WROUGHT

ALLOYS AND
STAINLESS
STEEL 1

Presented by,
MARIA ALICIA ROY
 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
HOW ALLOYS ARE MADE
USES
PROPERTIES
DEFORMATION OF METALS
COLD WORKING
ANNEALING
CARBON STEEL
WROUGHT GOLD ALLOYS
STAINLESS STEEL
TITANIUM ALLOYS
COBALT CHROMIUM NICKEL ALLOYS
REFERENCES

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INTRODUCTION
 Metals are the major class of materials used for various applications in dentistry.
 Use of pure metal is limited in dentistry
 To optimize properties, most metals commonly used are mixture of two or more metallic
elements
 Pure metals have properties that can be

markedly different when alloyed with other

metals and non metals.
eg: Fe +C ---much stronger and harder metal
called steel

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 Shaping of the metals are done by casting ,CAD-CAM milling or 3D printing

 An alternative method used is cold working in which metal is hammered, drawn or bent into shapes at
temperature well below recrystallization temperature of metal.

 Metal or alloys produced in this way are called as

WROUGHT METAL ALLOYS

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 ALLOYS
• A metal made by combining two or more metallic elements
to give greater strength or resistance to corrosion
 Alloys
A metal made by combining two or more metallic elements to give greater strength or rAlloys
A metal made by combining two or more metallic elements to give greater strength or resistance to corrosion

WROUGHT ALLOYS
Wrought metal alloys
These are cold worked metals that are plastically deformed to bring about a change in shape of structure and their mechanical properties.
(wrought: Beaten to shape.)
• These are cold worked metals that are plastically deformed
esistance to corrosion

to bring about a change in shape of structure and their

mechanical
Wrought properties.
metal alloys
These(wrought:
are cold worked Beaten to plastically
metals that are shape.)deformed to bring about a change in shape of structure and their mechanical properties.
(wrought: Beaten to shape.)

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HOW WROUGHT ALLOYS ARE
MADE
Mechanical
work
Cast metal alloys

Wrought series of dies

alloy
intermediate heat treatment

Heat
treatment
round wires

Various deformative process like drawing, extruding, machining,

beating, rolling,forging
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USES
 Orthodontic Wires
 Orthodontic Brackets
 Pre-fabricated Crowns
 Partial Denture Clasps
 Endodontic Files ,Reamers
 Surgical Instruments
 Mini Implants
 Posts

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PROPERTIES
Strength
Stiffness
Springback
Resilience
Formability
Malleability
Ductility
Joinability
Biocompatibility

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STRENGTH
 It is the mechanical property of a material to resist induced stress without fracture or
permanent deformation.
 It is mainly expressed in the stress –strain graph
 For every material ,the stress –strain graph can be prepared by gradually loading the material
under standard testing machines and conditions
 The strain values, when the load is applied is measured

and these are used to calculate the stress values.

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STRESS STRAIN GRAPH
A –Proportional limit
B-elastic limit
C-yield strength
D-ultimate tensile strength
E- fracture point

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 Proportional limit

It is the amount of stress required to produce elastic

deformation of a material .

Elastic limit
It is the maximum stress to which a material is
subjected to and still capable of returning to its
original position.

Modulus of elasticity
Relative stiffness \rigidity
Given by the slope of the curve

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 Yield point
Point from which permanent
deformation begins
(material starts to yield stress)

Yield strength
Amount of stress required to
produce a predetermined
amount of permanent strain

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 Ultimate tensile strength
It is the maximum amount of
stress a material can withstand
without fracture

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RESILIENCE
Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy ,when it is deformed elastically ,and
release that energy upon unloading.
Often referred to as springback potential
Graphically ,the area under the horizontal linear part represents resilience.

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Toughness
It is the amount of energy
absorbed by the material
when it is stressed to a point
just short of its fracture point.

Represented by the entire area

under the stress-strain
diagram.

