Ancient Indian Mathematics

A.K. Upadhyay, Bhubaneswar, 9437034172, 9583492387

arunupadhyay30@yahoo.in, www.scribd.com/arunupadhyay
Errors in History
1. No search of truth-War of Civilizations
2. Ignoring recorded dates-Manipulating approximate dates
3. Assumption that there was no science in ancient
4. Opposite views-great advances in astronomy-no knowledge of math, science
5. Astronomy possible only with survey –math + measures
6. Old standards of map, time-ignored
7. Different meanings of words, units of measures-both in 7 Samsthā
8. Western view-All science by aliens only
9. Indian modern-astronomical measures by sacrifice of goat in Yajña
10. Indians with faith-all measures by dhyāna.
11. Separate units and measures in same period-Vedānga, Jaina, Siddhānta
12. Links with world for trade, survey, astronomy measures.
 Definition of Mathematics
Difficult to define such basic concept & method
Old Definitions- (1) Aristotle : The science of quantity.
(2) Auguste Comte : The science of indirect measurement.
Modern Definitions
(1) Mathematics is the science that draws necessary conclusions.-Benjamin Peirce 1870.
(2) All Mathematics is Symbolic Logic-Bertrand Russell 1903
(3) An inituitionist definition: Mathematics is mental activity which consists in carrying
out, one after the other, those mental constructions which are inductive and effective
-meaning that by combining fundamental ideas, one reaches a definite result.
(4) A formalist definition: Mathematics is the manipulation of the meaningless symbols
of a first-order language according to explicit, syntactical rules.
(5) Mathematics is the classification and study of all possible patterns.
-Walter Warwick Sawyer, 1955.
(6) Mathematics is a broad-ranging field of study in which the properties and
interactions of idealized objects are examined-Wolfram Math World.
(7) The abstract science which investigates deductively the conclusions implicit in
the elementary conceptions of spatial and numerical relations, and which includes
as its main divisions geometry, arithmetic, and algebra. Oxford English Dictionary, 1933
(8) The study of the measurement, properties, and relationships of quantities and sets,
using numbers and symbols. American Heritage Dictionary, 2000
 Scope of Mathematics
Modern Mathematics is foundation of every branch of Knowledge-
(1) Biggest application in Physics including astronomy.
(2) Day to day use of arithmatics and estimates.
(3) Many parts of Physical Chemistry, Biology, Geology.
(4) Quantitaive study of Economics, psychology, sociology, language.
Classification
Felix Klein-Mathematics classified as per geometrical projections
- Erlangen Program, 1872, Guide to development of Mathematics.
Common Branches
Detailed decimal classification
Broadly-(1) Pure Mathematics-Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry , Generalized
Geometry (Topology), Algebraic Topology, Analysis-differencial & Integral Calculus,
Differential & Integral Equation, Real & Complex Analysis, Numerical Analysis,
Set Theories, Algebras & Topologies, Graph theory, Combinatorial math, Logic etc.
(2) Applied Mathematics-Mechanics, Fluid Mechanics, Astronomy, Electromagnetic
Theory, Statistics, Econometrics, Quantum Mechanics, Relativity Theory,
Elasticity, Solid State Physics (Crystals), Chemical Dynamics, Math or statistics applied
To social sciences, language.
 Indian Conepts
1. Fondation of creation-कालः कलयतामहम् । (गीता १०/३०)
Kalā = parts, different shapes, Grades, Creating power of Brahma
Kalana = Creation, decay, Calculation, Holding
Kāla = Time of 4 types (Bhāgavata 3/11). Perception of change.
With creation, there is differentiation in different parts.
There is continuous change in each object-perception is Kāla
Measures of parts and their changes in many ways is Kalana.
वेदा हि यज्ञार्थमभिप्रवृत्ताः, कालानुपूर्व्या विहिताश्च यज्ञाः।
तस्मादिदं कालविधानशास्त्रं, यो ज्योतिषं वेद स वेद यज्ञान्॥
(ऋक् ज्योतिष ३६, याजुष ज्योतिष ३)
2. Foundation of sciences-Mathematics is queen of science.
Similarly, Gaṇita (math) is eyes of Veda = foundation of knowledge.
