1

CHAPTER
Thermodynamics

3
First Law of
Thermodynamics
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

ENERGY ANALYSIS
OF CLOSED SYSTEM

2
 First Law of Thermodynamics

 The First Law is usually referred to as the Law of Conservation

of Energy, i.e. energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but
rather transformed from one state to another.

 The energy balance is maintained within the system being

studied/defined boundary.
 The various energies associated are then being observed as
they cross the boundaries of the system.

3
 Energy Balance for Closed System

Closed 
Heat
System V
Work
z

Reference Plane, z = 0

or
Ein  Eout  E system
4
 According to classical thermodynamics

Qnet  Wnet  E system

 The total energy of the system, Esystem, is given as

E = Internal energy + Kinetic energy + Potential energy

E = U + KE + PE
 The change in stored energy for the system is
E  U  KE  PE
 The first law of thermodynamics for closed systems then can be
written as

Qnet  Wnet  U  KE  PE

5
 If the system does not move with a velocity and has no change in
elevation, the conservation of energy equation is reduced to
Qnet  Wnet  U
 The first law of thermodynamics can be in the form of
 2
V2  V1
2
g ( z 2  z1 ) 
qnet  wnet   u 2  u1   
 (kJ / kg )
 2000 1000 
 2
V2  V1
2
g ( z 2  z1 ) 
Q net  W net  m  u2  u1   
 (kJ )
 2000 1000 
 For a constant volume process,
 2
V2  V1
2
g ( z 2  z1 ) 

Q net  W net  m  u2  u1   
2000 1000 
 
 2
V2  V1
2
g ( z 2  z1 ) 

Q net  m  u2  u1   
2000 1000 
  6
 For a constant pressure process,

 2
V2  V1
2
g ( z 2  z1 ) 
Q net  W net  m  u2  u1   

 2000 1000 

 2
V2  V1
2
g ( z 2  z1 ) 
Q net  P (V2  V1 )  m  u 2  u1   

 2000 1000 

 2
V2  V1
2
g ( z 2  z1 ) 
Q net  m  u2  u1  P(V2  V1 )   

 2000 1000 

 2
V2  V1
2
g ( z 2  z1 ) 
Q net  m  h2  h1   

 2000 1000 
7
 Example of Closed Systems

Rigid tank Piston cylinder

8
 Example 3.1
A closed system of mass 2 kg  Rearrange the equation
undergoes an adiabatic process.  V2 2  V12 g ( z2  z1 ) 
Qnet  W net  m  u2  u1   
The work done on the system is  2000 1000 
30 kJ. The velocity of the system  V2 2  V12 g ( z2  z1 ) 
Wnet  m  u2  u1   
changes from 3 m/s to 15 m/s.  2000 1000 
During the process, the elevation  152  32   9.81 45  
of the system increases 45 meters.   30   2u  2    2  
 2000   1000 
Determine the change in internal u  14.451 kJ Ans..
energy of the system.
Solution:

 Energy balance,
 2
V2  V1
2
g ( z 2  z1 ) 
Q net  W net  m  u2  u1   
 2000 1000 
9
Example 3.2 Solution:

Steam at 1100 kPa and 92 percent State1

quality is heated in a rigid container at P1  1100 kPa, x1  0.92
until the pressure is 2000 kPa. For a v1  v f 1  x1v fg1
mass of 0.05 kg, calculate the amount  0.00113  0.92  0.17753  0.001133
of heat supply (in kJ) and the total 3
 0.1634 mkg
entropy change (in kJ/kg.K).
u1  u f 1  x1u fg1
 780.09  0.92 1806.3
 2441.9 kL
kg

s1  s f 1  x1 s fg1
 2.1792  0.92  4.3744 
 6.204 kgkJ.K

10
 For a rigid container,
v2=v1=0.1634 m3/kg
State2 superheated
3
at P2  2000 kPa, v2  0.1634 mkg
v u s
0.15122 2945.9 7.1292
0.1634 u2 s2
0.17568 3116.9 7.4337

 0.1634  0.15122 
u2  2945.9    3116.9  2945.9 
 0.17568  0.15122 
 3030.42 kJ
kg

 0.1634  0.15122 
s2  7.1292     7.4337  7.1292 
 0.17568  0.15122 
 7.2790 kgkJ. K
11
 Amount of heat supplied, Q
Q  m u2  u1 
 0.05 3030.42  2441.9 
 29.43 kJ