Measured by charpy and

izod test

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FORMABILITY
 The ease with which the material may be forced into a permanent change in shape
 In orthodontics, it is the ability to bend wires into desired configurations such as

loops, coils and stops without fracturing the wire

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MALLEABILITY
 It is the ability to withstand permanent deformation under compressive forces without
fracturing

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DUCTILITY
 Amount of plastic deformation under tensile stress that an alloy can undergo before it
fractures.
 Its magnitude is assessed by the amount of permanent deformation indicated by stress –strain
graph.

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JOINABILITY
Ability
It of plastic
is the ability to betoelongated
of a metal or thinned
join with another plastically
by means without
of soldering or fracturin
welding.

In Orthodontics , Auxillary components need to join with the

main component by means of soldering and welding

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BIOCOMPATIBILITY
 Biocompatibility is primarily related to their corrosion
 Corrosion releases more of its elements in to the mouth increasing the risk for unwanted
reactions
 THE MORE CORROSIVE THE METAL,THE LEAST BIOCOMPATIBLE

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ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS
 In general , materials can be subdivided into two categories based on their atomic
arrangement.

Crystalline
• Periodic three dimensional arrangement of
atoms
Non crystalline
• No long range periodicity
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 metals always have a crystalline structure
 7 crystal systems
1. Cubic
2. Tetragonal
3. Orthorhombic
4. Rhombohedral
5. Hexagonal
6. Monoclinic
7. triclinic

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 It is convenient to visualize the crystal structure of metals in terms of their unit cell
 Unit cell – it is the smallest portion that is repeated in three dimensions to obtain a crystal
structure or space lattice.

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LATTICE IMPERFECTIONS
Crystalisation
of metals

Random
growth

Lattice points
are vacant or
over crowded

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LATTICE IMPERFECTIONS

Point defects Line defects

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POINT DEFECTS
 Vacancy ,divacancy,interstitial atom
 These are equilibrium defects
 Material in equilibrium will contain various amount of these defects

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LINE DEFECTS
 Edge dislocation - lattice is regular except for the one plane of atoms that is discontinuous,
forming “dislocation line” at the edge of the half plane.

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 If sufficiently large shear stress is applied,the bonds in the row adjacent to the dislocation will
be broken and new bonds with the next row is formed
 Resulting in movement of dislocations by one atomic distance
 Continous application causes movement of dislocation till it reaches the boundary of the
crystal.

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 Slip plane- plane along which dislocations occur
 Slip direction –direction in which atomic planes move

Slip Slip
Slip plane
direction system

More number of slip system, more plastic is the material

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STRAIN HARDENING\WORK
HARDENING\COLD WORKING
 Permanent deformation of metal under mechanical stress at temperatures below their
recrystallisation temperature
 Cold working produces number of point defects in the metal .
 These dislocations will interact with eachother mutually impeding the movements.
 Increased stress is required for further dislocation movement to continue the permanent
deformation process

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Surface hardness Ductility
UTS Resistance to corrosion
Yield strength

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DEFORMATION OF METALS

Lattice Strain
Dislocations fracture
imperfections hardening

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ANNEALING
 The effects associated with plastic deformation can be reversed by simply heating the metal to
an appropriate elevated temperature without melting it .

 3 STAGES

RECOVERY
RECRYSTALLIZATION
GRAIN GROWTH

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RECOVERY
 Cold worked properties begin to disappear.
 Slight decrease in tensile strength.
 No change in ductility.
 No changes in microscopic structure

 Clinically,cold worked orthodontic appliances are

often subjected to stress –relief annealing prior

to their placement.

