of energy.
Large diesel engine cogeneration systems are particularly well suited to application requiring
relatively high proportion of electrical power compared to thermal products.
There has been different type of cogeneration systems operating in various regions of the world.
Among them steam turbine based cogeneration internal combustion based cogeneration is quite
common and applicable to various industrial and residential sectors.
Application and types of cogeneration system
Cogeneration system are so varied that classification is not an easy task. One way of classifying
the system is as follows:
Utility cogeneration
These are funded and operated by a municipality, usually involving large units with district
heating and cooling. This concept has been and is still being widely used in Europe. In US, new
sports complexes, as well as down town areas of large cities are looking into similar heating and
cooling complexes with power generation utilities.
Industrial cogeneration
This is operated for a private sector industry, i.e., a petrochemical plant, paper mill, glass
factories, textiles mills and many other industrial complexes. The popularity of the ‘inside the
fence’ power plants specially in the developing world will be large as not only does is provide
cheap energy but very importantly it produces reliable energy.
Desalination plants
Desalting costs are reducing by using cogeneration and hybrid processes. Cogeneration
desalination plants are a large scale facility that produces both electric power and desalted sea
water. Distillation units brine heater. This significantly reduces fuel consumption compared with

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what is required if separate facilities are build. Cogeneration desalination plants using gas
turbines are very common in the Middle East and North Africa, where they have been in
operation for past thirty years.

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 Unit – 5
Nuclear power plants
5.1 Introduction
A nuclear power plant is a facility that converts atomic energy into usable power. In a nuclear
electric power plant, heat produced by a reactor is generally used to drive a turbine which in turn
drives an electric generator.
Nuclear power plants are a type of power plant that uses the process of nuclear fission in order to
generate electricity. They do this by using nuclear reactors in combination with the Rankine
cycle, where the heat generated by the reactor converts water into steam, which spins a turbine
and a generator. Nuclear power provides the world with around 11% of its total electricity, with
the largest producers being the United States and France.
When we talk about word nuclear, what strikes our mind is an immense amount of energy.
Keeping in mind the material handling complexities and safety concerns, it’s still been most
abundantly used source of energy for producing power all around the world. Extracting power
from nuclear fuel has now become a need, to meet the increasing energy demands and for
economical growth of a country. Nuclear power plant generates electrical energy using heat
energy and Uranium-235 is used as a fuel, to produce that heat.

Why Nuclear Power Plant is invented?

The depletion of the non-renewable energy resources forces the scientist of the world to find a
new source of energy which can fulfill the requirement of the electricity demand of the world. It
was the year 1948 when electricity was generated for the first time at X-10 Graphite reactor in
Oak Ridge, Tennessee of United States of America. It was the first nuclear power plant which
powers a light bulb.

Working Principle
The basic principle of the performance of a nuclear power plant is based on obtaining heat
energy through the nuclear fission of the atoms´ nucleus from the fuel.
The energy source of a nuclear power plant is fission reaction. In fission reaction we start with an
unstable atom (uranium-235) which splits apart into two small more stable atoms. When we go
from something that is really very unstable (uranium-235) to thing that is more stable (barium

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and krypton), energy is released. Now to split the uranium atom we need to aggravate it, what we
do is we strike a neutron into this big uranium atom, which converts it into uranium-236 from
uranium -235. Uranium-236 is super unstable atom and splits up into krypton-92 and barium-
141, which are way more stable. Other than release of energy, 3 free neutrons are also released in
the process. These neutrons further strikes another 3 uranium atoms and starts up a chain
reaction, helping in getting a great amount of thermal energy.

What’s Inside a Nuclear Power Plant?

1. Reactor pressure vessel

In reactor pressure vessel the nuclear fission reaction takes place, it contains the fuel rods,
moderator and control rods. This arrangement is again covered under a containment building
made of reinforced concrete and can sustain load as high as 40 thousand ton. The water in the
vessel is heated under a high pressure, making its boiling point as high as 300 degree centigrade.

2. Fuel rods
Fuel is contained in these fuel rods as fuel pellets. These fuel rods contain a number of fuel
pellets, and neutrons hit these fuel pellets to start and continue the fission reaction.

