CH02 - Conduction 1 November 2021

MEC551
THERMAL ENGINEERING
2.0 Conduction
Aman Mohd Ihsan Bin Mamat

T1-A16-4C
1
Conduction Analysis
• Main Objective of
Conduction
Analysis
– To determine the
temperature
distribution in a
medium
2
Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer
• Steady implies no change with time at any point

within the medium
• Transient implies variation with time or time

dependence
3
2.1 Fourier’s Law of Heat
Conduction
[Derivation of General Conduction Differential Equations]
4
multidimensional heat transfer,
• Three prime coordinate systems:

– rectangular (T(x, y, z, t)) ,
– cylindrical (T(r, f, z, t)),
– spherical (T(r, f, q, t)).
5
Heat Conduction Equation
(Rectangular Coordinates)
• Cartesian Coordinates:
dQ(z+dz)
Z dQx
dz
dQy dQ(y+dy)
Y
dx
X
dy 6
dQ(x+dx) dQz
• Differential volume:
dV  dx  dy  dz
• Heat conduction rate in x-direction (into element):
dT dT
dQx   k  A   k  dy  dz 
dx    dx
A
dz
dQx
dy
7
• Taylor Series Expansion:

small
f ( x  h)  f ( x)  h  f ( x)   HOT
• Substitute our equation:
0
 T
 f ( x)  d Q X   k  dy  dz 
x
h  dx
  
 d Q x 
   2
T
f ( x)    k  dy  dz  2 8
x x
 T  2T
d Q( x  dx)  k  dy  dz   k  dy  dz  dx  2
    x       x

  
d Qx   d Q x 
  dx
x
• Therefore the net rate of flow in the x-direction is:
  T  T  2T 
d Q x  d Q x  dx   k  dydz    k  dydz  k  dydzdx 2 
x  x x 
 2T
 k  dx  dy  dz  2
x
9
• Likewise:
   2T
d Q y  d Q y  dy  k  dx  dy  dz  2
y
  T
2
d Q z  d Q z  dz  k  dx  dy  dz  2
z
10
• In addition to the heat flow into and out of the

element, there is also the possibilities of:
- Heat being generated within the element
(e.g. due to the flow of electricity).
- Heat being stored within the element, as in the

case of an unsteady-state condition.
11
• The rate of heat generated is:
 
q dV  q   dx  dy  dz 
rate of heat
generated
per volume
• The rate of heat storage is:
T T
  C p  dV     C p  dx  dy  dz 
t density  t

specific
heat rate of
temperature 12
change
• Assuming the element may expand or contract freely

at constant pressure, the energy balance is given by:
Net rate of Rate of

Rate of +
= Heat into Heat
Heat Storage
Element Generation
13
• In equation form this is:
T   2T  2T  2T  
  CP   k   2  2  2   q 
     t   x
  
y
 
z  Rate of Heat
 
Rate of Heat Storage Generation
Net Rate of Heat int o element
• Set:
k
 ~ Thermal diffusivity (i.e. the ratio of
  CP heat conduction to heat storage)
14
• Substituting α in, this equation becomes the general

differential conduction equation for rectangular
coordinates:

1 T   2T  2T  2T  q
   2  2  2  

   t  x   y   z   k
Rate of Heat Storage Rate of Heat
Net Rate of Heat int o element Generation
15
• Special cases:
1) Fourier Equation (no heat generation, q′ =0):
1 T   2T  2T  2T 
   2  2  2 
 t  x y z 
2) Poisson Equation (steady state, T/t =0):
  2T  2T  2T  q
 2  2  2    0
 x y z  k
3) Laplace Equation (steady state with no heat generation):
  2T  2T  2T 
 2  2  2   0
 x y z 
16
(Spherical Coordinates)
• Now calculate the general conduction equation in

spherical coordinates
z z

T(r,Φ,)
r
x y x y
Φ
17
• Now calculate the general conduction equation in

spherical coordinates
r·sin
z · d Φ
q()
q(r+dr)
r·d
r·d 
d
dr
r q(Φ)

sin
r
x dΦ y q(r)
r·sin·dΦ
q(Φ+dΦ)
r· dr
 q(+d) 18
• Differential volume:
dV  dr  rd  r sin   d 

 r 2 d  d  dr  sin 
• Heat conduction rate in r-direction (in to element):
 T
d Q r  k r sin   d  rd 
r·sin
· dΦ
       r
A r·d
T q(r)
  kr d  d  sin  
2
r 19
• Heat conduction rate in r-direction (out of element):
r·sin
q(r+dr) · dΦ
  
 
 d Q r 
d Q ( r  dr )  Q r  dr    r·d
r
T
  kr d  d sin 
2

r
 T  2
T
 dr   2kr  d  d  sin   kr d  d sin  2 
2
 r r 
20
• Total heat conduction rate in r-direction:
  T T
d Q r  d Q ( r  dr )  kr d  d sin 
2
 kr d  d sin 
2

r r
 T  2
T
 dr   2kr  d  d  sin   kr d  d sin  2 
2
 r r 
   T  2
T
d Q r  d Q ( r  dr )  k  d  d  dr sin  2r r 2
2 
 r r 
21
• Heat conduction rate in -direction (in to element):
q()
dr
 T
d Q   k  dr  r sin   d 
       r  d r·sin·dΦ
A
T
  k  dr  sin   d

22
• Heat conduction rate in -direction (out of element):
q(+d)
dr
  
 
  d Q  r·sin·dΦ
d Q   d   d Q  d   

T  T  2T 
 k  dr  sin   d  k  dr  d  cos   sin  2 d
    
23
• Total heat conduction rate in -direction:
  T T
d Q  d Q   d    k  dr  sin   d  k  dr  sin   d 
 
 T  2T 
 k  dr  d  cos   sin   d
2 
   
   T  2T 
d Q  d Q   d   k  dr  d  d   cos   sin  
2 
   
24
• Heat conduction rate in Ф-direction (out of element):
r·d
q(Φ+dФ)
  
 
 d Q 
d Q   d   d Q  d    dr

k  d  dr T k  d  dr  d  2T
    2
sin   sin  
25
• Heat conduction rate in Ф-direction (in to element):
q(Φ)
r·d
 T
d Q  k r  d  dr 
r sin    dr
k  d  dr T

sin  
26
• Total heat conduction rate in Ф-direction:
  k  d  dr T k  d  dr T
d Q  dQ   d       
sin   sin  
k  d  dr  d  2T
  2
sin  
  k  d  dr  d  2T
d Q  d Q   d    2
sin  
27
• Rate of Heat Generation:

 
q dV  q r 2 dr  d  d  sin 
• Rate of Heat Storage:
T T
  C P  dV     C P r dr  d  d  sin  
2
t t
28
• The energy balance is given by:
Net rate of Rate of

Rate of +
= Heat into Heat
Heat Storage
Element Generation
29
T
  C P r dr  d  d  sin  
2

t
 T  2
T 
2r sin   r sin  2  
2
 r r 
 T T
2
  2
k  dr  d  d  cos   sin     q r dr  d  d  sin 
  2
 
 1 T
2

 sin   2 
 
30
• Now  by r2, sin(), and k:
  C P T

 k t
1


2 T  T cos  1 T 1  T
2
1  T q
2 2
 2   2  2 2 2 2 
r r r sin  r  r  r sin   2
k
k
• Recall:  ~ thermal diffusivity
  CP 31
• Now simplify:
1 T 2 T  2T cos  1 T 1  2T
  2   2  2  2 
 t r r r sin   r    r  
1   2 T  1   T 
r    sin 
r 2 r  r  r 2 sin    