 The change in entropy, Δs

s  s2  s1
 7.2790  6.204
 1.075 kgkJ.K

12
Example 3.3 Solution:
A rigid tank is divided into two equal
State1
parts by a partition. Initially one side Comp. liquid 3
P1  200 kPa, 
 v1  v f @ 25 C  0.001003 kg
m
of the tank contains 5 kg water at 200 o
T1  25 C 
kPa and 25°C, and the other side is
initial volume of half resevoir
evacuated. The partition is then V1  mv
removed, and the water expands into
 5  0.001003
the entire tank. The water is allowed to
0.005 m3
exchange heat with its surroundings
until the temperature in the tank  The initial volume for entire tank
returns to the initial value of 25°C.
Vresevoir  2  0.005 
Determine (a) the volume of the tank
 0.01 m3
(b) the final pressure (c) the heat
transfer for this process.

13
 The final pressure

u1  u f @ 25 C  104.88 kJ
kg
State 2
u2  u f  x2 u fg

T2  25 C  v  0.001003 m 3

 f kg v2  v f
0.01 3  3 x2 
v2   0.002 mkg  vg  43.34 mkg v fg
5 
check region !  2.3  105
104.83  2.3  10 (2304.3)
2304.9 
5
v f  v  vg  saturated mixture  u2  104.88
then : P2  Psat  3.169 kPa  104.93
104.88 kJ
kg

Then :
 The heat transfer for this process
Qnet  5 104.93  104.88 
(104.88-104.83)
Qnet  Wnet  m  u  ke  Pe   0.25 kJ

Qnet  Wnet  m u  ke  Pe 
 +ve sign indicates heat transfer
Qnet  mu  m u2  u1 
into the system.

14
 Closed System First Law of a Cycle

 Some thermodynamic cycle composes of processes in which

the working fluid undergoes a series of state changes such
that the final and initial states are identical.

 For such system the change in internal energy of the

working fluid is zero.

 The first law for a closed system operating in a

thermodynamic cycle becomes

Qnet  Wnet  U cycle

Qnet  Wnet
15
According to a law of P V n  constant

No Value of n Process Description Result of IGL

1 ∞ isochoric constant volume (V1 = V2) P1 P2

T1 T2
2 0 isobaric constant pressure (P1 = P2) V1 V2

T1 T2
3 1 isothermal constant temperature
(T1 = T2) P1V1  P2V2

4 1<n< γ polytropic -none- n

n
P1  V2   T1  n 1
     
5 γ isentropic constant entropy (S1 = S2) P2  V1   T2 

16
 Various forms of work are expressed as follows

Process Boundary Work

isochoric
W12  P(V2  V1 )  0

isobaric W12  P(V2  V1 )

V2
isothermal W12  P1V1 ln
V1

polytropic P2V2  P1V1

W12 
1 n
isentropic

17
Example 3.4

Sketch a P-V diagram showing the following processes in a cycle

Process 1-2: isobaric work output of 10.5 kJ from an initial volume of 0.028
m3 and pressure 1.4 bar,
Process 2-3: isothermal compression, and
Process 3-1: isochoric heat transfer to its original volume of 0.028 m 3 and
pressure 1.4 bar.

Calculate (a) the maximum volume in the cycle, in m3, (b) the isothermal work,
in kJ, (c) the net work, in kJ, and (d) the heat transfer during isobaric expansion,
in kJ.

18
Solution:

 Process by process analysis,  The isothermal work

Section 1  2 isobaric  Section 2  3 isothermal 
W12  P V2  V1   10.5 PV
2 2  PV
3 3
140 V2  0.028   10.5  0.103 
P3    140   515 kPa
V2  0.103 m3  0.028 
V3
 W23  PV 2 2 ln
V2
 0.028 
 140  0.103 ln  
 0.103 
 18.78 kJ

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 The net work

Section 3  1isochoric 
W31  0
Wnet  W12  W23  W31
 10.5  18.78
 8.28 kJ

20
Example 3.5

A fluid at 4.15 bar is expanded reversibly according to a law PV = constant to

a pressure of 1.15 bar until it has a specific volume of 0.12 m 3/kg. It is then
cooled reversibly at a constant pressure, then is cooled at constant volume
until the pressure is 0.62 bar; and is then allowed to compress reversibly
according to a law PVn = constant back to the initial conditions. The work
done in the constant pressure is 0.525 kJ, and the mass of fluid present is 0.22
kg. Calculate the value of n in the fourth process, the net work of the cycle and
sketch the cycle on a P-V diagram.