यथा शिखा मयूराणां नागानां मणयो यथा ।
तद्वद् वेदांगशास्त्राणां गणितं मूर्ध्नि संस्थितम् ।। ( वेदांग ज्योतिष - ५)
Jyotiṣa includes all aspects of Mathematics and is eyes of Veda-
छन्दः पादौ शब्दशास्त्रं च वक्त्रं, कल्पः पाणौ ज्योतिषं लोचने च।
शिक्षा घ्राणं श्रोत्रमुक्तं निरुक्तं , वेदास्याङ्गान्याहुरेतानि षट् च॥१॥
वेदस्य चक्षुः किलशास्त्रमेतत्, प्रधानताङ्गेषु ततोऽर्थजाता।
अङ्गैर्युतोऽन्यैः परिपूर्णमूर्त्तिः, चक्षुर्विहीनः पुरुषो न कश्चित्॥२॥
(वृद्धवसिष्टसिद्धान्त १/७-८, सिद्धान्तशेखर १/५-६)
 Indian classification
(Bhāskara commentary on Āryabhaṭīya)
After Mahābhārata-1. Maskari-algorithms (both mean rod-holder)
2. Pūtana-Rectification (simplify, show by graph)
3. Pūrana-Integration, combining equations /theories)
4. Mudgala-Discrete mathematics
Classes in pairs
1. Vyakta (discrete)-avyakta (abstract)
2. Rāśi (numbers, symbols)-kṣetra (area, geometry).
3. Sakṛta (exact solution)-Asakṛta (successive approximation)
4. Anka (Pāṭī-known number)-Bīja (unknown-gulika, dependant).
5. Bhāva (unknown quantity-Bhāvita (function)
Applied-Jyotiṣa
6. Cosmology
7. Planetary orbits
8. Cosmic effect on earth-
(a) Rains, (b) Earthquake, (c) Auspicious times
4. Effect on man-Horoscope prediction by 8 methods.
5. Mathematical methods
6. Use in mapping.
 Mapping
Mapping needs measure of 3 quantity (Tri-praśna) at key points on globe-
(a) Longitude, (b) Latitude, (c) Direction (marking north).
These need observing Nakṣatra in space in Spherical polar coordinates.
Parilekha is a measure (Māpa), so it is Map. Uses Nakṣatra, so Nakshā.
Quadrant points
Marking 4 points separated by ¼ of circle-
1. Brahmā system (29102 BC) , 2. Vaivasvata Manu system (13902 BC)
Ref. East (+900) West (-900) Opposite (+1800, or-)
2. Amarāvatī Sukhā Sanyamanī Vibhāvarī
(Indra) (Varuṇa) (Yama) (Soma)
2. Ujjain (Lankā) Yamakoṭipattan Romakapattana Siddhapura
(Bhārata) (Ketumāla) (Bhadrāśva) (Uttara-Kuru)
These quadrants are 4 petals of Earth-lotus, Bhārata covers 1.
Rotation axis is Meru, north pole = Sumeru, South pole = Kumeru.
Local references in each continent, countries-local Merus,
North Hemisphere-4 quadrants in 4 colours = 4 colours of Sumeru faces.
Similarly, 4 quadrants in south = Total 8 petals of earth,
Bhārata petal in north-divided into 3 or 7 lokas like lokas in space.
Other 7 petals ( 3 in north, 4 in south) are 7 Tala (or Pātāla),
 Minor references
1. Local Meru or Lankā in each country/continent-15 Merus survive.
2. 60 time zones at interval of 6 Degs, Places of Sun, Kālahastī etc.
3. Survey centres-(a) Guntur-Guṇṭha = small area, measure rods linked together.
Ur (Uru) = town, Centre of Survey is Guntur. Gunter chain = 100 links = 22 m
(b)Ranchi-Zero ref point (RD)-town measures from this place.
Indra (Achyuta-chyuta) ref-Chutiya in Ranchi,
Dhruva (fixed pole) measuring rod. Dhurva region, Dhura = 99” rod, its squire land
(c) Karanchi-RD point for ocean distances (Ka = water).