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RECRYSTALLISATION
 Radical change in the microstructure
 The old grains are replaced by new set of grains.
 The material attains its original soft and ductile condition.
 The fibrous structure is transformed to small grains

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GRAIN GROWTH
 Grain size range from fine to coarse
 Fine grain structure if annealed further, grains begin to grow
 Large grains consume smaller grains
 Grain growth process does not progress indefinitely to form single crystal
 Rather, an ultimate coarse grain structure is formed

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WROUGHT GOLD ALLOYS

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 COMPOSITION
gold :11-15%
copper : 11-15%
silver : 10-25%
palladium: 5-10%
platinum: 5-10%
nickel: 1-2%
zinc :1%

DENTAL APPLICATIONS OF GOLD ALLOYS

• removable partial denture clasp.
• orthodontic appliances.
• retention pins for restoration

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 Advantages
1. extremely formable
2. Strength can be increased by heat treatment as well as cold working
3. Low modulus of elasticity
4. Good joinability
5. Excellent biocompatibility

 Disadvantages
1. Low yield strength
2. Low springback
3. High cost
4. Gold in its pure state is very soft, malleable and ductile and cannot withstand high
orthodontic forces.

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CARBON STEEL
 Iron-based alloys usually containing < 2.1% Carbon

 Based on 3 possible lattice arrangements of iron, different classes of steels are:

 Ferrite

 Austinite

 Martensite

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FERRITE
 Body centered cubic (BCC)
 Pure iron at room temperature
 Phase is stable in temperature not exceeding 912˚C
 Carbon has very low solubility in ferrite

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AUSTENITE
 Face centered cubic (FCC)
 Stable form of iron at temperature between 912˚C & 1394˚C
 Maximum carbon solubility is 2.1% by weight

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MARTENSITE
 Body centered tetragonal crystal structure.
 Produced by quenching of austenite to undergo spontaneous,
diffusionless transformation.
 This is a very strong brittle and hard alloy.
 The formation of martensite is actually a strengthening
mechanism of carbon steel.

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STAINLESS STEEL
 Steel is an alloy of iron containing less than 1.2 percent carbon
 When chromium content of steel exceeds 11 percent, the alloy is referred to as
stainless steel
 Introduced into orthodontics in 1950’s.
HISTORY
 First developed accidently by Harry Brearley in Sheffield, England

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 He tested this steel with nitric
acid ,lemon juice and tested
under microscope and found that
his alloys were highly resistant,
and immediately recognized
the potential for his steel within the
cutlery industry.
 He named it as ‘Rustless Steel’,
but Stuart, dubbed it ‘Stainless
Steel’ after testing the material in
a vinegar solution.

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 Stainless steel entered dentistry in 1919, introduced
at Krupp’s dental poly clinic in Germany by F.
Haupt Meyer.
 In 1930 Angle used it to make ligature wires

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 MANUFACTURING OF STAINLESS STEEL

INGOT
MELTING DRAWING
FORMATION ROLLING

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MELTING

The selection and melting of the components of alloys influence the physical
properties of wire .

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INGOT FORMATION

The molten metal is poured into the mold.

A non uniform chunk of metal is produced
The mechanical properties of the ingot is controlled by its granular structure
When the ingot is cooled, grains forms at once.

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ROLLING (TURK’S HEAD APPARATUS)

First mechanical step in process.

Ingot is rolled in series of rollers to reduce its diameter.
Now the wire is actually an "distorted ingot".
The squeezing and rolling of ingot alters the shape and arrangement of the crystals
Rolling will cause the elongation crystals into an finger like process, closely meshed with
each other.
Hardness/ brittleness increases as the grain positions and arrangements are altered
The metal is annealed by heating into high temperature, which relives the internal stress
formed by rolling.
On cooling ,it resembles an original casting.

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DRAWING
The wire is reduced to its final size by drawing.

This is a more precise process in which the wire is pulled through a small hole in a die.

Before it is reduced to orthodontic size a wire is drawn through many series of dies and
annealed several times along the way to relieve work hardening.

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 The wires used in orthodontics are generally American
Iron and Steel Institute {AISI} types 302 and 304
austenitic stainless steels. These alloys are known as “18-
8” Stainless steels, so designated because of the
percentages of chromium and nickel in the alloy.

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PROPERTIES
When 12-30% chromium is added to steel it forms Stainless steel.

PASSIVATION- Chromium forms a very thin,transparent ,adherent layer

of oxide which acts as a barrier to diffusion of oxygen and other corrosive
species and prevents further corrosion of underlying alloy.