3. Moderator
Moderator is the liquid contained in the pressure vessel at high pressure .It is generally heavy
water. The main function of moderator is to slow down the highly energized neutrons so that

107
they can again collide with uranium atom. More importantly it’s the appropriate velocity of
neutron which is required to split the uranium atom.
If the first neutron which hit the uranium atom has got a energy of 0.04ev then the resulting 3
neutrons will have 1ev of energy, which is needed to be slowed down to 0.04ev again that is
where moderator comes into play.

4. Control rods
Control rods are the most important part of a nuclear reactor in nuclear power plant, and are
made up of Barium or Cadmium. It controls the ongoing nuclear reaction by absorbing the
neutrons and we can also control the energy production as per the requirement, by inserting the
control rods accordingly.

5. Heat exchanger
Water from pressurized vessel is then pumped to the heat exchanger also called as steam
generator. The thermal energy of water from pressurized vessel is transferred to the water taken
from river or from cooling tower through heat exchanger, and convert it into high pressurized
steam, as we cannot use the water in the pressurized vessel to produce steam because it is in
direct contact with fuel rods and is radioactive, and cannot leave the plant in any case.

6. Turbine
Steam turbine is made to rotate by the high pressurized steam and the shaft of this turbine is
further connected to the generator.

7. Generator
It converts the rotational motion of turbine-generator coupling into electrical energy. This
electrical energy is then stepped-up to high voltage through transformer and is then transmitted
to the nearest power grid through transmission lines.

8. Condenser
Condenser converts the steam coming from the turbine into water so that it could be pumped to
cooling tower to be circulated to the heat exchanger again. We can also have cold water from
river and cooling tower simultaneously for the circuit, if we have river flowing nearby the plant.

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9. Cooling tower
It cools down the water pumped from the condenser, using expansion process. Hot water is
sprayed from a certain height and it cools down to cool water now ready to be re-circulated to the
heat exchanger.

Working of Nuclear Power Plant

It all starts with a thermal neutron striking the uranium pellet and starting the chain reaction, with
release of 3 new high energy neutrons as by-products of this exothermic reaction. These neutrons
strike another 3 uranium atoms, and this chain reaction keeps on increasing. Heavy water is feed
into the high pressure vessel which absorbs the heat generated by the chain reaction. This water
doesn’t really boil as its being heated under high pressure. This is not the ordinary water that is
feed into high pressure vessel; it’s 10 times heavier than the ordinary water. The main function
of this water is to slow down the high energy neutrons to the level of thermal neutron or to
modify the speed of neutron, that’s why it is called moderator. When neutrons travels in heavy
water (deuterium oxide) it strikes with each and every molecule of heavy water thus transferring
its energy to moderator, and slows down to an optimum speed.
In nuclear power plant, the chain reaction so started is controlled by the controls rods mainly
boron or cadmium rods. These rods absorb the extra neutrons thus stopping the chain reaction.

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Generally these rods are put in and out of pressure vessel every 10 seconds, to control the power
output according to the requirement or load at the turbine.
Heated water or moderator in the pressurized vessel is then pumped to the heat exchanger.
Keeping in mind moderator cannot leave the circuit as it is radioactive so the water for the heat
exchange is pumped from a water source (river) and this water absorbs the heat of moderator and
converts into highly pressurized steam.
This pressurized steam is first feed in a high pressure turbine which converts its pressure energy
into mechanical energy, but this steam still have enough pressure energy left in it to turn a low
pressure turbine, so this combined mechanical energy from both the turbines is used to turn the
armature of a generator thus producing electricity.
This electricity is then stepped-up to high voltage by step-up transformer, and transmitted to the
nearest power grid through transmission lines.
The steam that leaves the turbines is then condensed in a condenser. The condenser is connected
to the cooling tower. The cold water from the cooling tower takes the heat from the condensed
water of the condenser. The hot water in cooling tower is sprayed in air thus cooling it down, to
be again pumped back to the condenser.
Where Used Nuclear Fuel Goes?
The nuclear fuel once used in nuclear power plant is removed from the reactor and stored in a
pool of water for about 7-10 years. The purpose of the water pool is to cool down the nuclear
fuel and provide shielding from radiation.
All the pools that are used for storage of radioactive material are constructed in a separate
building and are made so strong that they can even survive earthquakes.
Safety
 There are many sensors that are installed in a reactor of nuclear power plant like
temperature, pressure and power level sensors. Reactor will automatically shut down, if
these sensors reach to some critical value.
 If there is any pressure leakage in the reactor building, then it is controlled by spraying
water, thus reducing the pressure caused by steam in the reactor.
 Or in multi-reactor building there is a separate vacuum tank, the pressure is released to
this tank in case of a leakage; it has also got a water spraying system, to further lower the
pressure.