(d) Other RD points-Kumbhakoṇam, Konkaṇa, Kanyākumārī
4. Road-sea routes, maps.
5. Town designs (a) Uru, (b) Pura, (c) Meru, (d) Vajra, (3) Śrī (Trikoṇa -Thiru).
Map of country-names on map shape-
(1) Kumārikā Khaṇḍa (Inverted triangle, Śakti-trikoṇa)
(2) Lankā-long in north south on Ujjain longitude-Lanka = chilly in Bengal, Odisha.
(3) Kerala= Chera (at root of country), vegetable of this shape = Karela.
(4) Jambū-dvīpa-Relief map of Manipur region = head of elephant
(5) Śuṇḍā (elephant trunk)-shape of Indonesia-Greater & smaller Shunda groups
(6) Himalaya in crescent shape, so Bhārata is Indu = Inde (India)
(7) North boundary of Jambū-dvīpa also like that.
(8) Krauñcha (Heron) dvīpa-Shape of north America.
 Survey & Astronomy
Dependent on each other. Survey by Nakṣatras
Distance of cosmic bodies starts with earth survey
Moon Distance-Measure of moon from 2 far off places at same time.
Problems-(1) Mapping & finding accurate linear distance (less than 1% error)
(2) Matching of time-universal not local (1 second accuracy)
(3) Angle measure -1 second of angle
These accuracy gives more than 5% error in moon distance.
Sun & Planets
(1) Comparison of moon-sun distance. Indirect observation of Sun.
(2) Comparing sun & planets-measures of Śīghra Paridhi.
(3) Eccentricity of orbits, inclination to ecliptic.
(4) Sizes of planets. Apogee from daily speed-place of minimum.
(5) Rotation of apogee-Saturn apogee rotates 39 times in 4320m years.
(6) 60,000 Bālakhilyas of 135 kms (Anguṣṭha size = earth /96)
(7) Bālakhilyas at average distance of 60 AU, rotating in 360 years
NASA figure after Cassini probe to Uranus (2008) 70,000 of 100+km at 45-65 AU
(8) Solar wind till 30 AU (known after 2008).
(9) Limits of solar system-Gravitational-1 lakh sun-dia radius
Brightness- 230 x Earth or 157 lakh times Sun, or 1 LY radius.
(10) 6 zones (Vaṣaṭkāras), 30 Dhāma-their size & properties
 Śvetāśvatara measures
Radiation (white, śveta) of sun is driving force (aśva) of life, Sun = Śvetāśva
Rohitāśva = Kumāra, creation on earth. Structures beyond sun = Śvetāśvatara.
Galactic centre = Mūla-barhaṇi (Mūla nakṣatra)
Spiral arms-Ahirbudhnya (Vedic term), Śeṣa-nāga (Purāṇa).
Sphere around sun-width equal to spiral arm = Mahar-loka
1000 stars in Mahar-loka = 1000 heads of Śeṣa-nāga.
Measure of these star distances-Parallax from earth orbit ends
Measure of 1/10,000 deg for accuracy of 10%.
Farther stars by relation of distance and radiance, which depends on spectral type.
Errors by inter-stellar dust, air fluctuations, gravitational lense, spectral theory.
Galactic centre-Size & Distance- How?
Size of galaxy, Corona (Goloka , Kūrma)-how?
1017 Yojanas, Goloka 10 times bigger (Śanku = 1013 x 105)
Count of Nakṣatras = 1011 (how?)
Man is image as he has same number of neurons in brain.
Higher structures-Dhṛti (earth x 2(64-3)), Ati-dhṛti (earth x 2(68-3)).
Tapah, Satya lokas.
5 gross levels larger by 1 crore at each level-Man, Earth, Solar system, galaxy, Universe
7 micro-worlds smaller by 1 lakh at each level-Kalila (cell), Jiva (atom),
Kuṇḍalinī (nucleus), Jagat (particles of 3 types), Deva-dānava, Pitar, Ṛṣi.
 Mathematical methods of Jyotiṣa
1. Parikarma of 20 Types
2. Algebra
3. Trigonometry
4. Spherical Triginometry & geometry (Gola)
5. Calculus-Differential, Integral, variational
6. Numerical analysis
7. Stability of solutions-convergent & divergent series
Cosmology
1. Puruṣa-5 gross levels- inner ratio 107
7 minor worlds- inner ratio 105
Cross-ratio with base of 10, so universe is 10 dimensional.