21
Solution:

 Process by process analysis,

Section 1  2 isothermal 
PV
1 1  PV
2 2

 115 
V1    0.22  0.12 
 415 
 0.00732 m3
V2
W12  PV
1 1 ln
V1
0.0264
 415  0.00732  ln
0.00732
 3.895 kJ

22
Section 2  3 isobaric  Section 4  1 PolytroPic 

W23  P V3  V2   0.525 kJ P4  V1 

n

 
0.525 P1  V4 
V3   0.0264
115 n
62  0.00732 
 0.03097 m3  
415  0.03097 
ln 0.1494  n ln 0.2364
n  1.3182
Section 3  4 isochoric  PV
1 1  PV
W41  4 4

W34  0 1 n
415  0.0072   62  0.03097 

1  1.3182
 3.5124 kJ

 The net work of the cycle

Wnet  W12  W23  W34  W41
 0.9076 kJ
23
3. Two kg of air experiences the three-
process cycle shown in Fig. 3-14.
Calculate the net work.

4. A system contains 0.15 m3 of air pressure of 3.8 bars and 150⁰ C. It is

expanded adiabatically till the pressure falls to 1.0 bar. The air is then
heated at a constant pressure till its enthalpy increases by 70 kJ.
Sketch the process on a P-V diagram and determine the total work
done.

Use cp=1.005 kJ/kg.K and cv=0.714 kJ/kg.K

24
 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

MASS & ENERGY ANALYSIS

OF CONTROL VOLUME
Applications that show the use of the principles of
conservation of mass and energy, together with
relationships among properties for the analysis of
control volumes at steady state.

25
26
 Conservation of Mass
 Conservation of mass is one of the most fundamental
principles in nature. We are all familiar with this
principle, and it is not difficult to understand it!

 For closed system, the conservation of mass principle is

implicitly used since the mass of the system remain
constant during a process.

 However, for control volume, mass can cross the

boundaries. So the amount of mass entering and leaving
the control volume must be considered.

27
 Mass and Volume Flow Rates

 Mass flow through a cross-sectional area per unit time is called the
mass flow rate. Note the dot over the mass symbol indicates a time
rate of change. It is expressed as

m   V .dA
 If the fluid density and velocity are constant over the flow cross-
sectional area, the mass flow rate is
AV
m  AV 

1
where  

 is called specific voulme
28
 Principal of Conservation of Mass

 The conservation of mass principle for a control volume can be

expressed as

m in  m out  m CV

 For a steady state, steady flow process the conservation of mass

principle becomes

m in  m out (kg/s)

29
 Flow Work & The Energy of a Flowing Fluid

 As the fluid upstream pushes mass across the control volume, work
done on that unit of mass is
A
 W flow  F dL  F dL  PdV  Pv m
A
 W flow
 w flow   Pv
m
30
 Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid

 The total energy carried by a unit of mass as it crosses the control

surface is the sum of the internal energy + flow work + potential
energy + kinetic energy

V2 V2
 energy  u  P  2  gz  h  2  gz
 The first law for a control volume can be written as

. . .  Vout
2
 .  Vin
2

Q net  W net   mout  hout   gzout    min  hin   gzin 
out  2  in  2 

31
 Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid
 The steady state, steady flow conservation of mass and first law of
thermodynamics can be expressed in the following forms

2 2
 V2  V1 g ( z 2  z1 ) 
qnet  wnet   h2  h1   
 (kJ / kg )
 2000 1000 

 2
V2  V1
2
g ( z 2  z1 ) 
Q net  W net 
 m  h2  h1    ( kJ )
 2000 1000 

. . .  2
V2  V1
2
g ( z 2  z1 ) 
Q net  W net  m  h2  h1   
 (kW )
 2000 1000 
32
Steady-flow Engineering Devices

33
 Nozzle & Diffuser

 Nozzle - device that increases

the velocity fluid at the expense
of pressure.
 Diffuser - device that increases
pressure of a fluid by slowing it
down.
 Commonly utilized in jet
engines, rockets, space-craft
and even garden hoses.
 Q = 0 (heat transfer from the
fluid to surroundings very
small
 W = 0 and ΔPE = 0

34
 Energy balance (nozzle & diffuser):

. . . Vin
2
 . . .  Vout
2

Q in  W in   min  hin 
  gzin   Q out  W out   mout  hout 
   gzout 
in  2  out  2 


