Professional Documents
Culture Documents
TO THE COURSE
EVALUATION
REQUEST!!!!!
1
Summary of Papers
1. P. Sauer and M. Pai, “Power System Steady-State Stability and the Load Flow Jacobian,” IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 5, No. 4, Nov. 1990
2. V. Ajjarapu and C. Christy, “The Continuation Power Flow: A Tool for Steady-State Voltage
Stability Analysis,” IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 7, No. 1, Feb., 1992.
3. S. Greene, I. Dobson, and F. Alvarado, “Sensitivity of the Loading Margin to Voltage Collapse
with Respect to Arbitrary Parameters,” IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 12, No. 1,
Feb. 1997, pp. 232-240.
4. S. Greene, I. Dobson, and F. Alvarado, “Contingency Ranking for Voltage Collapse via
Sensitivities from a Single Nose Curve,” IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 14, No. 1,
Feb. 1999, pp. 262-272.
2
Voltage Security
Voltage security is the ability of the system to maintain adequate and
controllable voltage levels at all system load buses. The main concern is
that voltage levels outside of a specified range can affect the operation
of the customer’s loads.
4
Voltage Security – Low voltage, transient
WECC criterion TPL-001-WECC-CRT-3.1
WR1.3 Following fault clearing,
the voltage shall recover to 80%
of the pre-contingency voltage
within 20s of the initiating event
for all P1-P7 events, for each
applicable BES bus serving load.
WR1.4. Following fault There is flexibility in regard to
clearing/voltage recovery transient voltage recovery to 80%,
but once recovered, the criteria
above 80%, voltage at each becomes restrictive. Middle plot
applicable BES bus serving is the norm; top plot is for SoCal
FIDVR. Bottom plot is between
load shall neither dip below these two.
70% of pre-contingency
voltage for>30 cyc nor
remain < 80% of pre-
contingency voltage for more
than 2s, for all P1-P7 events. 5
www.wecc.org/Reliability/TPL-001-WECC-CRT-3.1.pdf
Voltage Security – Voltage instability, steady-state
Reference:
www.pterra.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/
CourseNotes-ApplicationsinVoltageStability-
chapter1only.pdf
7
Resources
There have been several individuals that have significantly progressed
the field of voltage security. These include:
•
Ajjarapu from ISU: See his book: Ajjarapu, V. Computational
Techniques for Voltage Stability Assessment and Control.
Springer, New York, 2006.
•
Van Cutsem/Vournas: See their book: Van Cutsem, T. and Vournas, C.
Voltage Stability of Electric Power Systems. Kluwer Academic Press,
Boston, 1998.
•
Alvarado, Dobson, Canizares, Greene
There are couple other texts providing good treatments of the subject:
•
Carson Taylor: “Power System Voltage Stability”
•
Prabha Kundur: “Power System Stability & Control”
Z=R+jX
Node 1 Node 2
I
+ +
V1 V2
_ _
S12 SD=-S21 10
Z R jX Y G jB Note B>0
Q12 | V1 |2 B | V1 || V2 | B cos(1 2 )
11
Now we can get SD=PD+jQD=-(P21+jQ21) by
•
- exchanging the 1 and 2 subscripts in the previous equations.
•
- negating
PD P21 | V1 || V2 | B sin( 2 1 )
| V1 || V2 | B sin(1 2 )
QD Q21 | V2 |2 B | V1 || V2 | B cos( 2 1 )
| V2 |2 B | V1 || V2 | B cos(1 2 )
| V2 || I | (cos j sin )
sin
| V2 || I | cos (1 j )
cos
PD (1 j tan )
Note that phi, and
therefore beta, is
positive for lagging,
Define β=tan. Then negative for leading.
S D PD jQD PD (1 j ) 13
So we have developed the following equations….
PD | V1 || V2 | B sin 12
QD | V2 |2 B | V1 || V2 | B cos12
S D PD jQD PD (1 j )
14
and add them to get…..