2. Śrī (Field)-10 dimensions, daśā (state), diśā (direction), daśa (10)
space 3 dimensions-Vindu = 0, Rekhā = 1, Pṛṣṭha = 2, Stoma = 3
Matter-4th, Time-5th, Mechanical world, 5 Mā-Chhandas
Puruṣa-Chiti, Chetanā-6th, Ṛṣi (string)-link-7th, Nāga or Vṛtra-8th
Randhra or Nanda (Deficit, density or energy gradient -9 th, 10th is
Ānanda or Rasa-Uniform Homogenous, Isotropic-Trisatya, Satyasya satya
3. Yajña-Shukla gati-visible outer motion, Kṛṣṇa gati-Inner transformation.
Creative work, product is useful if system runs by that. 5x5 Yajñas.
Chain of Creation (Tree, Avyaya), Inter-link of Yajñas-Deva culture
यज्ञेन यज्ञमयजन्त देवाः (पुरुष सूक्त,१६)
 Time & Puruṣa
1. Kṣara (decaying system)-Nitya Kāla (Thermodynamic arrow).
2. Akṣara-Janya kāla (Measure of Yajña cycle)-Kalana.
3. Avyaya-Akṣaya kāla-5 laws of conservation, inner transformation
4. Parātpara Puruṣa & Kāla-Beyond perception, distinction
Bhāgavata purāṇa 3/16,
Ṛṣi = 1.35 (man) x 10-35 m, smaller is nirañjana or Parātpara
Paramāṇu kāla = time in which light ray covers Ṛṣi = 10-43 second
कालोऽस्मि लोक क्षयकृ त्प्रवृद्धो । (गीता ११/३२)
कालः कलयतामहम् । (गीता १०/३०)
अहमेवाक्षयः कालो धाताहं विश्वतोमुखः (गीता १०/३३)
स कालः परमाणुर्वै यो भुङ्क्ते परमाणुताम् (भागवत पुराण ३/११/४)
वालाग्र शत साहस्रं तस्य भागस्य भागिनः ।
तस्य भागस्य भागार्धं तत्क्षये तु निरञ्जनम् ॥ (ध्यानविन्दु उपनिषद् , ४)
Math texts of 4 types-Maskari, Pūraṇa, Pūtana, Mudgala
Finite Mathematics, Infinites,
Aparimeya = beyond mathematical model.
 Zero & Infinity
Zero meanings-Algebra-non-existent, 2-2,
Analysis-Limit(1/x),x →∞; Smaller than any smallest number.
Infinity-Larger than any large number, Limit(1/x), x →0.
अणोरणीयान्, महतो महीयान्, आत्मास्य जन्तोर्निहितो गुहायाम्।
(कठोपनिषद् १/२/२०, श्वेताश्वतर उपनिषद् ३/२०)
Cantor Set Theory-grades of infinity
Natural numbers ‫( א‬countable) , Real numbers of 2 types-
Algebraic, Transcendental. Higher order
Viṣṇu sahasranāma terms-
Ananta = ∞, Asankhyeya-Beyond natural numbers
Aparimeya =Transcendental, अपरिमितं प्रमाणाद् भूयः (कात्यायन शुल्ब सूत्र १/२३)
World Infinities-Ṛk = Mūrti (form) Countable infinity = N
Yaju = motion-Real numbers equal to line (motion).= R
Sāma-field, R3, Atharva = Foundation, Transcendental
ऋग्भ्यो जातां सर्वशो मूर्त्तिमाहुः, सर्वा गतिर्याजुषी हैव शश्वत्।
सर्वं तेजं सामरूप्यं ह शश्वत्, सर्वं हेदं ब्रह्मणा हैव सृष्टम्॥ (तैत्तिरीय ब्राह्मण ३/१२/८/१)
Sankhyeya (countable ∞)-letter/words/sentense=Gaṇeśa.
Asankhyeya = real number = Interlink (Subrahmaṇya)
Aparimeya-Thoughts, Rasa = Sarasvatī
 Nature of Proof
1. 4 types of Nyāya = Logic
(a) Vyākaraṇa-words into letters/syllables.Meanings modified by suffix/prefix.