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  There is always a power backup for the equipments of cooling system, to avoid any
accident in case to total blackout. Blackout was the reason behind the Fukushima
accident in Japan, due to tsunami.
Advantages of Nuclear Energy
There is no pollution in generating electricity from nuclear reaction in nuclear power plant.
 The operating cost of reactor is quite low, and the life of a reactor is about 50-60 years
before it goes out of business
 Reliability and consistency over a long period of time is the prime factor which makes it
an extraordinary source of power, as it does not depend upon weather conditions.
 Uranium is available in a large amount and going to last longer than fossil fuels.
 If any country sets up a nuclear power plant, then it does not have to worry about the
fluctuating prices of fossil fuels and worlds environmental rules and regulations.
Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy
 The biggest challenge of nuclear power plant is to store the used fuel, as it would cover
up a piece of land for a large number of years.
 You have to keep an eye on the waste storage plant, for it to be safe and check for
radiation to be under limit.
 There is always a chance of nuclear accident as in Fukushima, Japan due to tsunami. The
bad effects of radiation remain for a long time, over generations.
 This energy has got so much of power in it, that if it goes into wrong hands it could
destroy human race from earth.

Efficiency

The efficiency of a nuclear power plant is determined similarly to other heat engines, since
technically the plant is a large heat engine. The amount of electric power produced for each unit
of thermal power gives the plant its thermal efficiency, and due to the second law of
thermodynamics there is an upper limit to how efficient these plants can be. Typical nuclear
power plants achieve efficiencies around 33-37%, comparable to fossil fueled power plants.
Higher temperature and more modern designs like the Generation IV nuclear reactors could
potentially reach above 45% efficiency.

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Nuclear fuels and basic nuclear reactions
The fission of 1 kilogram of uranium-235 releases more energy than burning 2 million kilograms
of coal. Unlike natural radioactive decay, fission is not a natural event. Isotopes that undergo
fission include uranium-235 and plutonium-239. Most nuclear reactors use uranium-235.
Nuclear fuels
Nuclear fuel is a substance that is used in nuclear power stations to produce heat to power
turbines. Heat is created when nuclear fuel undergoes nuclear fission. Most nuclear fuels contain
heavy fissile elements that are capable of nuclear fission, such asUranium-235 or Plutonium-239.
Nuclear fuel is the fuel that is used in a nuclear reactor to sustain a nuclear chain reaction. These
fuels are fissile, and the most common nuclear fuels are the radioactive metalsuranium-235
and plutonium-239. All processes involved in obtaining, refining and using this fuel make up a
cycle known as the nuclear fuel cycle.
Uranium-235 is used as a fuel in different concentrations. Some reactors, such as the CANDU
reactor, can use natural uranium with uranium-235 concentrations of only 0.7%, while other
reactors require the uranium to be slightly enriched to levels of 3% to 5%. Plutonium-239 is
produced and used in reactors (specifically fast breeder reactors) that contain significant amounts
of uranium-238. It can also be recycled and used as a fuel in thermal reactors. Current research is
being done to investigate how thorium-232 can be used as a fuel.
Production
Fuel fabrication plants are facilities that convert enriched uranium into fuel for nuclear reactors.
For light water reactors, uranium is received from an enrichment plant in solid form. It is then
converted into a gas and chemically converted into a uranium dioxide powder. This powder is
then pressed into pellets and packed into fuel assemblies. A mixed oxide fuel can also be created
when the uranium powder is packed along with plutonium oxide. The hazards present at fuel
fabrication facilities mainly chemical and radiological are similar to the hazards at enrichment
plants. These facilities generally pose a low risk to the public.
Fission Nuclear Fuels
The known fissile materials are:

Uranium-233; Uranium-235; Plutonium-238; Plutonium-239; Plutonium-241; Neptunium-237;

and Curium-244 etc.

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The most often used fuels are Uranium-235 and Plutonium-239; they become instable when
bombarded by slow (also known as “thermal”) neutrons. They are not easy to find or produce
materials, and the process to generate them is usually the most expensive part in the creation of a
nuclear bomb. Uranium-233 was used in a couple of test bombs in USA and it is supposed to be
the main component in India’s bombs. Thorium-232 is also fissile but it needs fast moving
neutrons to start the chain reaction.