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 If this oxide layer is ruptured by mechanical or chemical
means ,only a temperory loss of protection will occur, and the
passivating layer eventually forms again in an oxidizing
environment such as ambient air.
 SENSITIZATION
 When austentic stainless steel is heated to between 400˚c
and 900˚c
iron chromium carbides precipitate along the grain
boundaries and chromium is depleated near the grain
boundaries below concentrations required for protection
Thus ,it becomes susceptible to intergranular corrosion.

 Methods to reduce:
• Reduce the carbon content.
• Precipitate carbide along slip planes.
• stabilization

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STABILIZATION
 Elements such as titanium and tantalum ,which preferentially form
carbides,can be added to the stainless steel to preserve the level of
chromium when metal is exposed to elevated temperature.
 Ti has more affinity to form carbides than Cr making Cr free to
react with oxygen.
 Such stanless steel are called as stabilized stainless steel

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TYPES OF STAINLESS STEEL

FERRITE

AUSTENITE
MARTENSITE
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FERRITIC STAINLESS STEEL
 It has BCC structure

 Composition:
 Chromium - 11.5% to 27%
 Carbon – 0.2%
 Nickel – 0%
 Properties:
 Provide good corrosion resistance.
 Not hardenable by heat treatment
 Not readily work hardenable.
 Little application in DENTISTRY.
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MARTENSITIC STAINLESS
STEEL
 BCT structure.
 Composition:
 Chromium – 11.5% to 17%
 Nickel – 0% to 2.5%
 Carbon – 0.15% to 1.2%
 Properties
 High strength and Hardness
 Can be heat treated
 Has less corrosion resistance than other types of stainless steels
 Used for surgical and cutting instruments

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AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL
 FCC structure.
 This alloy is also called as 18-8 stainless steel
 Most corrosion resistant metal.
 Used for orthodontic wires , endodontic instruments, crowns in pediatric
dentistry.
 AISI 304 and 302
 Type 316L (contains carbon – 0.03% maximum) is the type usually used for
implants.

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 Austenite
18-8 stainless steel used in orthodontic
stainless steel wires and brackets

AISI 304 AISI 302(basic alloy)

18-20%chromium 17-19% chromium
8-12% nickel
0.08% 8-10% nickel
carbon 0.15% carbon

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COMPARING AUSTENITIC OVER FERRITIC
STAINLESS STEEL
Austenitic stainless steel has,
• Greater ductility & ability to undergo more cold work without fracturing

• Substantial strengthening during cold working

• Greater ease of welding

• Ability to overcome sensitization

• Less Critical Grain Growth

• Comparative ease in forming

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AUSTRALIAN STAINLESS
STEEL
 Developed by A J WILCOCK and RAYMOND BEGG

 The following properties made it superior to stainless steel:

1. Increased yield strength

2. Spring back property is more than stainless steel
3. No loss of force even when the wire is used for long period of time

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 These wires are mainly used in beggs light wire technique
 Available in various grades(in order of increasing yield strength)
 Regular
 Regular Plus
 Special
 Special Plus
 Premium
 Premium Plus
 supreme

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TITANIUM ALLOYS
 Titanium is a low density , strong ,lustrous ,corrosion resistant metal with a silver color.
 Discovered by WILLIAM GREGOR in 1791
 It can be alloyed with other elements to produce strong but light weighed alloys
 Although it is strong as steel ,it is 45% lighter

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 Various alloys of titanium used in orthodontics are

1.Nickel –titanium
2.Alpha titanium
3.Beta titanium
4.Titanium –niobium
5.Titanium -vanadium

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NICKEL TITANIUM ALLOYS
The term nitinol is derived from its composition and its place of discovery
(Nickel Titanium-Naval Ordnance Laboratory).

William J. Buehler along with Frederick Wang, discovered its properties during
research at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory in 1959.