1  T q
2

r sin  
2 2 2
k
32
• Therefore the conduction equation in spherical

coordinates is:
1 T

 t

1   2 T  1   T  1  T q
2
 r  2   sin   2 2  2 
r r  r  r sin   
2
  r sin   k
33
(Cylindrical Coordinates)
• Homework #2
– Derive the equations for cylindrical
coordinates
34
• Equations for cylindrical coordinates:
1 T  T 1 T 1  T  T q 
2 2 2
  2    2 2 2 
 t r  r r r  z k
1   T 
  r 
r r  r 
1 T 1   T  1  T  T q  2 2
   r  2  2  2 
 t r r  r  r  z k
35
Boundary and Initial Conditions
• Temperature distribution in a medium can be
determined from the solution of appropriate heat
conduction equation. But the solution depends on
the boundaries of the medium.
• For cases in which the medium is time dependent,
conditions at an initial time are also essential.
36
•
( )
2 2 2
1 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 𝑞′
⋅ = + + +
RECTANGULAR ⏟
𝛼 𝜕𝑡
⏟
𝜕𝑥
2
𝜕𝑦
2
𝜕𝑧
2
⏟
𝑘
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ¿ 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑒
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 ∫ 𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ¿ 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
( ) ( )
𝜕 𝑇 𝑞′ 2
SPHERICAL 1 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 2 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1
= 2⋅ 𝑟 + 2 ⋅ sin 𝜃 + 2 2 ⋅ 2+
𝛼 𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕 𝜃 𝜕 𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑 𝑘
( )
2 2 ′̇
1 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 𝑞
CYLINDRICAL ⋅ = ⋅ 𝑟 + 2⋅ 2+ 2 +
𝛼 𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕 𝑧 𝑘
37
• The 4 most common boundary conditions are:
1) Constant Surface Temperature:
T(0,t) = Ts
T
Ts
x
T(x,t)
38
2) Constant and finite heat flux (heat transfer rate per
unit area, W/m2):
T
T qs
k  qs
x x 0 T(0,t)
x
qs
39
3) Adiabatic or insulated surface:
T
T
0
x x 0 T(0,t)
x
T(x,t)
40
4) Convection surface condition:
T
T
k  hT  T 0, t 
x x 0
x
q
T(x,t)
T∞, h 41
1-D Steady State Conduction
(Example 2.1)
• Example 2.1 - One-dimensional steady-state heat

conduction (no heat generation):
T A slab (of thickness L)
T1
A, k with no energy
generation (q′=0) has the
following boundary
conditions:
X X= 0 ; T(0)= T1
X=0 X=L
• TDevelop
2 the expressions: X= L ; T(L)= T2
1) Temperature distribution T(x) within the slab.
2) Heat flow (Q), through the area (A) of the slab. 42
43
(Example 2.1)
(I): Integrate and apply b.c’s and solve constants C1 & C2

to find the temperature distribution T(x).
T
 T 
2
 2   0 ~ 1-D Laplace Equation A, k
 x 
T1
(rectangular coordinates
T ( x)  C1 x  C2 X
T2X=0 X=L
x  0  T1  C2
x  L  T2  C1 L  T1  T2  T1 
T ( x)    x  T1
T2  T1  L 
C1  44
L
(Example 2.1)
(II): Solve for Q
dT d  T2  T1 
T

  x  T1  T1
A, k
dx dx  L 

T2  T1 
L T2X=0 X=L
X
 dT  T2  T1  T2  T1
Q  kA   kA 
dx  L  R
L
where : R 
kA 45
(Analysis Procedure)
• Slab (Plane Wall)

– Consider a slab of isotropic (invariable) thermal
conductivity material (k) with an heat generation
rate of q′(x) [W/m3].
– Isotropic means: having properties that are
identical in all directions.
T
T1 1 k, A
dT
q(x) q(x)
2
T2
T2
X 46
dx
47
48
• The general equation for conduction with heat

generation is (assuming constant energy
generation):

1 T   2T  2T  2T  q
   2  2  2  
 t  x y z  k
Ø, steady state Ø, 1D Ø, 1D

  2T  q
0   2   For: 0  X  L
 x  k 49
• Solving differential equations:


T2
q

x 2
k

T q
  x  C1
x k

q 2
T x    x  C1 x  C2
2k
50
• Solve C1 and C2 by using the boundary conditions:


q 2
T x    x  C1 x  C2
2k
(i) x=0, T(x)= T1 T
(ii) x=L, T(x)= T2 T1 k, A
1
dT
i ) C2  T1
 2
q 2 T2
ii ) T2   L  C1 L  T1 T2
2k X
 dx
C1 
T2  T1 

q
L
L 2k 51
• Substituting in the constants gives:

 

q 2  T q
T x    x   L  x  T1
2k  L 2k 
 
• The temperature distribution T(x) in the slab can
now be found for a known heat generation rate q′(x),
thickness (L), and thermal conductivity coefficient
(k) of the material.
52
• Once the temperature distribution T(x) in the slab is

established from the solution to this equation, the
heat flux q(x) anywhere in the slab can be
determined from the Fourier’s equation.

 Q dT
q   k
A dx
53
2.4 One-dimensional,
steady state heat conduction
in cylinders and spheres
54
Radial Systems
• Cylindrical and spherical systems often

experience temperature gradients in the
radial direction only and in the case can be
treated as one-dimensional.
r
55
1 T 1   T  1  2T  2T q 
   r    
 t r r  r  r 2  2 z 2 k
56
57
1 T 1   T  1  T  T q 
2 2
   r  2  2  2 
 t r r  r  r  z k
58
59
1-D, SS Heat Conduction
• Steady State Condition:

T
0
• 1-D Conduction:
t
 2T  2T
 0, 2  0
• Therefore:  2
z
1 T 1   T  1  T  T q  2 2
   r  2  2  2 
 t r r  r  r  z k
60
Ø Ø Ø
• The equation for 1-D, steady state heat conduction

then becomes:
1   T  q 
 r   0
r r  r  k
d  dT  q 
r    r
dr  dr  k
61
• For constant heat generation:
q   g 0
• Solve for T(r), by integrating twice.
dT g0 C1
 r
dr 2k r
g0 2
T   r  C1  ln r   C2
4k
62
• Clearly, two boundary conditions are required to

determine C1 and C2. Typically one of these will be
the boundary condition at the outer surface.
T (r )  T2 at r  r2
• The other boundary condition will be at the center
(r=0) where the temperature is symmetric, such that:
dT (0)
0 at r  0
dr 63
• An alternative boundary condition at the center (r=0)

can be obtained if the temperature is finite.
T (0)  T0 at r  0
64
(Example 2.7)
• Boundary Conditions T2= 100 ºC
dT
at r  0; 0
dr r2
at r  r2 ; T  T2
• The general conduction equation for a cylinder is:
1 T 1   T  1  2T  2T q 
   r  2  2  2 
 t r r  r  r  z k
Ø, steady state Ø, 1-D Ø, 1-D 65
(Example 2.7)
1   T  q 
 r   0
r r  r  k
• Integrating twice:
T q 
r    r  dr
r k
T q   r C1
 
r 2k r
q   r 2
T (r )    C1 ln( r )  C2
4k 66
(Example 2.7)
• Applying boundary conditions at r= 0 gives:
dT
at r  0, 0
dr 0
dT q  C1
 r 0
dr 2k r
C1  0
• Applying boundary conditions at r= r2 gives:
0
q  2
at r  r2 ; T  T2    r2  C1 ln( r )  C2
4k
q  2
C2  T2   r2 67
4k
(Example 2.7)
• The temperature distribution in the solid cylinder is:
q  2
T   r  C1 ln r   C2
4k
q  2 q r22
  r  T2 
4k 4k
2 
r 
2
q r2
 1      T2
4k   r2  
 
68
(Example 2.7)
• The heat flux in the cylinder is thus:
dT  q r  q r
q   k  k   
dr  2k  2
• The temperature T(0) at r= 0 is:
q   r
2  r 
2
T 0   2
1      T2
4k   r2  
 

 8 W

2  10 m3  0.01 m 
 100 
C  350 
C
 
4  20 m C
W
69
(Example 2.7)
• The heat flux at the outer surface of the cylinder is:
q (r2 ) 
q r2

2 10  0.01 m 
8 W
m3
 10 6 W
m2
2 2
70
• Conduction in a spherical shell

– Consider heat conduction in a hollow sphere. In a steady
state, one dimensional system (without heat generation),
the energy entering the differential control volume is equal
to the energy leaving the differential control volume.
z
Q r  Q r  dr
 dT  2  dT
Qr   kA r 
  k  4
dr  A  dr
x y 71
•
( ) ( ) 𝜕 𝑇 𝑞′
2
1 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 2 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1
= 2⋅ 𝑟 + 2 ⋅ sin 𝜃 + 2 2 ⋅ 2+
x y 72
•
( ) ( ) 𝜕 𝑇 𝑞′
2
1 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 2 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1
= 2⋅ 𝑟 + 2 ⋅ sin 𝜃 + 2 2 ⋅ 2+
73
74
75
• Separating variables:
Q r
r2 T2
dr
4 r r 2  T k(T )  dT
1 1 functionof T
f (T )
• Assuming constant k and integrating
Qr  1  r2

 r 1   k T  T 
4
r 2 1
 
76
4 k T2  T1  r1  r2

Qr      

1
r1  1
r2  4 k
r2  r1
T1 T2
T2  T1 where: 1 1 1

Qr  R   
R 4 k  r1 r2 
77
• The equation for the rate of heat transfer can also be done by
simplifying the heat equation for spherical coordinates, which is
recalling:

1 T 1   2 T  1   T  1  T q 2
  2  r   2 2   sin   2 2  2 
 t r r  r  r sin      r sin   k
0, steady 0, 1D 0, 1D
state
0, no heat
generation
  2 T 
 r    0
r  r 
78
• Integrate twice:
  2 T 
  r  r   r   0
T
r 
2
  0  dr  C1
r
C1
 dT   r 2  dr
C1
T    C2 79
r
• Apply boundary conditions:

– At r = r1 T = T1
– At r = r2 T = T2
C1
at r  r1 : T1    C2
r1
C1  r1 C2  T1 
at r  r2 :
C1
T2    C2 
T1  C2 r1  C2 r2
r2 r2
r2T2  r1T1 r1  r2
C2  ; C1  T2  T1 
r2  r1 r2  r1 80
C1
 T    C2
r
r2 r1 r2T2  r1T1
 T1  T2  
r r2  r1  r2  r1
T1r2 r T2 r2 r r2T2  r1T1
  
r r2  r1  r r2  r1  r2  r1
T1 r1 r2  r r1  T2 r r2  r1 r2 
 
r r2  r1  r r2  r1 
r1 r2  r  r2 r  r1 
  T1   T2
r r2  r1  r r2  r1  81
 2 dT 
Qr  Aq r  4 r  k 
 dr 
2 C1 
 4 r  k 2 
 r 
 k  r2 r1  
 4 r  2  
2
T2  T1 
 r  r2  r1  
 r2 r1 
 4 k  T2  T1 
 r2  r1  82
• Spherical composites may be treated in much the

same way as composite walls and cylinders, where
appropriate forms of the total resistance (R) and
overall heat transfer coefficient (U) may be
determined.
z
x y 83
2.2 Thermal conductivity of
materials
84
Thermal conductivity
• Thermal conductivity (k) of a material is the

measure of the ability of the material to
conduct heat.
Gas Liquid Solid 85

86
• Thermal conductivity
is temperature
dependent
87
88
2.3 One-dimensional,
steady state heat conduction
through single and composite walls
89
• One-dimensional (1D) heat conduction

– Implies that the temperature gradient exists in
only one direction.
• Steady state systems (SS)
– The temperature within the solid is assumed to
not be time dependent.
90
Thermal Resistance Method
• 1D/SS analysis can be applied to problems to

determine the temperature distribution and
heat flow in a solid, slab, cylinder, or sphere.
• The thermal resistance approach (similar to

Ohm’s Law) is a technique that simplifies
complicated problems which involve multi-
layered mediums when there is no heat
generation (q′=0).
91
• If q′(x)=0 (no heat generation) then the rate of flow of heat
energy normal to the area (A) is given by:
 T T T
Q  kA   kA 
x L R
L
where : R 
kA
• L – Thickness of the slab
• A – Area normal to the direction of heat flow
• K – Thermal conductivity coefficient
• ∆T – Temperature difference (gradient)
• R – Thermal resistance
92
• This is like Ohm’s Law:
Potential Difference (V )
Current ( I ) 
Re sis tan ce ( R )
• Therefore, circuit representations can provide a

useful tool for both conceptualizing and calculating
heat transfer problems.
93
Analogy to Electrical Current Flow
• Eq. 3-5 is analogous to the relation for electric current
flow I, expressed as
V1  V2
I (3-6)
Re
Heat Transfer Electrical current flow

Rate of heat transfer  Electric current
Thermal resistance  Electrical resistance
Temperature difference  Voltage difference
94
T
T1 1 k, A
dT
q(x) q(x)
2
T2
T2
X
dx
Q Q
T1 T2
L
R
kA
95
(Example 2.2)
• Example 2.2 - Multi-Layer Wall: Determine Q.

AA  AB  AC  A
k A, A A k B, A B
T k C, A C
T1
Q(x)
T2
B
A C
T3
T4
X
Q Q
T1 RA T2 RB T3 RC T4 96
(Example 2.2)
Q Q
T1 RA T2 RB T3 RC T4

Q  k A A
T2  T1 
 k A
T3  T2 
 k A
T4  T3 
B C
x A x B xC
x A xB xC
RA  ; RB  ; RC 
kA A kB A kC A
97
(Example 2.2)
Q Q
T1 RA T2 RB T3 RC T4

Q
T1  T4 
x A xB xC
 
k A A k B A kC A
Toverall thermal potential difference

 
R thermal resis tan ce 98
Generalized Thermal Resistance
Network
• The thermal resistance concept can be used to solve
steady heat transfer problems that involve parallel
layers or combined series-parallel arrangements.
• The total heat transfer of two parallel layers
T1  T2 T1  T2  1 1 

Q  Q1  Q2    T1  T2    
R1 R2  R1 R2 
1
Rtotal (3-29)
1  1 1  RR
     Rtotal = 1 2 (3-31)
Rtotal  R1 R2  R1  R2
99
Combined Series-Parallel Arrangement
The total rate of heat transfer through
the composite system
 T1  T
Q (3-32)
Rtotal
where
R1 R2
Rtotal  R12  R3  Rconv   R3  Rconv (3-33)
R1  R2
L1 L2 L3 1
R1  ; R2  ; R3  ; Rconv  (3-34)
k1 A1 k2 A2 k3 A3 hA3 100
101
102
Thermal Resistance Concept- Conduction
Resistance
• Equation 3–3 for heat conduction through a
plane wall can be rearranged as
 T1  T2
Qcond , wall  (W) (3-4)
Rwall
• Where Rwall is the conduction resistance
expressed as
L
Rwall  (  C/W) (3-5)
kA
103
Thermal Resistance Concept- Convection
Resistance
• Thermal resistance can also be applied to convection
processes.
• Newton’s law of cooling for convection heat transfer
rate (Q conv  hAs Ts  T)can be rearranged as
 Ts  T
Qconv  (W)
Rconv
• Rconv is the convection resistance
1
Rconv  (C/W)
hAs
104
Thermal Resistance Concept- Radiation
Resistance
• The rate of radiation heat transfer between a surface
and the surrounding
Ts  Tsurr
 4
 4

Qrad   As Ts  Tsurr  hrad As (Ts  Tsurr ) 
Rrad
(W)
1
Rrad  (K/W)
hrad As
Q rad
hrad 
As (Ts  Tsurr )
 
  Ts2  Tsurr
2
 s surr 
T  T (W/m 2
 K)
105
Thermal Resistance Concept- Radiation
and Convection Resistance
• A surface exposed to the surrounding might
involves convection and radiation simultaneously.
• The convection and radiation resistances are parallel
to each other.
• When Tsurr≈T∞, the radiation
effect can properly be
accounted for by replacing h
in the convection resistance
relation by
hcombined = hconv+hrad (W/m2K)
106
Thermal Resistance Network
• consider steady one-dimensional heat transfer through a plane
wall that is exposed to convection on both sides.
• Under steady conditions we have
Rate of Rate of Rate of
or
heat convection = heat conduction = heat convection
into the wall through the wall from the wall
Q  h1 A T ,1  T1  
T1  T2
kA  h2 A T2  T ,2 
L
107
Thermal Contact Resistance
• In reality surfaces have some roughness.