(b) Gautama-Link between Gau= 3 parts of Vāk in mind with ‘Tama’ = expressed.
Tama is dark as some content is missing in expressed word.
(c) Mīmānsā (Pūrva)-Jaimini-Joining of words into sentences-types of meanings.
(d) Brahma-sūtra (uttara) of Vyāsa-Unification of thought.
2. Establishing a fact/theorem = Pramāṇa
(a) Pratyakṣa = observation (2) Anumāna (inference + Upamāna = induction),
(c) Śabda (Link of 3 worlds, holistic)
ज्ञानं ज्ञेयं परिज्ञाता त्रिविधा कर्मचोदना। करणं कर्म कर्तेति त्रिविधः कर्मसंग्रहः॥१८॥
ज्ञानं कर्म च कर्ता च त्रिधैव गुणभेदतः। (गीता-अध्याय १८)
Source of work (Karma-chodanā)
1. Jñāna = Knowledge (information, perception)
2. Jñeya = Object of knowledge/study
3. Jñātā = Knower, observer.
Process of work-1. Jñāna = Knowledge, methods.
2. Karma-Actual work. 3. Kartā = Doer (man, cause).
3 Guṇas-(a) Satva = Creative part of source, (b) Raja = Creation, inner/outer motion. (c)
TamaDormant matter/energy.
Mathematical Proof-1. Numerical
2. Logical, 3. Geometrical.
Stages-1. Mā = to measure, Mā Chhanda- 5 types of measures-
Mā, Pramā, Pratimā, Upamā, Samā
2. Māyā-cover or boundary, Measure, illusion (both by cover).
3. Pramā-Measured or proof.
4. Prameya-Point to be proved, measured.
5. Pramātā-Person/agency which proves.
Stages of Science -1. Vidyā = Unification of knowledge
2. Avidya = Aparā Vidyā-Classification, science
Methods of Science-
1. Avidyā-classification
2. Asmitā-definition of each class
3. Rāga-Links with other classes.
4. Dveṣa-Differences from others
5. Abhiniveśa-Making a theory.
Chain of Observation-theory-revision
Jñāna (theory) & Karma (observation, measure) correct each other.
 Chronology
1. After Mahābhārata, America/poles were not known. Sūrya-siddhānta when
4 quadrant points on globe + planetary distances were known.
2. Purāṇa cardinal towns are earlier.
3. Year started with Māgha. Vivasvān (Sūrya) started with Chaitra.
4. Lokas or galactic structures known before Maghā year.
5. Minerals located in time of Brahmā.
6. Luni-solar months named by Brahmā-star of full moon time.
7. Brahmā started Veda after glacial floods of 31000 BC.
8. Kārttikeya time-north pole away from Abhijit-15800 BC-Māgha at start of rains.
9. Vaivasvata Manu after him in 13902 BC.
10. Second glacial floods (10000 BC) in time of Vaivasvata Yama (Jamshed).
11. After floods Matsya in 9533 BC, Ṛṣabha Deva, Maya revision 9323 BC,
12. Ikṣvāku-8576 BC.
13. Dionysus-Bāhu of Sūrya-vamśa in 6777 BC (Megasthenes)
14. Paraśurāma death in 6177 BC (Kalamba = Kollam samvat)
15. Rāma-4433-4382 BC (Prabhava in both Jupiter cycles-Matsya & Rāma)
16. Yudhiṣṭhira-King (Śaka) 17-12-3139 BC,Kali Samvat 17-2-3102 BC Ujjain midnight
Jayābhyudaya śaka 25-8-3102 BC, Laukika era 3067 BC.
Two systems after Mahābhārata- (1) Ārya (Pitāmaha, Brahmā)
(2) Parāśara (Sūrya-siddhānta, Viṣṇu purāṇa)
 Yuga Cycles
Yuga is of 4, 5, 12, 18, 19, 60, years within human life.
Astronomical Yuga is grand rotation of planets upto 1000 Sun-Diameters.
Integral rotation of planets till Saturn is 43,20,000 years.
Historic Yuga of 24,000 years parallel to glacial cycle.
Joint cycle of Apogee in 100,000 years, precession of 26,000 in reverse direction.