2
PD ( PD | V2 |2 B ) 2 | V1 |2 | V2 |2 B 2 (sin 2 12 cos 2 12 )
2
PD ( PD | V2 |2 B ) 2 | V1 |2 | V2 |2 B 2
| V |
2
2 2 2 PD 2 PD
2 | V1 | | V2 | 2 1 2 0
2
B B
| V2 |2
1 PD
1 PD ( PD 2 ) 1/ 2
2
% pf = 0.97 lagging
beta=0.25
pdn=[0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.78];
v2n=sqrt((1-beta.*pdn - sqrt(1-pdn.*(pdn+2*beta)))/2);
pdp=[0.78 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0];
v2p=sqrt((1-beta.*pdp + sqrt(1-pdp.*(pdp+2*beta)))/2);
pd1=[pdn pdp];
You can make v21=[v2n v2p];
% pf = 1.0
|V2|
pd1=0.1
v2=[1.1,1.05,1.0,.95,.90,.85,.80,.75,.70,.65,.60,.55,.50,.45,.40,.35,.30,.25,.20,.15];
sintheta=pd1./(b*v1.*v2);
theta=asin(sintheta);
qd1=-v2.^2*b+v1*b*v2.*cos(theta);
plot(qd1,v2);
19
The curve on the next page illustrates….
Q-V Curve
|V2|
QD 20
FINAL EXAM QUESTION #5, EE 554, Spring 2023.
NOTE: You will need to use Matlab, which is available to you in the same way that TSAT is.
1. Draw the PV-curve for the following cases, and for each, determine the loadability.
a. B=2, |V1|=1.0, pf=0.97 lagging
b. B=2, |V1|=1.0, pf=0.95 lagging
c. B=2, |V1|=1.06, pf=0.97 lagging
d. B=10, |V1|=1.0, pf=0.97 lagging
Identify the effect on loadability of power factor, sending-end voltage, and line reactance.
2. Draw the QV-curves for the following cases, and for each, determine the maximum Q D.
a. B=1, |V1|=1.0, PD=0.1
b. B=1, |V1|=1.0, PD=0.2
c. B=1, |V1|=1.06, PD=0.1
d. B=2, |V1|=1.0, PD=0.1
Identify the effect on maximum QD of real power demand, sending-end voltage, and line
21
reactance.
Some comments regarding the QV Curves
•
In practice, these curves may be drawn with a power flow program by
1. modeling at the target bus a synchronous condenser (a
generator with P=0) having very wide reactive limits
2. Setting |V| to a desired value
3. Solving the power flow.
4. Reading the Q of the generator.
5. Repeat 2-4 for a range of voltages.
•
QV curves have one advantage over PV curves:
They are easier to obtain if you only have a power flow (standard
power flows will not solve near or below the “nose” of PV curves
but they will solve completely around the “nose” of QV curves.)
22
Voltage instability in a large system:
Influential factors:
• Load modeling
• Reactive power limits on generators
• Loss of a circuit
• Availability of switchable shunt devices
Two important ideas on which understanding of the above
influences rest:
1. Voltage instability occurs when the reactive power supply
cannot meet the reactive power demand of the network.
• Transmission line loading is too high
• Reactive sources (generators) are too far from load centers
• Generator terminal voltages are too low.
• Insufficient load reactive compensation
2. Reactive power cannot be moved very far in a network
(“vars do not travel”), since I2X is large.
Implication: The SYSTEM can have a var surplus but experience
voltage instability if a local area has a var deficiency. 23
Load modeling
In analyzing voltage instability, it is necessary to consider the network
under various voltage profiles.
The level of current drawn by the loads can depend on the voltage seen
by the loads.
24
Exponential load model
A typical load model for a load at a bus is the exponential model:
V V
P P0 Q Q0
V0 V0
•
Thermostatic load recovery
•
Induction motor stalling/tripping
•
Load tap changers
28
Thermostatic load recovery (see Section 6.6 of VMLF for more on this)
Heating load is the most common type of thermostatic load, and it
is one for which we are all quite familiar. Although much heating is
done with natural gas as the primary fuel, some heating is done
electrically, and even gas heating systems always contain some
electric components as well, e.g., the fans.
V1 Zb= R’2+R’2(1-s)/s
Rc//jXm =R’2 / s
30
Induction motor stalling/tripping
Vth
The (referred to stator) I '2
rotor current is given by: Z th ( R '2 / s ) jX '2
Zb Z a Zb
Vth V1 Z th Z a // Z b
where Z a Zb and Z a Zb
Under normal conditions, the slip s is typically very small, less than 0.05
(5%). In this case, R’2/s >> R’2, and I’2 is small.