Uranium-235

General Facts

The most often isotope of Uranium found in Nature is U-238, U-235 is only found in low
proportions (0.71%).
U-235 is created from U-238 via isotope separation.
The critical mass for an unreflected sphere of U-235 is about 50 kg (17 cm of diameter).
Fission Process
One slow neutron strikes a U-235 atom; the result is U-236.
U-236 is highly unstable and it fissions. There are twenty different fission processes, the
products masses always add up 236.
Example: U-235 + 1 neutron -> 2 neutrons + Kr-92 + Ba-142 + ENERGY

The Chain Reaction

For each U-235 nucleus that absorbs one neutron, two neutrons are yield. Those two neutrons are
free to combine with two U-235 nuclei, giving away four neutrons. The number of nuclei
fissioning grows like 2^n. The process goes on until the energy emitted breaks the enclosure and
the bomb explodes. The remaining U-235 will undergo the fission process with normal decaying
rate (the half-life of U-235 is 7.1 x 108 years).

Plutonium-239

General Facts

Plutonium is very rare in nature.

For military purposes, it is obtained processing Uranium-238 in breeder reactors.
It has a reasonably low rate of neutron emission due to spontaneous fission.

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It is usually contaminated with Plutanium-240 which is more unstable (4%-7% of plutanium-240
is considered bomb-grade). This is the reason why plutonium-based weapons must be implosion-
type, rather than gun-type.
The critical mass for an unreflected sphere of Plutonium is 16 kg. Fission process: When
Platinium-239 absorbs a slow neutron it becomes Platinium-240, which decays fast via different
processes emitting at least two neutrons.
The Chain Reaction
There are around 80 generations in the chain reaction. The whole process takes 0.8
microseconds.
Uranium-233
General Facts
U-233 is not found naturally.
It is obtained from Thorium-232 in nuclear reactors.
The fissile properties of U-233 are similar to U-235 and Pu-239.
Fission Process
When U-233 absorbs a neutron, it becomes U-232.
U-232 has the property of emitting gamma radiation (neutrons) at levels higher than weapon-
grade plutonium-239.
Glossary
Fissionable: any material with atoms that can undergo nuclear fission.
Fissile: materials fissionable by slow neutrons. “Fissile” is more restrictive than “Fissionable”.

Fusion Nuclear Fuel

Fusion reactions are induced by a mixture of the hydrogen isotopes deuterium (H-2) and tritium
(H-3), forming heavir helium nucleus.

The Process

H-2 + H-3 He-5 -> He-4 + 1 neutron + ENERGY

H-2 and H-3 will not undergo the fusion process in normal conditions. They need extremely high
temperatures and pressures for this to happen. The reason lies on the fact that there are two main
opposite forces in game, electromagnetic repulsion of the protons and nuclear attractive forces.
Nuclear forces are stronger that electromagnetic forces but they have a very short range, so the

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nuclei need to overcome a repulsive barrier before being able to be at binding distances. This is
why all fusion bomb designs use a fission devise as trigger.
Like Tritium is very difficult to confine, most bombs carry Lithium instead and use the fact that
Li breeds H-3 when bombarded by a neutron:
Li-6 + n -> He-4 + H-3

The Chain Reaction

The process will be able to sustain itself if part of the produced energy goes to keep the high
temperatures and pressures needed to make deuterium and tritium to react. He-4 is one of the
most stable elements in nature, so the product atoms will not react by themselves under these
conditions. The neutrons expelled during the process will attack more Li atoms generating the H-
3 needed for the process, when Li is used as initial element.