• When two surfaces are pressed against each other, the peaks
form good material contact but the valleys form voids filled
with air.
• As a result, an interface contains
numerous air gaps of varying sizes
that act as insulation because of the
low thermal conductivity of air.
• Thus, an interface offers some
resistance to heat transfer, which
is termed the thermal contact
resistance, Rc.
108
Multilayer Plane Walls
• In practice we often encounter plane walls that
consist of several layers of different materials.
• The rate of steady heat transfer through this two-layer
composite wall can be expressed through where the
total thermal resistance is
Rtotal  Rconv ,1  Rwall ,1  Rwall ,2  Rconv ,2

1 L1 L2 1
   
h1 A k1 A k2 A h2 A 109
(Example 2.3)
• Example 2.3 - Composite Wall with convection

surface conditions. Determine Q. AA  AB  AC  A
Tf1 T k1 k2
k3
Hot T1 Cold
Fluid Fluid
Tf1, h1 T2 B Tf4, h4
A C
T3
T4
Tf4
L1 L2 L3
X
Tf1 Rf1 T1 RA T2 RB T3 RC T4 Rf4110 Tf4

(Example 2.3)
Tf1 Rf1 T1 RA T2 RB T3 RC T4 Rf4 Tf4

 T f 1  T1 T1  T2 T2  T3 T3  T4 T4  T f 4
Qx     
1 L1 L2 L3 1
h1 A k1 A k2 A k A h4 A
    3 
Rf 1 R1 R2 R3 Rf 4
 Tf 1  Tf 4 Tf 1  Tf 4
Qx  
1 L1 L2 L3 1  R
   
h1 A k1 A k 2 A k3 A h4 A
111
(Example 2.3)
• However, with composite systems it is often

convenient to express the rate of heat transfer in
terms of overall heat transfer coefficient (U).
• This is defined by an expression similar to Newton’s
Law of Cooling:

Q x  U  A  T
1 1
U  
R A  1 L1 L2 L3 1 
     
 h1 k1 k 2 k 3 h4  112
(Example 2.4)
• Example 2.4 – Combined

Heat Transfer: conduction,
convection, and radiation
take place simultaneously
on boiler tubes.
• The hot gases of
combustion products create
a thin film of gas on the
outer wall of the boiler tube
and water film within it.
• Determine the total
resistance (R): 113
(Example 2.4)
• There are parallel circuits in the gas film section due

to both convection and radiation acting there.
T
Hot gas Tube wall Water inside tube
T1
Radiation
T2
T3
T4
Gas Film L Water Film
X
R1,conv
T1 T2 R2 T3 R3, conv T4 114
R1,rad
(Example 2.4)
R1,conv
T1 T2 R2 T3 R3 T4
R1,rad

 Q T1  T2 T2  T3 T3  T4
q   
A R1 R2 R3
115
(Example 2.4)
R1,conv
T1 T2 R2 T3 R3 T4
R1,rad
• The radiation thermal resistance in the gas R1,rad is

given by:
T1  T2
R1,rad

     F1 2 T14  T24


Shape
Factor
1     F1 2 T14  T24 


R1,rad T1  T2 116
(Example 2.4)
R1,conv
T1 T2 R2 T3 R3 T4
R1,rad
• The convection thermal resistance in the hot gas

R1,conv is given by:
1
R1,conv 
h1 A
• The conduction thermal resistance in the wall R2 is

L
given by: R2 
kA 117
(Example 2.4)
R1,conv
T1 T2 R2 T3 R3 T4
R1,rad
• The convection thermal resistance in the water

(boiler) or ambient air (furnace) R3 is given by:
1
R3 
h4 A
118
(Example 2.4)
R1,conv
T1 T2 R2 T3 R3 T4
R1,rad
• The total resistance is:
R  R  R1 2  R3
1
 1 1 
    R2  R3
 R1,rad R1,conv 
    F1 2 T  T   h A
4 4 1
L 1
 1 2
1   
 T1  T2  kA h4 A 119
(Example 2.5)
• Example 2.5: Hollow Cylinder (Tube) (with

convective surface conditions): Find all of the
thermal resistances.
Cold Fluid, Tf2, h2
No heat generation
T1 q   0
r2
Hot fluid r1 Hot fluid

Tf1, h1 Tf1, h1
120
T2
L
(Example 2.5)
Cold Fluid, Tf2, h2

• Solve using the T1
thermal resistance r2
method:
Hot fluid r1 Hot fluid
Tf1, h1 Tf1, h1
T2 L
Tf1 Rf1 T1 RA T2 Rf2 Tf2

1
• The resistances Rf1 Rf1 
2r1 L  h1

and Rf2 can be found Interior Surface
Area of Cylinder
from Newton’s Law
of Cooling: 1
Rf 2 
2r2 L  h2
 121
Outer Surface
Area of Cylinder
122
(Example 2.5)
• The resistance RA can be found from Fourier’s Law:
 dT
Qcond   kA
dr
r2

Qcond
T2
r A  dr  T k  dT
1 1
2 rL
 r2
Qcond 1
T1

2 L r1 r
 dr   k  dT
T2

Qcond  2 L  k
T1  T2 
ln  2 
r 123
 r1 
(Example 2.5)
• If the heat transfer rate is constant, this can be further

simplified:
 T1  T2
Qcond 
RA
Thermal
ln  2 
r Resistance
 r1 
RA 
2 L  k1
124
(Example 2.7)
• Example 2.7: Solid Cylinder

• Develop an expression for a 1-D, radial, steady state
temperature distribution T(r) and the flux q(r) for a solid
cylinder of radius (r2) with an energy generation at a
constant rate of q′ (W/m3) and temperature on the outer
surface maintained at T2. Calculate the temperature at
the center and the flux at the outer surface for r2= 1 cm,
q′= 2×108 W/m3, k= 20 W/(m·ºC), and T2= 100 ºC.
T2= 100 ºC
r2 125
(Example 2.6)
• Example 2.6: Composite Cylindrical Wall. Solve Q in

terms of the overall thermal resistance (Rtot) and
overall heat transfer coefficient (U).
Cold Fluid, Tf2, h2
No heat generation
q   0
Hot fluid Hot fluid

Tf1, h1 Tf1, h1
126
L
(Example 2.6)
• Composite layers
C
B
A
rA
rB TA
TB
rC TC
TD
127
rD
(Example 2.6)
• Use the thermal resistance method:

T
rA
Tf1 TA
rB TA
TB
TB
TC
rC TC TD
TD
Tf4
rD r
Tf1 Rf1 TA RA TB RB TC RC TD Rf4 Tf4
Tf 1  Tf 2
Q r 
 rB  ln  rC  ln  rD 
ln      
1  rA  rB  rC 1
   
2 rA Lh1 2 k A L 2 k B L 2 kC L 2 rD Lh2
128
(Example 2.6)
• Now express this in terms of U and Rtot
Tf 1  Tf 2

Qr   U1 AA T f 1  T f 2   U 4 AD (T f 1  T f 2 )
 Rtot
1 ln    ln    ln   
rB rC rD
1
• RWhere:
rA rB rC
tot  
2 rA Lh1 2 k A L 2 k B L 2 kC L 2 rD Lh1
129
(Example 2.6)
• The overall heat transfer coefficient (based on the

inner surface) where AA= 2rAL, is given by:
1
 1 rA  rA  1 
U1     ln 
rB
rA
rA
  ln 
rC
rB
rA
  ln  
rD
rC     
 h1 k A kB kC  rD  h2 
• Or we could calculate U4 (based on the outer surface)

where AD= 2rDL:
1
 rD  1 rD 1
U 4       ln 
rB
rA
rD
  ln 
rC
rB
rD
  ln  
rD
rC  
 rA  h1 k A kB kC h2 
130
(Example 2.6)
• The definition is arbitrary, the overall heat transfer

coefficient may also be defined on any of the
intermediate areas:
U1 AA  U 2 AB  U 3 AC  U 4 AD   R 
tot
1
Q r  U1 AA T f 1  T f 2 
Q r  U 4 AD T f 1  T f 2 
131
(Example 2.6)
• Check
2 r1 L
U1 A1 
1 rA
  ln
h1 k A
 
rB
rA
rA
  ln
kB

rc
rB
rA
  ln
kC
 
rD
rC
 rA  1
   
 rD  h2
1

1  1 rA  rA  1 
   ln
2 rA L  h1 k A
 
rB
rA
rA
  ln
kB

rc
rB
rA
  ln
kC
 
rD
rC     
 rD  h2 
132
(Example 2.6)
1
U1 AA 
1 ln

 
rB
rA


ln rrBc

ln  
rD
rC 1
2 rA L  h1 2 Lk A 2 Lk B 2 LkC 2 rD Lh2
1

 Rtot Correct !
133
(Example 2.8)
• Example 2.8: Hollow Cylinder

• A hollow cylinder is heated at the inner side at the rate
of q0 (105W/m2) and dissipates heat from the outer
surface into a fluid at Tf2. There is no energy generation
and the conductivity (k) of the solid is assumed to be
constant. Develop an expression for the temperature T1
and T2 at (the inner and outer surface) and calculate
them for the following parameters. Tf2= 100 ºC
h= 400 W/(m2·ºC)
r1 =3 cm
k= 15 W/(m·ºC)
134
r2 =5 cm
(Example 2.8)
Tf2= 100 ºC
• Since there is no heat h= 400 W/(m2·ºC)
generated in the r1 =3 cm
cylinder, it is more Q conv k= 15 W/(m·ºC)
convenient to Q csolve
o nd
the r2 =5 cm
problem using the
thermal resistance
method.
T1 T2 Tf2
ln r2 
 r1  1
2 k L 2 r2 Lh 135
(Example 2.8)
T1 T2 Tf2
ln r2 
 r1  1
2 k L 2 r2 Lh
T1  T f 2
Q 0  q 0  A  q 0  2 r1 L   1
2kL ln  
r2
r1
1
2r2 Lh2
• Also:
T1  T2 T2  T f 2
q 0 2 r1 L   1 
  