This is 21,600 years. More correct is 24,000 years-2 parts of 12,000 years each.
Long apogee cycle of 312,000 years taken.
First half-Avasarpiṇī (A) -Satya, Tretā, Dvāpara, kali of 4,3,2,1 parts
Second half-Utsarpiṇī (U)-in reverse order of Yuga parts.
Now 3rd cycle running –Kali of 3A starts in 3102 BC.
Cycle 1 (day 1 of Brahmābda)-A =61902-49902 BC, U= till 37,902 BC
Brahmābda 2-A-37902-25902 BC, U=25902-13,902 BC
Brahmābda 3 (from Vaivasvata Manu)-A-13902-1902 BC (Kali from 3102 BC)
U-1902-702 BC-Kali, 702 BC -1699 AD-Dvāpara
1699-1999-Tretā-sandhyā –Information technology
Now proper Tretā till 4099 AD.
Glacial foods in 31000, 10000 BC-in A-Tretā
Glacial Ice in 69,200 BC (4th cycle before now), 45000, 20,000 BC- in U-Tretā
Brahmā (Svāyamhuva Manu) in 1st Tretā (Vāyu purāṇa 9/46, 31/3, 33/5)
 Types of Texts
No text book available-only calculation manuals
Description of Instruments missing.
Ṛgveda (5/40-Atri), Tāṇḍya mahābrāhmaṇa (6/6/8)
Turīya (4th) yantra-Telescope using 4 aspects of light-ray
Intensity, spectrum, polarization, Doppler Shift, Coding
Grāvāṇa (gravel) –Heavy machine, grinder
Avi-Linear path of ray (like motion of Avi = ram)
4 colurs of Avi-4 aspects of light ray analysed by telescope
Svarbhānu, Rāhu, Asura –Node of moon orbit causing eclipse
Viśuvat (Viṣuva) upāyan = measured with ref. to equator/zodiac
Drapsa (drops)-Galaxy in space, stars in galaxy, planets in solar-system
Nakṣatra-100 billion galaxies, 100 billion stars in galaxy, Pultonic bodies
= number of Lomagarta (75000 parts of second) in year
-(Śatapatha brāhmaṇa 12/3/2/5, 10/4/4/2)
Zones of solar system-Indra-Bṛhaspati, 3 Vikrama of Viṣṇu, 6 Vaṣaṭkāra,
30 Dhāma, (3 within earth)-33 Devas as Prāṇa of these zones
Classification of time, sects arbitrary
1. Units of measure cannot be different in same country in same era.
2. Measures of earth, moon, planets will not differ for sects/persons
3. Measures of length, time linked with other countries-trade, world map.
4. World map, measure of moon, planets, solar syatem/galaxy in ancient era.
5. Copy in later periods
6. Confusion by similar names of solar/galactic zones as on earth surface.
7. Different texts for different purposes
8. Slight change with time, text books in languages of region/time
Indian Texts
9. Vedic texts-Unity or mutual image of cosmic/physical/inner systems
10. Vedānga jyotiṣa-luni-solar tropical calender
11. Siddhānta jyotiṣa-Cosmology, galaxy, planetary system.
12. Jaina jyotiṣa-Local language, knowledge, errors in translation
-Map of 3 dimensional space on paper-2 suns, moons.
-Projection of motion on earth surface
-Different measures of Yojana etc.
 Brahmā’s Calender
1. Both tropical/sidereal
2. Different starts of years in different ages
3. Sidereal months named after moon star on full moon day
4. Tropical year star with either solstice
5. Regular revision-last by Kārttikeya in 15800 BC
6. Aayanāmśa limited within Ŧ 270
7. Change in start of lunar month from new to full moon
8. Tropical motion of sun on earth surface-Vīthi = lanes
(Ṛgveda 1/164/1-3,12-13, 1/115/3, Atharva 8/5/19-20,
Viṣṇu purāṇa 2/8-10, Vāyu chapter 2, Brahmāṇḍa chap. 1/22 etc)
Book of Enoch-Ethiopean old testament, chapter 4

Jagatī 12x4 240

Triṣṭup 11x4 200
Pankti 10x4 120

Equator 00
Bṛhatī 9x4

Anuṣṭup 8x4 -120

Uṣṇik 7x4 -200

Gāyatrī 6x4 -240

 Later Calenders
1. Kārttikeya –North Pole shifted away from Abhijit (Mahābhārata, vana (230/8-10)
Year start from Dhaniṣṭhā with rains (Varṣā), so year =Varṣa,
Asura system of year from winter solstice Contd-called Asura-dina (SS)
2. Vaivasvat Manu-Calender of Vivasvān (Sūrya), 13902 BC
Start of Brahmābda or Ayanābda yuga (12+12 thousand years), Brahmā in Ādya Tretā
Year from Equinox day, Chaitra month at start.