Basic nuclear reactions

When a large fissile atomic nucleus such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239 absorbs a neutron, it
may undergo nuclear fission. The heavy nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei, (the
fission products), releasing kinetic energy, gamma radiation, and free neutrons.
A nuclear reactor produces and controls the release of energy from splitting the atoms of
certain elements. In a nuclear power reactor, the energy released is used as heat to make steam to
generate electricity. (In a research reactor the main purpose is to utilize the actual neutrons
produced in the core. In most naval reactors, steam drives a turbine directly for propulsion.)
The principles for using nuclear power to produce electricity are the same for most types of
reactor. The energy released from continuous fission of the atoms of the fuel is harnessed as heat
in either a gas or water, and is used to produce steam. The steam is used to drive the turbines
which produce electricity (as in most fossil fuel plants).
Today, reactors derived from designs originally developed for propelling submarines and large
naval ships generate about 85% of the world's nuclear electricity. The main design is the
pressurized water reactor (PWR) which has water at over 300 0C under pressure in its primary
cooling/heat transfer circuit, and generates steam in a secondary circuit. The less numerous
boiling water reactors (BWR) make steam in the primary circuit above the reactor core, at similar
temperatures and pressure. Both types use water as both coolant and moderator, to slow
neutrons. Since water normally boils at 100 0C, they have robust steel pressure vessels or tubes to

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enable the higher operating temperature. (Another type uses heavy water, with deuterium atoms,
as moderator. Hence the term ‘light water’ is used to differentiate.)
Components of a nuclear reactor

There are several components common to most types of reactors:

Uranium is the basic fuel. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) are arranged in tubes to form
fuel rods. The rods are arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactor core.
In a new reactor with new fuel a neutron source is needed to get the reaction going. Usually this
is beryllium mixed with polonium, radium or other alpha-emitter. Alpha particles from the decay
cause a release of neutrons from the beryllium as it turns to carbon-12. Restarting a reactor with
some used fuel may not require this, as there may be enough neutrons to achieve criticality when
control rods are removed. There are several different types of reactors as indicated in the
following table.
Nuclear power plants in commercial operation or operable

Reactor type Main countries Number GWe Fuel Coolant Moderator

US, France,
Pressurised water enriched
Japan, Russia, 292 275 water water
reactor (PWR) UO2
China

Boiling water reactor US, Japan, enriched

75 73 water water
(BWR) Sweden UO2

Pressurised heavy heavy heavy

Canada, India 49 25 natural UO2
water reactor (PHWR) water water

natural U
Gas-cooled reactor (metal),
UK 14 8 CO2 graphite
(AGR & Magnox) enriched
UO2

Light water graphite enriched

Russia 11 + 4 10 water graphite
reactor (RBMK & EGP) UO2

Fast neutron reactor PuO2and liquid

Russia 3 1.4 none
(FBR) UO2 sodium

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Reactor type Main countries Number GWe Fuel Coolant Moderator

TOTAL 448 392

Fuelling a nuclear power reactor

Most reactors need to be shut down for refuelling, so that the reactor vessel can be opened up. In
this case refuelling is at intervals of 12, 18 or 24 months, when a quarter to a third of the fuel
assemblies are replaced with fresh ones. The CANDU and RBMK types have pressure tubes
(rather than a pressure vessel enclosing the reactor core) and can be refuelled under load by
disconnecting individual pressure tubes.
If graphite or heavy water is used as moderator, it is possible to run a power reactor on natural
instead of enriched uranium. Natural uranium has the same elemental composition as when it
was mined (0.7% U-235, over 99.2% U-238), enriched uranium has had the proportion of the
fissile isotope (U-235) increased by a process called enrichment, commonly to 3.5 - 5.0%. In this
case the moderator can be ordinary water, and such reactors are collectively called light water
reactors. Because the light water absorbs neutrons as well as slowing them, it is less efficient as a
moderator than heavy water or graphite.
The power rating of a nuclear power reactor
Nuclear plant reactor power outputs are quoted in three ways:
Thermal MWt, which depends on the design of the actual nuclear reactor itself, and relates to the
quantity and quality of the steam it produces.
Gross electrical MWe indicates the power produced by the attached steam turbine and generator,
and also takes into account the ambient temperature for the condenser circuit (cooler means more
electric power, warmer means less). Rated gross power assumes certain conditions with both.
Net electrical MWe, which is the power available to be sent out from the plant to the grid, after
deducting the electrical power needed to run the reactor (cooling and feed-water pumps, etc.) and
the rest of the plant.

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Pressurized water reactor (PWR)
This is the most common type, with over 280 operable reactors for power generation and several
hundred more employed for naval propulsion. The design of PWRs originated as a submarine
power plant. PWRs use ordinary water as both coolant and moderator. The design is
distinguished by having a primary cooling circuit which flows through the core of the reactor
under very high pressure, and a secondary circuit in which steam is generated to drive the
turbine. In Russia these are known as VVER type’s water moderated and cooled.