. Vin 
2 .  Vout 
2
min  hin    mout  hout 
 


 2   2 

 V1
2
  V2
2

 h1     h2  
 2   2 
   

36
Example 3.6  Simplified energy balance:
Steam at 0.4 MPa, 300ºC,  V12   V2 2 
enters an adiabatic nozzle with  h1     h2  
 2   2 
a low velocity and leaves at 0.2  
MPa with a quality of 90%. State1
Find the exit velocity. P1  0.4 MPa  h1  3067.1 kJ
kg

T1  300o C  sup erheated 
Solution:
State 2
State 1 State 2 P2  0.2 MPa  h2  h f  x2 h fg
P1  0.4 MPa P2  0.2 MPa 
x2  0.9  h2  2486.1 kJ kg

T1  300o C x2  0.9  Exit velocity:

V1 0
V2  2000 3067.1  2486.1
 1078 m / s
38
Example 3.7 State1 State 2
Air at 10°C and 80 kPa enters the P1  80 kPa V2 0
diffuser of a jet engine steadily T1  10o C
with a velocity of 200 m/s. The
V1  200m / s
inlet area of the diffuser is 0.4
A1  0.4 m 2
m2. The air leaves the diffuser
Solution:
with a velocity that is very small
compared with the inlet velocity.  Simplified energy balance:
Determine (a) the mass flow rate 
 V2 
2
0
2
V1  
of the air and (b) the temperature  h1     h2 
 2  2 
of the air leaving the diffuser.  
 From Ideal Gas Law:
RT1 3
v1   1.015 mkg
P1

39
 Mass flow rate  From energy balance:
1 V12
m  V1 A1 h2  h1 
v1 2000
 1  2002
 284.42 
   200  0.4  2000
 1.015 
 304.42 kJ
 78.8 kgs kg

h2
T2 
Cp
 Enthalpy at state 1
304.42
h1  C pT1  1.005  283 
1.005
 284.42 kJ
kg
 302.9 K

40
 Turbine & Compressor

 Turbine – a work producing device through the expansion of a

fluid.
 Compressor (as well as pump and fan) - device used to increase
pressure of a fluid and involves work input.
 Q = 0 (well insulated), ΔPE = 0, ΔKE = 0 (very small compare
to Δenthalpy).

41
 Energy balance: for turbine

. . . Vin
2
 . . .  Vout
2

Q in  W in   min  hin   gzin   Q out  W out   mout  hout   gzout 
in  2  out  2 
. . .
min hin   W out  mout hout 
. .
W out  m h1  h2 

42
 Energy balance: for compressor, pump and fan

. . . Vin
2
 . . .  Vout
2

Q in  W in   min  hin   gzin   Q out  W out   mout  hout   gzout 
in  2  out  2 
. . .
W in  min hin   mout hout 

. .
W in  m h2  h1 

43
Example 3.8

The power output of an adiabatic steam turbine is 5 MW. Compare

the magnitudes of Δh, Δke, and Δpe. Then determine the work done
per unit mass of the steam flowing through the turbine and calculate
the mass flow rate of the steam.

Data : Inlet (P = 2 MPa, T = 400ºC,v = 50 m/s, z = 10 m)

Exit (P = 15 kPa, x = 90%, v = 180 m/s, z = 6m)

44
Solution:
 From energy balance:
State1 . . . Vin 2 
Qin  W in   min  hin   gzin  
p1  2 MPa  sup erheated 2

in  
T1  400o C  h1  3247.6
3248.4 kJ
. 
kg . . Vout 2 
State 2 Q out  W out   mout  hout   gzout 
out  2 
P2  15 kPa 
 sat. mixture  Solve the equation:
x2  0.9 
h2  h f 2  x2 h fg 2
h  h2  h1  -887.39
885.87 kJ
 225.94  0.9 (2372.3)
2373.1
kg

V2 2  V12
 2361.73
2361.01 kJ
kg
KE   14.95 kJ
kg
2000
g  z2  z1 
PE   0.04 kJ
kg
1000

45
 the work done per unit mass

  V12  V2 2   g  z1  z2   
Wout   h1  h2     
  2000   1000  
 885.87
887.39  14.95  0.04
 870.96 kJ
872.48 kg

 The mass flow rate

W out 5000
m   5.73 kgs
 5.74
Wout 870.96
872.48

46
 Solution:
Example 3.9
 simplified energy balance:
Air at 100 kPa and 280 K is
compressed steadily to 600 W in  m  h2  h1   Q out
kPa and 400 K. The mass  m  h2  h1   mq
 out
flow rate of the air is 0.02
kg/s, and a heat loss of 16 State1
kJ/kg occurs during the air
P1  100 kPa 
process. Assuming the 
T1  280 K  h1  280.13 kJkg
changes in kinetic and
potential energies are State 2
negligible, determine the P2  600 kPa  air
necessary power input to the 
T2  400 K  h2  400.98 kJkg
compressor.