A 2 k L ln r2
r1  1
2 r2 L h2
136
(Example 2.8)
• Taking the first equality and solving for T1:

T1  T2
q 0 r1  1 r2

k ln r1
T1  q 0  ln   T
r1
k
r2
r1 2
• Taking the second equality and solving for T2:
T2  T f 2
q 0 r1 
r2 h2
r1
T2  q 0   Tf 2
r2 h2 137
(Example 2.8)
• Solving:
 r1 
T2  q 0    T f 2
 r2  h2 

 10 5 W
m2
 
0.03 m
0.05 m  400 W
 100C  250C
m 2  C
r1
T1  q0  k ln
   T
r2
r1 2
 0.03 m  0.05 m 

 10 5 W
m2

  ln 
 
   250 
C  352 .2 
C
 15 m C  0.03 m 
W
138
Critical Thickness of Insulation
• Consider a tube, cable, or wire dissipating heat from
the outer surface into the surrounding air by
convection.
• It is covered by a layer of insulation to minimize heat
loss. In many cases, the thermal resistance offered
by a metal tube or wire is negligibly small in
comparison to the insulation.
139
• The tube wall temperature (To) is nearly the same as
the fluid. T,h o o
insulation
insulation ri
ri
Ti ro Ti
ro
140
(a) Rod or Wire (b) Pipe
• For a single layer of insulation material, the heat
transfer rate is given by:
 Ti  To Ti  T
Qr  
Ri  Ro 1
2 kL  ln
ro
ri  1
2 ro Lho
• Ri ≡ Thermal resistance due to conduction in the

insulation.
• Ro ≡ Thermal resistance due to convection on the
surface.
141
• Assume Ti, To, k, L, ri, h all remain constant and allow

ro to vary between ri < r < ro.
 T  T
Qr  1 i o
2 kL 
   
ln ro
ri


1
2 ro Lho
Ri Ro
– As ro increases, the thermal resistance Ri also

increases as Ro decreases.
142
R Rtot
Rcond
(Rises with thickness)
Rconv
(Sinks with thickness)
ro,crit r 143
• A critical value of ro may be found that will

result in a maximum rate of heat loss.
– Differentiate the heat equation with respect to ro
and set to 0 to maximize the equation.
dQr 2 kLTi  To   1 k 
     0
dr0  
ro 2

ln ri  hokro  ro ho ro 
2
1 k k
  ro ,crit 
ro ho ro2 ho
144
k
ro ,crit  Critical radius
ho of insulation
if ro  ro ,crit Will decrease the rate of heat loss

expected. Good !
ro  ro ,crit Will increase the heat loss

continuously. Maximum at the critical
thickness. Avoid ! 145
2.5 Fin Analysis
146
Function of Fins
• Finned surfaces are commonly used to enhance the
heat transfer from a surface by increasing the surface
area.
• Recall Newton’s Law of Cooling:
Q conv  h  As Ts  T 
147
Function of Fins
148
(a) Unfinned (b) Finned
Types of Fins
• Fins of Uniform Cross Section:
149
Fin Heat Transfer
• The fin is cooled along its surface by a fluid
temperature T. The temperature distribution relation
through the fin can be developed by performing an
energy balance.
Rate of
Rate of Rate of
heat flow by
heat flow by heat flow by +
conduction into = conduction out
convection from
surface between
element x of element x+dx
x and x+dx
150
Fin Heat Transfer
dQconv t P = Perimeter of rectangular body

dx= Surface area between x & dx
h= Convection coefficient
dx A= Cross-sectional area of body
Z K= Thermal conductivity of body
Qx Qx+dx
L
x
dT   T 
 kA   kA  T  dx   h  PdxT  T 
dx  x  x       
           Convection from
Conduction Conductionout of surfacebetween
int o element element at x  dx x and dx
at x 151
Fin Heat Transfer
152
Fin Heat Transfer
• If k and h are uniform, the energy generation can be
simplified further to:
T   T 
 kA   kA  T  dx   h  PdxT  T 
x x  x 
 2T
 kA 2  h  P T  T   0
x
 T hP
2
 T  T   0
x 2
kA
153
Fin Heat Transfer
• Let:
 x   T x   T
hP
m 
2
kA
d2
 2
 m   x   0
2
dx
• This is known as the 1-D fin equation for fins of
uniform cross-section.
154
Fin Heat Transfer
• This is a linear, homogenous differential equation.

The general solution is:
 x   T x   T  C1e  C2 e
mx  mx
• Where C1 and C2 are constants that can be

determined by boundary conditions.
155
Fin Heat Transfer
(Example 2.9)
• Example 2.9 Fin with convection heat transfer at tip.

If the 1st boundary condition is at the base, x=0
where T=Tb, then:
Tb
Base (b)
x
m 0   m 0 
 b  Tb  T  C1e  C2 e
 C1  C2 156
Fin Heat Transfer
(Example 2.9)
• The 2nd boundary condition depends on the nature of

the problem. This could be specified at the fin tip
(x=L). Applying an energy balance to a control
surface about the tip gives:
dT
hAT L   T   kA
dx xL
Rate of energy Rate of energy

transferred to which reaches
the fluid by = the tip by
convection conduction
from the tip through the fin 157
Fin Heat Transfer
158
Fin Heat Transfer
(Example 2.9)
• Substituting in our definition for q
d
h   L   k
dx xL
  
h  C1e mL  C2 e  mL  k  m  C1e mL  C2 e  mL 
• Solving for C1 and C2 (not shown) from these two conditions
obtains:
 cosh m  L  x  mkh sinh m  L  x 


b cosh mL  mkh sinh mL
159
b~ base
Fin Heat Transfer
• Standardized tables exist which show solutions for
other boundary conditions (also see pg 158-160 in text):
160
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Incropera & DeWitt
Fin Heat Transfer
(Example 2.10)
• Example 2.10 Long Fin

• In long fins, the temperature will approach the
temperature of the fluid T→T∞ as x→ ∞. Substituting
this into the equation gives:
0
   T  T  0  C1e m
 C2 e  m
T 
• The boundary condition is satisfied if C1=0.
161
Fin Heat Transfer
(Example 2.10)
• The other boundary condition is:

0
 b  Tb  T  C1  C2
C2  Tb  T
• Therefore:
C1  0; C2  Tb  T
162
Fin Heat Transfer
(Example 2.10)
0
• So:
 x  C1e mx  C2 e  mx

b Tb  T

Tb  T  e  mx
Tb  T 
 mx
e
163
Fin Heat Transfer
(Example 2.10)
• Since the heat flowing by conduction across the

base of the fin must be transmitted by convection
from the surface of the fin to the fluid.

dT

Q fin   kA   h  PT x   T  dx
dx x 0 0
• Since:  T x   T
  e  mx
b Tb  T
T x  T  e Tb  T 
   mx
164
Fin Heat Transfer
(Example 2.10)
• Substituting:

Q fin   hP  Tb  T  e dx
  mx
hP
 Tb  T  e 0
 mx 
m

hP
hP


Tb  T  e  e 0

kA
 hPkA  Tb  T  165

Fin Performance
• In the previous calculation, it was assumed that the
fin is sufficiently thin, so substantial temperature
gradients occur only in the x-direction (1-D).
• In most practical fins, the error introduced by this 1-D
approximation is only about 1%.
• The overall accuracy of practical fin calculations will
usually be limited by uncertainties in values of the
convection coefficient.
166
Fin Performance
• Convection is seldom uniform over the entire surface,
as commonly assumed. For severe non-uniform
behavior, it is more appropriate to solve the problem
by numerical finite difference techniques.
• In practical applications, fins may have varying cross-
sectional areas and may be attached to circular
surfaces and solution of the basic differential
equation and mathematical techniques become
tedious.
167
Fin Efficiency
• The effectiveness of a fin in transferring a given
quantity of heat is described by its efficiency.
f 
 