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A PWR has fuel assemblies of 200-300 rods each, arranged vertically in the core, and a large
reactor would have about 150-250 fuel assemblies with 80-100 tonnes of uranium.
Water in the reactor core reaches about 3250C; hence it must be kept under about 150 times
atmospheric pressure to prevent it boiling. Pressure is maintained by steam in a pressuriser. In
the primary cooling circuit the water is also the moderator, and if any of it turned to steam the
fission reaction would slow down. This negative feedback effect is one of the safety features of
the type. The secondary shutdown system involves adding boron to the primary circuit.
The secondary circuit is under less pressure and the water here boils in the heat exchangers
which are thus steam generators. The steam drives the turbine to produce electricity, and is then
condensed and returned to the heat exchangers in contact with the primary circuit.

Boiling water reactor (BWR)

This design has many similarities to the PWR, except that there is only a single circuit in which
the water is at lower pressure (about 75 times atmospheric pressure) so that it boils in the core at
about 2850C. The reactor is designed to operate with 12-15% of the water in the top part of the

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core as steam, and hence with less moderating effect and thus efficiency there. BWR units can
operate in load following mode more readily then PWRs.
The steam passes through drier plates (steam separators) above the core and then directly to the
turbines, which are thus part of the reactor circuit. Since the water around the core of a reactor is
always contaminated with traces of radionuclides, it means that the turbine must be shielded and
radiological protection provided during maintenance. The cost of this tends to balance the
savings due to the simpler design. Most of the radioactivity in the water is very short-lived*, so
the turbine hall can be entered soon after the reactor is shut down.
A BWR fuel assembly comprises 90-100 fuel rods, and there are up to 750 assemblies in a
reactor core, holding up to 140 tonnes of uranium. The secondary control system involves
restricting water flow through the core so that more steam in the top part reduces moderation.

Pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR)

The PHWR reactor design has been developed since the 1950s in Canada as the CANDU, and
from 1980s also in India. PHWRs generally use natural uranium (0.7% U-235) oxide as fuel,
hence needs a more efficient moderator, in this case heavy water (D2O).

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The PHWR produces more energy per kilogram of mined uranium than other designs but also
produces a much larger amount of used fuel per unit output.
The moderator is in a large tank called a calandria, penetrated by several hundred horizontal
pressure tubes which form channels for the fuel, cooled by a flow of heavy water under high
pressure in the primary cooling circuit, reaching 290 0C. As in the PWR, the primary coolant
generates steam in a secondary circuit to drive the turbines. The pressure tube design means that
the reactor can be refuelled progressively without shutting down, by isolating individual pressure
tubes from the cooling circuit. It is also less costly to build than designs with a large pressure
vessel, but the tubes have not proved as durable.

A CANDU fuel assembly consists of a bundle of 37 half metre long fuel rods (ceramic fuel
pellets in zircaloy tubes) plus a support structure, with 12 bundles lying end to end in a fuel
channel. Control rods penetrate the calandria vertically, and a secondary shutdown system
involves adding gadolinium to the moderator. The heavy water moderator circulating through the
body of the calandria vessel also yields some heat.
Newer PHWR designs such as the Advanced Candu Reactor (ACR) have light water cooling and
slightly-enriched fuel.

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Advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR)
These are the second generation of British gas-cooled reactors, using graphite moderator and
carbon dioxide as primary coolant. The fuel is uranium oxide pellets, enriched to 2.5-3.5%, in
stainless steel tubes. The carbon dioxide circulates through the core, reaching 650 0C and then
past steam generator tubes outside it, but still inside the concrete and steel pressure vessel (hence
'integral' design). Control rods penetrate the moderator and a secondary shutdown system
involves injecting nitrogen to the coolant.

The AGR was developed from the Magnox reactor. Magnox reactors were also graphite
moderated and CO2 cooled, used natural uranium fuel in metal form, and water as secondary
coolant. The UK's last Magnox reactor closed at the end of 2015.

Light water graphite-moderated reactor (RBMK)

This is a Soviet design, developed from plutonium production reactors. It employs long (7 meter)
vertical pressure tubes running through graphite moderator, and is cooled by water, which is
allowed to boil in the core at 290 0C, much as in a BWR. Fuel is low-enriched uranium oxide
made up into fuel assemblies 3.5 meters long. With moderation largely due to the fixed graphite,
excess boiling simply reduces the cooling and neutron absorption without inhibiting the fission

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reaction and a positive feedback problem can arise, which is why they have never been built
outside the Soviet Union.