Large motors have undervoltage tripping to guard against this, but smaller31
Induction motor stalling/tripping
Percentages of motors A, B,
C, D, Electronic
ZIP data
Motor A data
Motor B data
Motor C data
Motor D data
D-PV data
34
W/O Motor D Stall (Tstall=9999( W Motor D Stall (Tstall=0.033 sec)
Reactive
consumption
of load.
Field current
of nearby
generators
35
Tap changers:
Load tap changers (LTC, OLTC, ULTC, TCUL) are transformers that
connect the transmission or subtransmission systems to the distribution
systems. They are typically equipped with regulation capability that
allow them to control the voltage on the low side so that voltage
deviation on the high side is not seen on the low side.
t:1 V2 1
V1 and t are
given in pu.
HV side
=
V1 V1/t LV side
V1 t
In per unit, we say that the tap is t:1, where
•
t may range from 0.85-1.15 pu
•
a single step may be about 0.005 pu (5/8%=0.00625 is very common)
•
a change of one step typically requires about 5 seconds.
•
there is a deadband of 2-3 times the tap step to prevent excessive tap change
Under low voltage conditions at the high side, the LTC will decrease t
in order to try and increase V1/t. 36
Tap changers:
Qmin
Limit due to steady-state instability (small
internal voltage E gives small |E||V|Bsin),
and due to stator end-region heating from
induced eddy currents, enforced by
38
underexcitation limiter (UEL).
Effect of generator reactive power limits:
Voltage instability is typically preceded by generators hitting their upper reactive
limit, so modeling Qmax is very important to analysis of voltage instability.
Most power flow programs represent generator Qmax as fixed. However, this
s an approximation, and one that should be recognized. In reality, Q max is not fixed.
The reactive capability diagram shows quite clearly that Qmax is a function of P and
becomes more restrictive as P increases. A first-order improvement to fixed Qmax
s to model Qmax as a function of P.
Qmax is set according to the Over-eXcitation Limiter (OXL). The field circuit has a
ated steady-state field currentIIf-max
2
f dt
, set by field circuit heating limitations. Since
heating is proportional to overload
time , we see that smaller overloads can be tolerated
or longer times.
Therefore, most modern OXLs are set with a time-inverse characteristic:
As soon as the OXL acts to limit If, then no 2.0
OXL characteristic
urther increase in reactive power is possible. If
When drawing PV or QV curves, the
Irated
action of a generator hitting Qmax, will 120
1.0
manifest itself as a sharp discontinuity 10 39
n the curve. Overload time (sec)
Cylindrical-rotor field short time capability and
typical limiter control and trip coordination
Working Group J-5 of the Rotating Machinery Subcommittee, Power System Relay Committee, C. Mozina
(chair), et al., “Coordination of generator protection with generator excitation control and generator
capability,” paper no., 1-4244-1298-6/07, IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 2007,
available on IEEE Xplore.
40
See section 9.7.2 of VMAF for more on excitation limiting & tripping.
Effect of OXL action on PV curve:
P
(demand)
41
Loss of a circuit
I/2 I
X
X
I/2 P P
43
Influence of switched shunt capacitors
I I
P P
|V|
Without With capacitor
capacitor
P
(demand) 44
But, shunt compensation has some drawbacks:
•
It produces reactive power in proportion to the square of the
the voltage, therefore when voltages drop, so does the reactive
power supplied by the capacitor.
•
It has a maximum compensation level beyond which stable
operation is not possible (See pg. 972 of Kundur, and next slide).
PL=1900 mw 0.8
QV-curves drawn PL=1700 mw
using synchronous
condensor approach. PL=1500 mw
0.6
Capacitive Mvars 46
Bifurcation analysis (ref: A. Gaponov-Grekhov, “Nonlinearities in action” and
also Van Cutsem & Vournas, “Voltage stability of electric power systems.”)
A bifurcation, for a dynamic system, is an acquisition of a new
quality by the motion of the dynamic system, caused by small changes
in its parameters. A power system that has experienced a bifurcation
will generally have corresponding motion that is undesirable.