This alloy was introduced in dentistry by ANDERSON in 1972

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 Composition:

 Nickel – 54%
 Titanium – 44%
 Cobalt- 2% or less

Types
Nitinol (Conventional)
Chinese NiTi
Japanese NiTi(Pseudo
elastic)
Copper NiTi (Thermo elastic)

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Nitinol alloy can exist in various crystallographic forms:
•Austenitic phase – BCC lattice, exists at high

 temperatures & stable form

•Martensitic phase – Close packed Hexagonal lattice,

 exists at room temperature

Transformation between austenitic and martensitic forms of NiTi

can be induced by both temperature and stress

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 TRANSITION TEMPERATURE RANGE (TTR)
  TTR is certain temperature where the alloy changes from one form to another.
For pure substances the melting point can be defined as a precise value.
Considering the body temperature as a reference,
a TTR above the body temperature renders the alloy austenitic ( i.e. more rigid ),
and
a TTR below the body temperature renders it martensitic (i.e.superelastic ).
 
The transformation from austenite to martensite and the reverse
do not take place at same temperature but within a range of temperature. This
difference is known as ‘HYSTERESIS’. The range for most binary alloys (NiTi)
is 400 – 600.

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 If the TTR is below the body temperature, the wire remains set in
some intermediate shape and regains its original shape if heated.
This process is accompanied by the release of energy
 For thermally activated purposes the most commonly used third
metals are copper and cobalt because they reduce hysteresis and
bring the TTR close to the oral temperature.
 In addition to Cu small amounts of Al, Zr, Cr or Fe are beneficial
for improving the strength of the martensitic form. It has been
claimed that the addition of Cu allows an easier engagement of the
arch wire and delivers higher forces.

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SHAPE MEMORY
 SHAPE MEMORY can be defined as the ability of material to
remember its original shape after being plastically deformed.
 In a typical application, a certain shape is set while the alloy is
maintained at an elevated temp. (Above the transition temperature).
When the alloy is cooled below the TTR it can be plastically
deformed, but when it is heated again the original shape is restored.
This property is called “THEMO ELASTICITY”.

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SUPERELASTICITY
 Ability of wire to sustain or deliver near constant force over a wide range of activation.

 Instead of temperature, stress is used to bring about change in crystalline structure.

 Martensitic transformation begins when external force is applied .when force is

relieved ,it transforms into austenitic form.

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CLASSIFICATIONS
 
NiTi orthodontic wires are generally classified as

 Non-Super elastic
 Super elastic
 
NON-SUPER ELASTIC
– The original Nitinol developed in the early 1960s is a stabilised form of the alloy
in which work hardening has abolished the phase transformation. The alloy does not exhibit a
shape memory effect, but the low modulus of elasticity and the high working range make Nitinol
useful when considerable deflections are necessary.
 
SUPER ELASTIC
- The more advanced alloys Chinese NiTi and Japanese NiTi have different transition
temperatures than Nitinol and present a phase transformation.
 

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USES

DENTISTRY
 Orthodontic wires
 Endodontic files

MEDICAL USES
 Anchors for tendon fixation
 Stents for cardiovascular application

AEROSPACE AND NAVAL APPLICATION

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COPPER NiTi
Introduced in 1994 by Dr. Rohit Sachdeva.
Quartenary alloy
1. Nickel
2. Titanium
3. Copper
4. Chromium

 Copper
 Increases strength
 Reduces hysteresis
 These benefits occur at expense of increasing TTR above that of the oral cavity

 Chromium:
- To compensate for the above mentioned unwanted effect 0.5% chromium is added to return TTR close to
the oral temperature.

Has both superelastic and shape memory properties.

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 ADVANTAGES OF Cu-NiTi OVER TRADITIONAL NiTi ALLOYS

More resistant to permanent deformation

Exhibit better springback properties

Smaller loading force for same degree of deformation

Generates more constant force over long activation spans

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 CHINESE NiTi
C. J. BURSTONE ( AJO JUNE 1985 )
Chinese NiTi wire has much lower transitional temperature than NiTi wire.