Advanced reactors

Several generations of reactors are commonly distinguished. Generation I reactors were

developed in the 1950-60s and the last one shut down at the end of 2015. They mostly used
natural uranium fuel and used graphite as moderator. Generation II reactors are typified by the
present US fleet and most in operation elsewhere. They typically use enriched uranium fuel and
are mostly cooled and moderated by water. Generation III are the advanced reactors evolved
from these, the first few of which are in operation in Japan and from early 2018, in China and the
UAE. Others are under construction and ready to be ordered. They are developments of the
second generation with enhanced safety. There is no clear distinction between Generation II and
Generation III.

Generation IV designs are still on the drawing board and will not be operational before the mid-
2020s. They will tend to have closed fuel cycles and burn the long-lived actinides now forming
part of spent fuel, so that fission products are the only high-level waste. Of seven designs under
development, four or five will be fast neutron reactors. Four will use fluoride or liquid metal
coolants, hence operate at low pressure. Two will be gas-cooled. Most will run at much higher
temperatures than today’s water-cooled reactors.
More than a dozen (Generation III) advanced reactor designs are in various stages of
development. Some are evolutionary from the PWR, BWR and CANDU designs above, some
are more radical departures. The former include the Advanced Boiling Water Reactor, a few of
which are now operating with others under construction. The best-known radical new design has
the fuel as large 'pebbles' and uses helium as coolant, at very high temperature, possibly to drive
a turbine directly.
Considering the closed fuel cycle, Generation I-III reactors recycle plutonium (and possibly
uranium), while Generation IV are expected to have full actinide recycle.
Many advanced reactor designs are for small units– under 300 MWe – and in the category of
small modular reactors (SMRs), since several of them together may comprise a large power
plant, maybe built progressively. Apart from the normal oxide fuels, other fuel types are metal,
TRISO*, carbide, nitride, or liquid salt.

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*TRISO (tristructural-isotropic) particles less than a millimeter in diameter. Each has a kernel (c.
0.5 mm) of uranium oxycarbide (or uranium dioxide), with the uranium enriched up to 20% U-
235. This kernel is surrounded by layers of carbon and silicon carbide, giving a containment for
fission products which is stable to over 1600 0C.

Fast neutron reactors (FNR)

Some reactors (only one in commercial service) do not have a moderator and utilise fast
neutrons, generating power from plutonium while making more of it from the U-238 isotope in
or around the fuel. While they get more than 60 times as much energy from the original uranium
compared with the normal reactors, they are expensive to build. Further development of them is
likely in the next decade, and the main designs expected to be built in two decades are FNRs. If
they are configured to produce more fissile material (plutonium) than they consume they are
called fast breeder reactors (FBR).

Lifetime of nuclear reactors

Most of today's nuclear plants which were originally designed for 30 or 40-year operating lives.
However, with major investments in systems, structures and components lives can be extended,
and in several countries there are active programs to extend operating lives. In the USA most of
the more than one hundred reactors are expected to be granted licence extensions from 40 to 60
years. This justifies significant capital expenditure in upgrading systems and components,
including building in extra performance margins.
Some components simply wear out, corrode or degrade to a low level of efficiency. These need
to be replaced. Steam generators are the most prominent and expensive of these, and many have
been replaced after about 30 years where the reactor otherwise has the prospect of running for 60
years. This is essentially an economic decision. Lesser components are more straightforward to
replace as they age. In Candu reactors, pressure tube replacement has been undertaken on some
plants after about 30 year’s operation.
A second issue is that of obsolescence. For instance, older reactors have analogue instrument and
control systems. Thirdly, the properties of materials may degrade with age, particularly with heat
and neutron irradiation. In respect to all these aspects, investment is needed to maintain
reliability and safety. Also, periodic safety reviews are undertaken on older plants in line with
international safety conventions and principles to ensure that safety margins are maintained.

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 Data needs to be transferable across several generations of software and IT hardware, as well as
being shared with other operators of similar plants. Knowledge management is often a shared
responsibility and is essential for effective decision-making and the achievement of plant safety
and economics.

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