Actual heat transfer rate Q fin

Heat transfer rate without fin Q 
fin max
Q fin

hA fin Tb  T 
168
Fin Performance
• For cases where the fin is very long:
 as previously
   found
 
Q fin hPkAc Tb  T 
long  
fin Q fin h  A fin Tb  T 
max
hPkAc Tb  T 

h  P  L Tb  T  Afin

A fin Ab
1 kAc A fin  2  w  L  w  t

L hP  2 w L 169
Fin Effectiveness
• Fins are used to enhance heat transfer. The
performance of fins is expressed in terms of the fin
effectiveness (efin).
Heat transfer rate from the fin

Q fin of base area Ab
 fin  
Q no fin Heat transfer rate from
the surface of area Ab
Q fin Q fin
 
Q no fin h  Ab Tb  T 
170
Fin Effectiveness
• Therefore for a very long fin (Ab=Ac):
Q fin
 long  
fin Q no fin
hPkAc Tb  T 

hAb Tb  T 
kP

hAc
171
2.6 Multi-dimensional Temperature
Differences (Finite Difference Methods)
172
Multi-dimensional SS Conduction
• As previously shown, the

objective of heat transfer
analysis is to predict the rate of
heat flow or the temperature
distribution.
• In many practical problems, the temperature and heat
flow are functions of two and three coordinates (2D,
3D). Such cases occur when the boundary is non-
uniform.
• Examples:
– Heat flow through a corner section where 2 or 3 walls meet
– Conduction through the walls of a short, hollow cylinder
– Heat loss through a buried pipe. 173
Multi-dimensional SS Conduction
• The solution to 2-D and
3-D problems can be
solved by:
– Analytical
– Graphical
– Analogical
– Numerical methods
(finite difference)
• Finite difference
methods (using
computers) is often the
best choice.
174
Analytical Solution
(2-D Problem)
• The rate of flow per unit area in the x and y

directions can be obtained from Fourier’s Law.
Q T
q x     k
 A x x
Q T
q y     k
 A y y
• Although temperature is scalar (not a vector), the
heat flux depends on a temperature gradient and is
therefore a vector.
175
Analytical Solution
(2-D Problem)
• The total heat flow of a given point (x,y) is the

resultant Qtot= (Qx, Qy) at that point and is directed
perpendicular to the isotherm (as shown below).
Qy Q= Qx+Qy
Qx
T(x,y)
isotherm 176
Analytical Solution
(2-D Problem)
• Thus if the temperature is known, the rate of heat

flow can be easily calculated.
• The classical solution of a heat conduction problem

(to exact solution of the Fourier equation) is
separation of variables.
Qy Q= Qx+Qy
Qx
T(x,y)
isotherm 177
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
• Example 2.11 Analytical Solution to 2-D problem. To

appreciate the analytical method of separation of
variables, we will consider the relatively simple
system below:
• For 2-D, steady state, no
heat generation, the
conduction equation is:
 2T  2T
 2 0
x 2
y
178
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
• We want to find the temperature distribution T(x,y) but

to simplify the solution, the following transformation is
used:
T  T1

T2  T1
• Substituting this into the conduction equation gives:
 2  2
 2 0
x 2
y
179
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
• Since this equation is second

order, two boundary
conditions are needed for
each of the coordinates:
 0, y   0 and  x,0   0

 L, y   0 and  x,W   1
180
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
 x, y   XY ; X  X x 
Y  Y y 
• Substituting into Laplace’s equation yields:
2 2
1 d X 1 d Y
  2   2
X dx Y dy
• The variables are separated. Since neither side can
change as x and y vary, both must be equal to a
constant, say l2:
2 2
1 d X 1 d Y
  2   2  2
X dx Y dy 181
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
• Therefore, there are two differential equations:
2
d X
2
  2
X 0
dx
d 2Y
2
 2
Y 0
dy
• Solving them gives:
X  A  cosx   B  sin x 

Y  C  e  y  D  e  y
182
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
• Substituting:
  X Y

  A  cos x  B  sin x  C  e y  D  e y 
• Where A, B, C, D can be evaluated from boundary
conditions.
183
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
• Substituting b.c’s (1) and (2) into equations gives:
1 y  0,  x,0  0
A  cos x  B  sin x  C  D   0
CD0
C  D
2 x  0,  0, y   0
 
A  C  e  y  D  e y  0
A0
184
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
• Substituting b.c (3) into the equation gives:
3 x  L,  L, y   0
A  cos L  B  sin L  C  e y  D  e y   0
A 0
B  sin L  C  e  y
 B  sin L  D  e   0
y
C  D
B  sin L  C  e y  e y   0
BC  sin L  e y  e y   0 185
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
• Since: e y  e   y
sinh y 
2

 BC sin L  e  e y  y
 0
BC  sin L  2  sinh y   0
 2 BC  sin L  sinh y  0
• This expression is only valid, if l= np , where n=1,2,3 …
L
since sin( np )= 0
L
186
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
• Therefore substituting this back in:
  X  Y   A  cos x  B  sin x  C  e  y  D  e y 
 2 BC  sin x  sinh y
 n x   n y 
 2BC  sin    sinh  0
Cn  L   L 
 n x   n y 
 Cn  sin    sinh  0
 L   L 
187
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
• For each n a different solution exists with a different constant

Cn. Summing these solutions, the expression become:

 n x   n y  Equation
 x, y    Cn sin 
n 1  L 
 sinh 
 L 
0
*
• Boundary condition (4) at y= W requires that:

 n x   n W 
 x,W   1   Cn sin   sinh  
n 1  L   L 
188
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
• This complicated equation can be solved by writing an

analogous infinite series expansion in terms of orthogonal
functions.
• An infinite set of functions g1(x), g2(x), g3(x), … gn(x) is said to be
Side Note
orthogonal in the domain a < x < b.

b
 g x  g x dx  0
a
m n mn
• Many functions exhibit orthogonality, including trignometric
functions:
 n x   n x 
sin   and cos  for 0  x  L
 L   L  189
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
• Therefore our function here is an orthogonal function. An

orthogonal function can be expressed in terms of an infinite
series of orthogonal functions

f ( x)   An g n x 
Side Note
n 1
• The form of An in this series may be determined by multiplying

each side of the equation by gn(x) and integrating between the
limits a and b.
b b 
 f x  g x dx   g x  A
a
n
a
n
n 1
n  g n x dx
190
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
• However, since by orthogonality:

b
 g x  g x dx  0
a
m n mn
Side Note
• This means that all by one of the terms on the right

hand side of this equation must be zero:
b b 
An
 f x  g x dx   g x  A
a
n
a
n
n 1
n  g n x dx
b b
 f x  g x dx  A  g
2
n n n ( x)dx
191
a a
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
• Therefore: b
 f x g x dx
n
An  a
b
 n x dx
2
g
Side Note
• If we choose: a
 n x 
f x   1 and g x   sin  
 L 
b
 sin  L dx
nx
An  a

2

 1
n 1
1
b
 n
 sin  dx
2 nx
L
192
a
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
• Substituting An and our values for f(x) and g(x) back

in: 
f ( x)   An g n x 
n 1
Side Note
1 

2

 1
n 1
1 
  sin
n x 

n 1  n  L 
• This is simply the Fourier expansion of unity.
193
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
• So back to our problem. Since we now know and expression for

the Fourier expansion of unity:

 n x   n W 
 x,W    Cn sin   sinh   1
n 1  L   L 

 n x   n W  
2   1n 1
 1  n x 
 Cn sin 
 L 
 sinh 
 L
   
 n 1   n
  sin 
 L 

n 1 
C n

2  1  1
n 1
 n  1, 2, 3
n  sinh  nLW 
194
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
• Finally substituting this Cn back into the original
*
Equation ( ) for q(x,y), then we obtain:
2
 x , y    