Consider representing the dynamics of the power system as:
x F ( x, y, p )
Eqts. 1
0 G ( x, y , p )
A differential-algebraic system (DAS):
Here x represents state variables of the system (e.g., rotor angles, rotor
speed, etc), y represents the algebraic variables (bus voltage magnitudes
& voltage angles), and p represents the real and reactive power injections
at each bus. The function F represents the differential equations for the
generators, and the function G represents the power flow equations. 47
Types of bifurcations
There are at least two types of bifurcation:
•
Hopf: two eigenvalues become purely imaginary crossing into
the right-half-plane: a birth of oscillatory or periodic motion.
•
Saddle node: a disappearance of an equilibrium state by virtue
of the occurrence of a real eigenvalue at the origin, i.e., a
zero eigenvalue. A stable operating equilibrium coalesces with an
unstable equilibrium and disappears. The dynamic consequence
of a generic saddle node bifurcation is a monotonic decline in system
variables.
Im Im
Re Re
x x
0 J y
Eqt. 2
49
The reduced Jacobian:
Assuming GY is nonsingular, we may reduce eq. 2 by eliminating the
variable y x F X F x
Y
0 G y
GY
X
This means we need to force the top right hand submatrix to 0, which we can
do by multiplying the bottom row by -FYGY-1 and then adding to the top row.
x F X F Y G Y G X
1
0 x
0
G Y y
G X
x F X F Y G Y G X x
This results in: 1
52
Singularity of load flow Jacobian:
So voltage instability analysis using only a load flow Jacobian may
yield optimistic results when compared to results from analysis of A,
that is, stable points (based on Gy) may not be really stable.
=> However, there is consensus that points identified as unstable
using the load flow Jacobian will be really unstable (Schur’s
complement does not support that singularity of GY implies singularity
of J, however, because it is only valid if GY is nonsingular).
Singular Singular
Singular
(unstable) (unstable)
(unstable)
Nonsingular Nonsingular Nonsingular
(stable) (stable) (stable)
GY A J
Note: Sauer and Pai, 1990, provide an in-depth analysis of the relation
between singularity of GY and singularity of J, and show some special53
Singularity of load flow Jacobian:
From section 8 of Sauer and Pai’s 1990 paper:
If GY is singular,
then system is
unstable.
If GY is nonsingular,
then system may or
may not be stable.
Non-convergence
may not necessarily
indicate GY
singularity.
54
Singularity of load flow Jacobian:
So, we assume that load flow Jacobian analysis provides an upper
bound on stability.
Most applications focus on the last method (increase load at all buses).
Key questions here are:
•
“direction” of increase: are bus loads increased proportionally, or in some other way?
•
dispatch policy: how do the generators pick up the load increase ?
Predictor step
Corrector step
No. Select
Pass ?
*
continuation
parameter
Yes.
Stop
59
The predictor step:
The power flow equations are functions of the bus voltages and
bus angles and the bus injections:
0 G ( y, p)
Augment the power flow equations so that they are functions of
(dependence on p is carried through the dependence on ).
pp0 0 G ( y, )
Now recognize that y
so that 0 G ( , V , )
V
If we want to compute the change in the power flow equations dG
due to small changes in the variables , V, and ,
•
that move us closer to the loadability point
•
as we move from one solution i to another “close” solution i+1, then
dG= G((i),V(i),(i))- G((i+1),V(i+1),(i+1)) = 0 – 0 = 0 60
dG dG dG
dG d dV d
d dV d
Here, each set of partial derivatives are evaluated at the operating conditions
corresponding to the old solution. If the power flow equations are linear with the 3
sets of variables in the region between the old solution and the (close) new one,
then their partial derivatives do not change in this region, and so the following is
satisfied: dG dG dG
dG d dV d 0
d dV d d
Eq. 3 G GV
G d V 0
d
BUT, we have added one unknown, , to the power flow problem without adding a
corresponding equation, i.e., in G(,V,)=0, there are are N equations but N+1
variables, so that in eq. 3, the matrix [G GV, G], has N rows (the number of eqts
being differentiated) and N+1 columns (the number of variables for which each eqt
is differentiated). So we need another equation in order to solve this. What to do ?