47
 Thus

W in  0.02  400.98  280.13  16 

 2.74 kW

48
Hydraulic turbine
Compressor
Throttling Valve
Flow-restricting devices that cause
a significant pressure drop in the
fluid.
Some familiar examples are
ordinary adjustable valves and
capillary tubes.
Assumptions
Adiabatic,no work done, (∆PE &
∆KE ) both zero. Therefore
Conservation of energy reduces to

51
Example 3.10
State 1 Steam enters a throttling valve at
8000 kPa and 300°C and leaves
P1  8000 kPa  sup erheated at a pressure of 1600 kPa.
 Determine the final temperature
T1  300 C  h1  2786.5 kJkg
o
and specific volume of the
State 2 steam.

P2  1600 kPa 
 make int erpolation
h2  h1 
P  kPa  T  C
o vf vg hf hg
1500 198.29 0.001154 0.131710 844.55 2791
1600 T2 vf 2 vg 2 hf 2 hg 2
1750 205.72 0.001166 0.113440 878.16 2795.2
52
 At state 2, the region is sat.  Specific volume at state 2
mixture
v2  v f 2  x2v fg 2
T2  Tsat  201.3o C  0.0011588 

 Getting the quality at state 2 0.997  0.124402  0.0011588 

m3
 0.1240
h2  h f 2 kg
x2 
hg 2  h f 2
2786.5  857.994

2792.68  857.994
 0.997

53
Mixing Chamber

The section where the mixing process

takes place.
An ordinary T-elbow or a Y-elbow in
a shower, for example, serves as the
mixing chamber for the cold- and
hot-water streams.
Assumptions
Adiabatic,no work done, (∆PE & ∆KE )
both zero
54
 Mixing Chamber

 Energy Balance:

 1h1  m
m  2 h2  m
 3 h3
 1h1   m
m  1  h2  m
3 m  3 h3
 1  h1  h2   m
m  3  h3  h2 
 h3  h2 
1  m
m 3 
 h1  h2 

55
Heat Exchanger

Devices where two moving fluid

streams exchange heat without
mixing.
Heat exchangers typically involve
no work interactions (w = 0) and
negligible kinetic and potential
energy changes for each fluid
stream.

56
The conservation of mass principle for a heat
exchanger in steady operation can be expressed as
: –Under steady operation, the mass flow rate of
each fluid stream flowing through a heat exchanger
remains constant.
Heat exchangers have innumerable domestic and industrial
applications;
Home heating and cooling systems,
Automotive systems,
Electrical power generation,
Chemical processing.
In heat exchangers conservation of energy simplifies to
(W, KE, PE are assumed zero)
 Solution:
Example 3.11
 simplified energy balance:
Liquid sodium, flowing at 100
kg/s, enters a heat exchanger at m s h1s  m w h1w  m s h2 s  m wh2 w
450°C and exits at 350°C. The m s  h1s  h2 s   m w  h2 w  h1w 
specific heat of sodium is 1.25
kJ/kg.oC. Water enters at 5000 m s C p , s T1s  T2 s   m w  h2 w  h1w 
kPa and 20oC. Determine the
minimum mass flux of the water State 1: water
so that the water does not
P1  5000 kPa  comp. liquid
completely vaporize. Neglect the 
pressure drop through the T1  20o C  h1w  88.61 kJ
kg
exchanger. Also, calculate the
State 2 : water
rate of heat transfer.
Assume a sat. vapor
P2  5000 kPa state to obtain the
h2 w  2794.2 kJ
kg
max. allowable exiting
enthalpy.

58
 the minimum mass flux of the water  the rate of heat transfer
so that the water does not
completely vaporize
Q w  m w  h2 w  h1w 
ms C p , s T1s  T2 s   4.62  2794.2  88.61
m w 
 h2 w  h1w   12.5 MW
100 1.25  450  350 

2794.2  88.61
 4.62 kgs

59