71 yugas of 360 years from Brahmā (29102 BC) to Vyāsa (3102 BC)=26000 years
43 yugas till Vaivasvata Manu (Matsya Purāṇa 273/76,77), then 28 yugas till Vyāsa
3. Revision by Maya at Romakapattana in 9223 BC (121 years before Satyayuga)
(a) Long period, (b) Slowing of day by glacial floods, (c) Other long term corrections.
4. Yuga parts-Asura supremacy for 10 yugas =3600 years before Vaivasvata Manu.
Yuga count starts from 1 to 28-ending in 3102 BC
Dattātreya-10th, Māndhātā-15th, Parśurāma-19th, Rāma-24th (starting in 3102 +4x360 BC)
5. Ikṣvāku-1-11-8576 BC-count of reignal period of Sūrya-vamśa kings
6. Paraśurāma-death 6177 BC-Kalamba samvat
7. Yudhiṣṭhira śaka 17-12-3139 BC, kali-17-2-3102, Jayābhyudaya-25-8-3102, Laukika 3076
8. Jaina Yudhiṣṭhira śaka-2634 BC-Sanyāsa of Pārśvanātha
9. Śiśunāga śaka-1954 BC (end of his reign) Kauzad era used in Burma.
10. Nanda śaka -1634 BC, 11. Śūdraka śaka-756 BC,
12. Chāhmāna śaka-rout of Nineve-612 BC (Varāhamihira, Bṛhat samhitā 13/3)
13. Śrīharṣa śaka-456 BC, 14. Vikramāditya Samvat-57 BC. 15. Sālivāhana śaka-78 AD.
 Astronomers
1. Āryabhaṭa-360 Kali =2742 BC-His period just after Mahābhārata (Mahāsiddhānta 2/2)
No calender after this period till Śālivāhana (78 AD), Chedi (219), Valabhī (319 AD).
18 digit system used like Maya astronomy as Galaxy is 1017 yojana (earth= 1000).
Long term constants of that period, not of 3600 kali.
Base of kali start for calculation, Kusumapura, not the later name Pāṭaliputra
No kingdom in 3600 kali at Patna to attract astronomer from Kerala (Aśmaka)/ support.
2. Varāhamihira-date given by himself-Yudhiṣṭhira śaka 3042, Chaitra śukla 8=6-3-95 BC
Death in 5 BC at age of 90 years (Utpala Bhaṭṭa), used Chahamāna śaka of 612 BC.
Could not have used Śālivāhana śaka of 78 AD, 83 years after his death.
Pañcha-siddhāntikā date tallies with Chahamāna śaka (427, Chaitra s1=saumya, budha)
3. Brahmagupta-Famous as son of Jiṣṇugupta (used by him, Vaṭeśvara etc)
Jiṣṇugupta contemporary of Varāhamihira (Bṛhat jātaka 7/7, Jyotirvidābharaṇa 22/8)
Jiṣṇugupta, son of Avantivarman (103-33 BC) of Nepal where Vikramāditya started samvat.
Brāhma-sphuṭa-siddhānta in 550 śaka (Chāhamāna) = 62 BC.
First inscription of Avantivarman in Chāhmāna śaka, rest 11 in Vikrama-samvat.
4. Sūrya-siddhānta-(a) 13902 BC, (b) Maya 9223 BC, used by Vālmīki, Kiṣkindhā (40/54)
(c) Parāśara (Viṣṇu purāṇa 3300 BC), (d) Lāṭa (Viṣṇudhvaja, 456 BC-Megasthenes)
(e) Smaller version by Varāhamihira (45 BC).