Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Understanding
Psychology
Bab 3
Tingkah Laku
dan Neurosains
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Neuron: Elemen Asas Tingkah Laku
Kenapa pakar psikologi mengkaji otak dan
sistem saraf?
Apakah elemen asas sistem saraf?
Bagaimana sistem saraf menghantar isyarat
kimia dan elektrik dari satu bahagian ke
bahagian yang lain?
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Struktur Neuron (1)
Neuron: Sel saraf; elemen asas bagi sistem saraf
• Terdiri daripada sel badan yang mengandungi nukleus
• Terletak di sel glial yang:
• Menyuburkan neuron
• Melindungi neuron
• Memperbaiki kerosakan
• Membantu fungsi neuron
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Struktur Neuron(3)
Dendrit
Akson
• Bahagian neuron yang menghantar mesej kepada neuron lain
Butang terminal
• Bonjolan pada bahagian akhir akson yang menghantar mesej kepada
neuron lain
Salut myelin
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
3-4
Source: Kent Van De Graaff, Human Anatomy-Updated Fifth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
Copyright © 2000 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Used with permission. © David McCarthy/Science Source
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
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Cetusan /tembakan neuron
Neuron mengikut hukum all-or-none
• Hukum yang menyatakan sama ada neuron berfungsi atau
tidak
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Rajah 2: Pergerakan Potensial Aksi melalui Akson
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Rajah 3: Perubahan Voltan di Neuron ketika pergerakan Potensial Aksi
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
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Kelajuan Penyebaran
Kelajuan potensi aksi ketika bergerak melalui akson ditetapkan
oleh:
• Saiz akson
• Ketebalan salut myelin
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Neuron Cermin
Neuron khusus yang tercetus apabila:
• Seseorang mempunyai tingkah laku tertentu
• Memerhati orang lain berkelakuan yang sama
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Pertembungan Neuron
Sinaps: Jarak antara dua neuron di mana akson neuron
penghantar berkomunikasi dengan dendrit neuron penerima
menggunakan mesej kimia
Neurotransmiter: Bahan kimia yang menghantar mesej merentasi
sinaps kepada dendrit (dan kadang-kadang kepada sel badan)
neuron penerima
Bukan semua neuron mempunyai kebolehan untuk
menerima mesej kimia yang dibawa oleh neurotransmiter
tertentu
• Komunikasi kimia hanya boleh berjaya apabila neurotransmiter
berjaya masuk ke dalam tapak reseptor
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Pertembungan Neuron (2)
Jenis mesej kimia yang dihantar oleh
neurotransmiter:
• Mesej eksitatori: Neuron penerima akan mencetus dan
potensi aksi akan bergerak ke akson
• Mesej inhibitori: Menghalang atau mengurangkan
kebarangkalian neuron penerima untuk mencetus
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Rajah 4: Sinaps ialah simpang di antara Akson dan Dendrit
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
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Pertembungan Neuron (3)
Jika neurotransmiter kekal di tapak sinaps, ini boleh
menyebabkan:
• Penerimaan neuron dalam jumlah yang besar dalam
cetusan kimia yang tidak berhenti
• Penghasilan stimulasi atau inhibitasi berterusan pada
neuron penerima
• Komunikasi efektif merentasi sinaps tidak boleh berlaku
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Pertembungan Neuron (4)
Pengambilan semula (Reuptake): penyerapan semula
neurotransmiter oleh butang terminal
• Pemahaman konsep pengambilan semula telah
menyebabkan perkembangan ubatan yang merawati
kecelaruan psikologi
• SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors):
membenarkan beberapa neurotransmiter untuk kekal di
sinaps buat masa yang lebih lama
• Mengurangkan simptom kemurungan
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Rajah 5: Neurotransmiter Utama
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
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Sistem Saraf & Sistem Endokrin: Komunikasi dalam
Badan
Bagaimana struktur-struktur sistem saraf
berpaut / saling berkaitan?
Bagaimana sistem endokrin mempengaruhi
tingkah laku?
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Sistem Saraf Pusat & Sistem Saraf Periferal
(1)
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Sistem Saraf Pusat & Sistem Saraf Periferal
(2)
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Rajah 1: Hubungan antara Bahagian Sistem Saraf dalam Paparan
Gambar Rajah Skema
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Rajah 2: Sistem Saraf Pusat
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3-21
Sistem Saraf Pusat & Sistem Saraf Periferal
(3)
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Mengaktifkan Bahagian dalam Sistem Saraf
Autonomik
Sistem saraf autonomik terdiri daripada:
• Bahagian simpatetik: Berfungsi untuk mempersiapkan
badan untuk situasi yang memberi tekanan, melibatkan
semua sumber organisma untuk bertindak balas kepada
sebarang ancaman
• Bahagian para-simpatetik: Berfungsi untuk menenangkan
badan selepas urusan kecemasan
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Rajah 3: Fungsi Utama Sistem Saraf Autonomi
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
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Asas Evolusi Sistem Saraf
Psikologi Evolusi: Bidang psikologi yang mengenal
pasti corak tingkah laku yang disebabkan oleh
warisan genetik daripada nenek moyang kita
Tingkah laku genetik (Behavioral genetics): Kajian
kesan baka / keturunan ke atas tingkah laku
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Sistem Endokrin: Kimia dan Kelenjar
Sistem endokrin: Jaringan komunikasi kimia yang
menghantar mesej ke seluruh badan melalui aliran
darah
Hormon: Bahan kimia yang mengalir dalam darah
dan mengawal fungsi atau kadar pertumbuhan
badan
Kelenjar pituitari: Komponen utama kelenjar pituitari
atau “kelenjar utama”
• Menghasilkan hormon yang mengawal kadar pertumbuhan
dan bahagian lain sistem endokrin
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Rajah 4: Lokasi dan Fungsi Kelenjar Utama Endokrin
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
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OTAK
Bagaimana para penyelidik mengenal pasti bahagian
utama otak dan fungsinya?