61
The answer to this can be found by identifying how we will be using using the
solution to eqt. 3. Note the solution corresponding to the “new” point is:
63
Tangent vector
|V|
64
Note: In specifying a direction using an n-dimensional vector, only n-1 of the
elements are constrained - one element can be chosen to be any value we
like.
x2=x1tan(30) so:
x2
- the direction is specified by
selecting x1=1, x2=0.5774,
Direction
= 30o - the direction is specified by
x1
selecting x1=0.5, x2=0.2246.
So we can set one of the tangent vector elements to be
any value we like, then compute the other elements.
This provides us with our other equation…. 65
Suppose that we set the k-th parameter in the tangent vector to be 1.0.
Then our equation given as eq. 3 can be augmented to become:
d
G GV G 0
ek dV 1
d
where
ek = [ 0 0 ... 0 1 0 ... 0]
k
To select to be the specified element, we would have:
(i 1, p ) (i ) d
(i 1, p ) (i ) dV
V
V
(i 1, p ) (i ) d
( i 1, p ) (i )
y y t
The parameter is called the step size, and it can be selected using
various techniques. The simplest of these is to just set it to a constant.
You can do this on our simple problem formulated at the beginning of
these slides, as indicated in HW outlined in the next slide. 67
HOMEWORK #2, Due Wednesday, 1/24.
1. Use the equations at the bottom of slide 7. PD | V1 || V2 | B sin 12
2. Now, just bring the right hand side of these 2 equations over to the QD | V2 |2 B | V1 || V2 | B cos12
left-hand side, and you have the 2 equations that correspond to G(y,p)=0.
3. Solve these equations to get the corresponding power flow solution (but
you do not need Newton-Raphson to do this – you can just use the equation
at the bottom of slide 10). You will get two solutions; use the solution with the higher voltage.
4. Now you need to replace the value specified in the equations for PD
(assuming that the initial load is 0.4) with 0.4*lambda. This
gives you the equations in the form of slide 55: 0=G(theta,V,lambda).
69
Corrector step
Note, however, that the predicted point will satisfy the
power flow equations only if the power flow equations are
linear, which they are not. That is, the partial derivatives are
not constant in the region between old and new points.
Here, yk(i+1) is the continuation parameter; it is the variable y k(i+1) that corresponds to the k-th
element dyk(i+1) in the tangent vector and is usually λ at first but often becomes something else
as the nose point is neared. The parameter is the value to which yk is set, which would be the
value found in the predictor step. As in approach a, we can solve this using Newton-Raphson. 72
If no convergence, cut step size () by half and repeat.
Detection of critical point:
|V| increasing
x
decreasing
73
Selection of continuation parameter:
The continuation parameter is selected from among
The one changing and the variables in y according to the one that is
the most with λ is
most sensitive andchanging the most with . This will be the parameter that
represents a
variable that we has the largest element in the tangent vector.
want to be careful • relatively unstressed conditions (far from nose): generally
with as we look for
another solution, • relatively stressed conditions (close to nose): generally the
so it makes sense to
keep it constant. voltage magnitude of the weakest bus, as it changes a great
deal as is changed, when we are close to *.
(i 1, p ) (i ) d
(i 1, p ) (i )
Typically, yk
is going to be
V V dV
one of these. (i 1, p ) (i ) d
74
Selection of continuation parameter (unstressed condition):
The continuation parameter is selected from among
and the state variables in y according to the one that is
changing the most with . This will be the parameter that
has the largest element in the tangent vector.
•
relatively unstressed conditions (far from nose): generally .
=> This looks like below.
|V| y(i)
y(i+1,p)
y(i+1)
Here, is fixed.
75
Selection of continuation parameter (stressed condition):
•
relatively stressed conditions (close to nose): generally the
voltage magnitude of the weakest bus. Here, the voltage being
plotted is chosen as the continuation parameter.
|V| y(i)
y(i+1,p)
y(i+1) Here, |V| is fixed.
“Essentially, a variable is fixed as a parameter (the voltage), and
the parameter () is treated as a variable. This process of selecting
a variable to fix is sometimes called the parameterization step.”