It has
1.4 times the spring back of nitinol wires
4.6 times the spring back of SS wires

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
1. Applicable in situations where large deflections are required.
2. When tooth are badly malpositoned.
3. Niti wire deformation is not time dependent

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 Japanese NiTi
 Fujio Miura et al ( AJODO July 1986 )
Superelasticity is produced by stress ,not by temperature change and hence is called
stress induced martensitic transformation (SIM)(pseudoelastic)

Properties
1. High spring back.
2. Shape memory.
3. Super elasticity.

USES
• Alignment of badly malposed teeth
• Distalize the molar
• Expansion of arch
• Gain/Close the space
• Periodontally compromised patients 82
 β-TITANIUM
 Termed as Titanium-Molybdenum Alloys (TMA)

 Dr. Charles burstone and Jon Goldberg

Composition:
Titanium – 77.8%
Molybdenum – 11.3%
Zirconium – 6.6%
Tin – 4.3%

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF β-TITANIUM ALLOYS

Only Orthodontic wire possessing true weldability

 High elasticity
 Low stiffness
 Excellent Formability
 Ease of joining
 Highly ductile
 Excellent tarnish and corrosion resistance
 Biocompatible and stable in oral environment

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Clinical uses
 Retraction mechanics –
low stiffness allows larger wires to be used earlier in treatment with less patient
pain and discomfort

Space closure -
high formability allows fabrication of loops ,helices and complicated bends

 Correction of rotations and root movements –

specialized springs or auxiliaries for rotations,space closure and root movements
can easily be welded directly to the wires

 Torque
because of their ductility ,these wires can easily be twisted

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TITANIUM-NIOBIUM
Advantages
 Composition
No leaching of Nickel.
• Titanium- 82%
Biocompatible.
• Molybdenum-15%
• Niobium- 3%
Clinical implications
 Properties
Finishing wire with multiple bends
 Easy to bend.
Fixed retainers
 Formability
 Yield strength--- < SS.
 Stiffness ---¼ of SS.

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ΑLPHA- TITANIUM
Composition

88.9% titanium
7.86% Aluminum
4.05% Vanadium

Stable form of pure titanium at temperatures below 885 C

Aluminum, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen stabilize the a-titanium structure.

Poor springback characteristics

Mainly used for dental implants and cast restorations

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COBALT-CHROMIUM NICKEL
ALLOY
 COMPOSITION
 Cobalt 40%
 Chromium 20%
 Nickel 15%
 Molybdenum 07%
 Manganese 02%
 Carbon 0.016%
 Beryllium 0.04%
 Iron 15.8%
Also known as ELGILOY.
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PROPERTIES
 Excellent formability in its non-heat treated form
 Greater resistance to fatigue and distortion than stainless steel because of its
resiliency
 Can be soldered and welded easily
 Excellent resistance to tarnish and corrosion
 Biocompatible

USES
1. Orthodontic wires
2. Orthodontic brackets

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 In order of their levels of hardness,they are available in
four tempers in color coded packs:
1. Blue elgiloy(soft)
2. Yellow eligiloy(ductile)
3. Green eligiloy(semi-resilient)
4. Red eligiloy(resilient)

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CONCLUSION
In the last few decades, a variety of new alloys has been introduced into
orthodontics.
Appropriate use of all the available wire types may enhance patient comfort
and reduce chairside time and the duration of treatment.
The restricted use of only stainless steel wires to treat an entire case from start
to finish therefore may be indicated only in a few patients.

It may be beneficial instead to exploit the desirable qualities of a particular

wire type that is specifically selected to satisfy the demands of the presenting
clinical situation.

This, in turn, would provide the most optimal and efficient treatment results.

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REFERENCES
 Phillips' Science of Dental Materials By Kenneth J. Anusavice
 Materials used in dentistry by S Mahalaxmi
 Orthodontic Material Scientific and clinical aspect, William A Branley,Theodor Eliades

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THANK YOU
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