Apakah bahagian utama otak, dan apakah
tanggungjawab bahagian tersebut dalam mengawal
tingkah laku seseorang?
Bagaimanakah dua bahagian otak berfungsi dengan
bergantung antara satu sama lain?
Bagaimana pemahaman tentang sistem saraf boleh
membantu kita mencari jalan untuk mengurangkan
kesakitan dan penyakit?
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Mengkaji Fungsi dan Struktur Otak (1)
Elektroensefalogram (E EG)
• Merekod aktiviti elektrik dalam otak menggunakan
elektrod yang dipasang di kepala
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Mengkaji Fungsi dan Struktur Otak (2)
Positron emission tomography (PET)
• Menunjukkan aktiviti bio-kimia dalam otak pada sesuatu
waktu
• Memerlukan suntikan pengesan radioaktif
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Rajah 2: Bahagian Utama Otak
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
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Teras Pusat: “Otak Lama” (1)
Teras Pusat: “Otak lama”
• Mengawal fungsi asas seperti makan, tidur dan yang biasa
dalam kalangan vertebrat
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Teras Pusat: “Otak Lama” (2)
Retikulus formasi: Berterusan daripada medulla
melalui pons, merentasi bahagian depan dan
tengah otak
• Menghasilkan rangsangan umum badan
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Teras Pusat: “Otak Lama”(3)
Hipotalamus: Bahagian kecil otak yang terletak di
bawah talamus
• Mengekalkan homeostasis
• Menghasilkan dan mengawal tingkah laku yang kritikal
kepada daya tahan asas bagi spesies
• Makan, melindungi diri, hubungan seksual
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Rajah 3: Struktur Utama Otak
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
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Sistem Limbik
Sistem Limbik: Bahagian otak yang mengawal
keagresifan, reproduksi dan makan
• Meliputi amigdala dan hipokampus
• Memainkan peranan penting dalam emosi, pembelajaran
dan ingatan berserta dengan hipokampus
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Rajah 4: Sistem Limbik
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
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Korteks Serebrum: “Otak Baru”
Bertanggungjawab untuk memproses maklumat
sofistikated di otak
Lobus: Empat bahagian utama di korteks serebrum
• Frontal
• Parietal
• Temporal
• Oksipital
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Rajah 5: Korteks Serebrum Otak
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
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Kawasan Motor di Korteks
Kawasan motor: Bertanggungjawab untuk
pergerakan sukarela badan
• Penyelidik telah mengenal pasti jumlah dan lokasi relatif
tisu kortikal yang digunakan untuk menghasilkan
pergerakan di beberapa bahagian badan
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Kawasan Sensori di Korteks
Kawasan sensori: Kawasan otak di mana bahagian
tisu yang sepadan kepada deria dengan tahap
sensitiviti yang berkait dengan jumlah tisu
• Contoh: kawasan somatosensori di lobus parietal – lokasi
spesifik yang mempunyai kebolehan untuk menyedari
sentuhan dan tekanan di lokasi tertentu di badan
• Kawasan auditori di lobus temporal
• Kawasan visual di lobus oksipital
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Kawasan Berkaitan di Korteks
Kawasan berkaitan (association areas): Bahagian untuk
proses mental yang lebih tinggi
• Pemikiran, bahasa, ingatan, pertuturan
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Otak dan Neuroplastisiti
Neuroplastisiti
• Perubahan di otak berkaitan dengan peningkatan neuron
baharu yang berlaku sepanjang hayat
• Hubungan baharu antara neuron
• Penyusunan semula kawasan pemprosesan maklumat
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Pengkhususan Hemisfera
Otak boleh dibahagikan kepada dua bahagian
Hemisfera: Bahagian kiri dan kanan otak bersimetri
yang mengawal bahagian badan bertentangan
dengan kedudukan mereka
Lateralisasi: Satu hemisfera di otak lebih dominan
dalam fungsi tertentu
• Bahasa
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Otak Terpisah: Menerokai Dua Hemisfera
Pesakit otak terpisah
• Korpus kalosum dibedah keluar
• Pilihan terakhir untuk merawat epilepsi yang teruk
Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.