 1  1
n 1
 n x 
 sin  
sinh ny
L  
 n 1 n  L  sinh  nLW 
• Putting back into terms of temperature (T):
 2   1n 1  1
T x, y   T2  T1      sin  
 
 n x  sinh L 
ny
 T1
nW 
  n 1 n  L  sinh  L 
195
Analytical Solution
(Example 2.11)
• Plotting the isotherms for this plate gives:
196
Graphical Method
• The Graphical Method has now been superseded by
computer solutions based on numerical methods,
however it may still be used to obtain a first estimate
of the temperature distribution.
• The rationale behind the graphical method comes

from the fact that lines of constant temperature must
be perpendicular to lines that indicate the direction
of heat flow.
• So the objective is to draw a flux plot by
constructing a network of isotherms and heat flow
lines.
197
Graphical Method
198
Analogical Method
• This method refers to situations where 2 or more
phenomena that can be described by the same
equation are mathematically analogous (similar to the
thermal resistance method).
• The variables in the system are called analogues of
the corresponding variables in other systems.
199
Analogical Method
• A simple example of one case is the 2-D Laplace

equation:  2
T  2
T
 0
x 2
y 2
• Which is analogous to the electrical potential E(x,y):

 E  E
2 2
 2 0
x 2
y
• So constant lines in an electric field correspond to
constant temperature lines in a heat flow field.
200
Finite Differences
(Numerical Methods)
• Numerical methods based on finite difference

techniques are ideally suited for systems of more
complex geometries by means of high speed
computers.
• It is suitable for 2-D or 3-D systems
• Consider a 2-D system such as a solid of constant
thickness b, subdividing into equal increments in
both the x and y-directions
201
Finite Differences
(Numerical Methods)
m – x increment
n – y increment Node
Dx
Dy
b
y
x
202
Finite Differences
(Numerical Methods)
• In the absence of a
m,n+1
heat source or sink in
the system, the rate of Qm,n+1
heat flow toward the
nodal point must be
equal to the rate of m-1,n m, n m+1,n
heat flow from it in
steady state. Qm-1,n Qm+1,n
Qm,n-1
m,n-1
203
Finite Differences
(Numerical Methods)
• In the finite difference method the derivatives are replaced by
differences.
df x   f x  x   f x  
 lim  
dx x  0
 x 
• Instead of taking the limit, the following approximation for the

derivative can be used.
f(x+Dx)
df x  f x  x   f x 
Df
f(x)

dx x Dx
x x+dx204
Finite Differences
(Numerical Methods)
• If the grid is subdivided into M sections of equal

length.
L
x  Tm+1
M
Tm
in the x  direction Tm-1
m-1 m m+1
m-½ m+½
205
Finite Differences
(Numerical Methods)
m-1/2
dT Tm  Tm 1

dx m
1 x Tm-1 Tm
2
m+1/2
dT Tm 1  Tm

dx m
1 x Tm Tm+1
2
206
Finite Differences
(Numerical Methods)
• The 2nd derivative is simply:
d T2 dT
dx m  1  dT
dx m  12
 2
dx 2
x
Tm1 Tm Tm Tm1
 x
 x
x
Tm 1  2Tm  Tm 1

x 2
207
Finite Differences
(Numerical Methods)
• Likewise:
d 2T Tn 1  2Tn  Tn 1

dy 2
y 2
208
Finite Differences
• Finite Differences of Plane Wall: The 1-D heat transfer
through a plane wall is given by the following
equation. Find the finite difference expression for:
d 2T q 
2
 0
dx k
• This can be expressed in differential form as:
Tm 1  2Tm  Tm 1 q m
 0 for m  1, 2, 3 
x 2
k
Where qm is the rate of heat generation per unit volume at node m.
209
Finite Differences
(Example 2.12)
• For 2-dimensions: (m, n+1)
 2T  2T q 
 2  0 (m-1, n) (m, n) (m+1, n)
x 2
y k
Dy
Dx
• The finite difference
(m, n-1)
formulation is:
Tm 1,n  2Tm ,n  Tm 1,n Tm ,n 1  2Tm ,n  Tm,n 1 q m ,n

 
x 2
y 2
k
for m  1, 2, 3  M  1
210
for n  1, 2, 3  N  1
Finite Differences
(Example 2.12)
• If Dx = Dy then:
Tm 1,n  Tm 1,n  Tm ,n 1  Tm ,n 1  4  Tm ,n  
 
q m ,n  x 2
k
• Or since we are considering that k= constant, the heat
flows may all be expressed in terms of temperature
differentials and this same equation can be derived.
 dT
Qx   kAx where Ax  y 1
dx
 dT
Q y   kAy where Ay  x 1
dy 211
Finite Differences
(Example 2.12)
• Therefore the finite difference expressions for Q are:
Q cond ,left  Q m 1,n  k  y

T m 1, n  Tm ,n 
x
Q cond ,right  Q m 1,n  k  y

Tm1,n  Tm,n 
x
Q cond ,up  Q m ,n 1  k  x
Tm,n1  Tm,n 
y
Q cond ,down  Q m ,n 1  k  x
Tm,n1  Tm,n 
y 212
Finite Differences
(Example 2.12)
• Therefore the total heat transfer is:
Q m 1,n  Q m 1,n  Q m ,n 1  Q m ,n 1  q m ,n  A  0
xy
• Therefore if Dx = Dy:
 y  Tm1,n  Tm,n  y  Tm1,n  Tm,n  

   
 x  x   q m ,n  x  y 
k 
 x  Tm,n 1  Tm,n  x  Tm,n 1  Tm,n  
  
  y  y 
213
Finite Differences
(Example 2.12)
• Then:
Tm 1,n  Tm 1,n  Tm ,n 1  Tm ,n 1  4  Tm ,n  
 
qm ,n  x 2
k
214
Finite Differences
• To use this numerical method, these equations must be written
for each node within the material and the resultant system of
equations solved for the temperature at the various nodes.
215
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
Example 2.13: Finite Difference Modeling of a

square plate. A small plate (1x1 m) and with a k= 10
W/(mC) has one face maintained at 500C and the
rest at 100C.
Compute: k 500C
(i) Temperature at various nodes.
(ii) Heat flow at the boundaries.
100C 1 m 100C
1m
216
100C
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
Four x  1 m
3
node T=500C
problem
y  1 m
3 1 2
T=100C T=100C
3 4
217
T=100C
218
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
(i) The solution for finding the temperatures

1 2
is (for an interior node):
Tm 1,n  Tm 1.n  Tm ,n 1  Tm ,n 1  4  Tm ,n  0 3 4
Node 1 : T2  100 C  500 C  T3  4T1  0

 
Node 2 : 100 C  T1  500 C  T4  4T2  0

Node 3 : T4  100 C  T1  100 C  4T3  0
Node 4 : 100 C  T3  T2  100 C  4T4  0
219
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
• Rearranging equations:
600  4T1  T2  T3 0
600  T1  4T2  T4  0
200  T1  4T3  T4  0
200  T2  T3  4T4  0
220
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
-4 1 1 0 T1 -600
1 -4 0 1 T2 -600
· =
1 0 -4 1 T3 -200
0 1 1 -4 T4 -200
221
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
• Solve by Gaussian Elimination:
T1 T2 T3 T4 C
-4 1 1 0 -600
1 -4 0 1 -600
1 0 -4 1 -200
0 1 1 -4 -200
222
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
T1 T2 T3 T4 C
-4 1 1 0 -600
X4 4x1= -4x4= 4x0= 4x1= -600x4=

4 -16 0 4 -2400
1 0 -4 1 -200
0 1 1 -4 -200
223
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
T1 T2 T3 T4 C
-4+(4)=0
-4 1 1 0 -600
0 -16 0 4 -2,400
1 0 -4 1 -200
0 1 1 -4 -200
224
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
T1 T2 T3 T4 C
1+(-16)=-15
-4 1 1 0 -600
0 -15 0 4 -2,400
1 0 -4 1 -200
0 1 1 -4 -200
225
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
T1 T2 T3 T4 C
1+(0)=1
-4 1 1 0 -600
0 -15 1 4 -2,400
1 0 -4 1 -200
0 1 1 -4 -200
226
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
T1 T2 T3 T4 C
0+(4)=4
-4 1 1 0 -600
0 -15 1 4 -2,400
1 0 -4 1 -200
0 1 1 -4 -200
227
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
-600+(-2400)=-3000
T1 T2 T3 T4 C
-4 1 1 0 -600
0 -15 1 4 -3,000
1 0 -4 1 -200
0 1 1 -4 -200
228
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
T1 T2 T3 T4 C
-4 1 1 0 -600
0 -15 1 4 -3,000
X4 0 1 -15 4 -1,400
0 1 1 -4 -200
229
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
-15+(1x15)=0
T1 T2 T3 T4 C
-4 1 1 0 -600
0 -15 1 4 -3,000
X15 0 0 -224 64 -24,000
0 1 1 -4 -200
230
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
T1 T2 T3 T4 C
-4 1 1 0 -600
0 -15 1 4 -3,000
0 0 -224 64 -24,000
X15 0 0 16 -56 -6,000