-Scott Greene, Ph.D. dissertation, 1998. 76
A central question:
( i 1)
0 G( y , ( i 1) ) G ( y ( i 1) (i 1) )
0
y ( i 1)
y
( i 1, p )
t 0 yk ( i 1)
In both cases, we use Newton-Raphson to solve, so we need to obtain the
Jacobian. But the Jacobian is slightly different than in normal power flow.
77
The Jacobian of the power flow equations is just Gy, but the
Jacobian of the equations in the two corrector approaches
will have an extra row and column.
G y G xk
C y C xk
What is a sensitivity ?
80
G
Consider the system characterized by G(y). Then y
y *
G(y)
Slope is G/y
evaluated at y*.
y
y y*
y
It’s usefulness is that once it is calculated, it can be used to
QUICKLY evaluate f(y) from G(y)G(y*)+ (G/y|y*)y,
BUT ONLY AS LONG AS y IS CLOSE TO y*.
81
Consider parameter p: we desire to obtain the sensitivity of
G(y,p) to p. Typical parameters p would be a bus load, a bus
power factor, or a generation level.
82
Sensitivities for bus voltage
Current
operating point 84
Derivation of loading margin sensitivities at SNB point.
S S0 k
Also, define L as the loading margin (a scalar), so that
the load powers resulting in the SNB point are given by:
S S 0 Lk
We desire to find the sensitivity of the loading margin L to a
change in the parameter p. We denote this sensitivity by Lp.
85
Consider the system characterized by
We want the sensitivity of
the loading margin to p.
G(y,S, p) = 0
3. wT GS(y*,S*, p*) 0 86
The points (y,S, p) satisfying numbers 1 and 2 correspond to SNB
points,
G y y G S * S G p p 0
* *
where the notation |* indicates the derivatives are evaluated at the SNB point.
Pre-multiplication by the left eigenvector w results in:
T T T
w G y y w G S * S w G p p 0
* *
By #2 on the previous slide, the first term in the above is zero. So...
87
T T
w G S * S w G p p 0 Eqt. *
*
Now recall the relation of the load powers to the loading margin….
S S 0 Lk
S L k
Substituting this expression for the load powers into eqt. *,
T T T T
w G * L k w G p p 0 L w G * k w G p p
* *
• The matrix of derivatives with respect to the load powers, GS, using constant
power load models, is a diagonal matrix with ones in the rows corresponding
to load buses. This is because a particular load variable would ONLY occur
in the equation corresponding to the bus where it is located, and for these 89
equations, these variables appear linearly with 1 as coefficient.
Some comments about extensions
•
Multiple sensitivities may be computed using Gp (a matrix) instead of Gp (a vector).
In this case, the result is a vector. T
w Gp
Lp T
*
*
w GS k
*
•
Getting multiple sensitivities can be especially attractive when we want to find
the sensitivity to several simultaneous changes. One good example is to find the
sensitivity to changes in multiple loads.
•
A special case of this is to find the sensitivity to changes at ALL loads, which is
very typical, given a particular loading direction k . Then
Lall loads * ki L pi
i
•
A sensitivity to a line outage may be obtained by letting p contain elements
corresponding to the outaged line parameters.
90
Some comments about extensions
•
A sensitivity to a line outage may be obtained by letting p contain elements
corresponding to the outaged line parameters: R (series conductance), X (series
reactance), and B (line charging). Then use the multiple parameter approach.
w Gp
T Zpq=R + jX
3
3
Lp T
*
*
w GS k p q
*
jB
L L p * p jB
•
Here, p = [R X B]T.
•
Note that p is NOT SMALL ! Therefore L may have considerable error.
For that reason, this one needs to be careful about using this approach to
compute the actual loading margins following contingencies.
•
However, it certainly can be used for RANKING contingencies. One might
consider having a “quick approximation” and a “long exact” risk calculation. 91
Some comments about alternatives
•
Greene, et al., also propose a quadratic sensitivity which
requires calculation of a second order term Lpp . This is used
together with the linear sensitivity according to
1
L L p p L pp (p ) 2
* 2 *
It requires significantly more computation but can provide greater
accuracy over a larger range of p.
•
Invariant Subspace Parametic Sensitivity (ISPS) by Ajjarapu.
Advantages:
– based on differential-algebraic model
– provides sensitivities at ANY point on the P-V curve
92