231
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
-224+(14x16)=0
T1 T2 T3 T4 C
-4 1 1 0 -600
0 -15 1 4 -3,000
0 0 -224 64 -24,000
224
X
16
=14 0 0 0 -720 -108,000
232
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
T1 T2 T3 T4 C
-4 1 1 0 -600
0 -15 1 4 -3,000
0 0 -224 64 -24,000
0 0 0 -720 -108,000
233
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
 4  T1  T2  T3  600
 15  T2  T3  4  T4  3,000
 224  T3  64  T4  24,000
 720  T4  108,000
• Solving for the unknowns
108,000
T4   150 C

720
234
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
24,000  150  64
T3   150 C
224
150  150  4  3,000

T2   250 C

15
600  250  150

T1   250 C
4
235
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
• (ii) The heat rate is thus:
T
Qx  k  y
 1 2
x
-Qx=0
T
Q y  k  x
 3 4
y
y  1 1 

Qx  0   k T  100   T  100   500  100   100  100 
x  
1 3
2 2
 1 
 10  250  100   150  100   500  100 
 2 
 4,000 Wm 236
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
1 2
-Qx=1
3 4
y  1 1 

Qx 1   k T  100   T  100   500  100   100  100 
x  
2 4
2 2 
 1 
 10  250  100   150  100   500  100 
 2 
 4,000 Wm 237
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
1 2
3 4
-Qy=0
x  1 1 

Q y 0   k T  100   T  100   100  100   100  100 
y  
3 4
2 2 
 10  150  100   150  100 
 1,000 Wm 238
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
• (ii) The heat rate is thus: +Qy=1
1 2
3 4
x  1 1 

Q y 1   k  T1  500  T2  500  100  500  100  500
y  2 2 
 10  250  500   250  500   200  200
 9,000 Wm 239
Finite Differences
(Example 2.13)
• Therefore: +9,000 W/m
1 2
-4,000 W/m -4,000 W/m
3 4
-1,000 W/m
Heat flowing into the plate = +9,000 W/m
Heat flow leaving the plate = -4000-4000-1000=-9,000 W/m
240
Finite Differences
(Example 2.14)
• Example 2.14: Derive the heat equation for node 3 of

the plate shown below.
1 2
Given:
k= constant
3 4
b= thickness
insulation
Dx= Dy
Steady state
5 6
241
Finite Differences
(Example 2.14)
• Also note the half areas:

x
1 2
y
y 3 4
2
5 242
Finite Differences
(Example 2.14)
• Since the heat transfer is steady state then ΣQ=0 and

the equation at node 3 is:
0  k  y  b 
T4  T3   x  b  T1  T3 
 k 
 x  b  T5  T3 
     k  
Ay
x  2  y  2  y
       1A 1A
Q m1,n   2 x        2 x     
Q m ,n1 Q m ,n1
• Note: Q
m 1, n  0
because of the insulation
243
Finite Differences
(Example 2.15)
• Example 2.15: Steady 2-D Heat Conduction in an L-bar.

Given: k = 15 W/(m·ºC) h= 80 W/(m2·ºC)
T= 25ºC q′= gn= 2x106 W/m3
Convection Dx= Dy= L = 0.012m

h, T= 25ºC
1 2 3
Dx Dy
insulation
4 5 6 7 8 9
qr= 5000 W/m2
10 11 12 13 14 15
244
T= 90 ºC
Finite Differences
(Example 2.15)
• Assumptions:
– Heat transfer is steady and 2-D
– Thermal conductivity (k) is constant
– Heat generation q′ is constant
– Radiation heat transfer is neglible
• Form the volume elements by partitioning the region
between nodes. Node 5 is the only completely
interior node. Consider the volume element
represented by Node 5 to be full size (e.g. Dx=Dy=1).
245
Finite Differences
(Example 2.15)
• Then the elements represented by a regular

boundary node (i.e. Node 2) becomes half size (e.g.
Dx=Dy/2=1) and a corner node (i.e. Node 1) is quarter
size (e.g. Dx/2=Dy/2=1) .
Convection
1 2 3 h, T= 25ºC
Dy Dx
insulation
4 5 6 7 8 9
qr= 5000 W/m2
10 11 12 13 14 15
246
T= 90 ºC
Finite Differences
(Example 2.15)
Convection
h, T= 25ºC Dx= Dy= L
1 2 3
insulation
Dx Dy
4 5 6 7 8 9
qr= 5000 W/m2
10 11 12 13 14 15
T= 90 ºC
• Since the bottom surface is at a constant
temperature of 90 ºC, then:
T10  T11  T12  T13  T14  T15  90 C 

247
248
Finite Differences
(Example 2.15)
Convection
• Node 1 (Energy balance): h, T= 25ºC
– Insulated on the left
insulation
1 2 Dy
– Convection on top ______
– Conduction on right and bottom 2

4 5
x  y  L
Dx/2
x y T2  T1  x T4  T1  x y
0  h  T  T1   k  k  g 1  
2 2 x 2 y 2 2


 2
80 W
 0.012 m  
m 2  C   T1  T2  T4 
 
80 m W2  C  25 C 2  106  0.012 m 2


 15 m C
W 
 15 W

m C
2  15 W
m  C

 2.064  T1  T2  T4  11 .2 249
Finite Differences
(Example 2.15)
• Node 2 (Energy balance): Convection

h, T= 25ºC
– Convection on top
– Conduction right, left, bottom 1 2 3
Dy
y T3  T2 
0  h  x  T  T2   k    4 5 6
2 x
  k  x 
T5  T2  y T1  T2 
k   g 2  x 
y Dx
y 2 x 2
 2hL  2hL g 2 2
T1   4    T2  T3  2T5    T  L
 k  k k
T1  4.128  T2  T3  2  T5  22.4 250

Finite Differences
(Example 2.15)

h, T= 25ºC
– Convection on top and right
– Conduction at bottom and left 2 3
Dy
 x y  x T6  T3 
h     T  T3   k    5 6
 2 2  2 y
y T2  T3 
Dx
x y
 k    g 3   0
2 x 2 2
 2hL  2hL g 3 L
T2   2    T3  T6    T 
 k  k 2k
T2  2.128  T3  T6  12.8 251

Finite Differences
(Example 2.15)
• Node 4 (Energy balance): Dx

– Insulated on left
– Conduction at the top, right, bottom 1 2
• This node is on the insulated boundary

5′ 4 5
insulation
and can be treated as an interior node Dy
by replacing the insulation with a
mirror. This puts a reflected image of 10 11
node 5 to the left of node 4. g L2
T5  T1  T5  T10  4  T4   4 0
        k T= 90 ºC
Interior
T1 0
g 4 L2
T1  4T4  2T5   90   109.2 252
k
Finite Differences
(Example 2.15)
• Node 5 (Energy balance):

– Interior node
– Conduction all sides 1 2 3
– Can use the equation for an Dy
insulation
interior node
4 5 6
10 11 12
g 5 L2
T4  T2  T6  T11  4  T5  0
k T= 90 ºC
T11 g 5 L2
T4  T2  T6  4  T5   90   109.2
k 253
Finite Differences
(Example 2.15)
• Node 6 (Energy balance):

– Convection upward right corner
– Conduction everywhere else
Qcond
Convection
2 3
h, T= 25ºC Qconv
Qconv
5 6 7
Dy
11 12 13 Qcond 6
Qcond
Dx
T= 90 ºC 254
Qcond
Finite Differences
(Example 2.15)
 x y  y  T7  T6   T12  T6 
h     T  T6   k      k  x     
 2 2  2  x   y 
k  y x T3  T6  3
 T5  T6   k    g 6  x  y   0

x 2 y 4
¾ of the internal
energy generation, 2 3 Convection
h, T= 25ºC
since only ¾ the
volume
5 6 7
Dy
T3  2  T5  6.128  T6  T7  212.0
11 12 13
Dx255
T= 90 ºC
Finite Differences
(Example 2.15)
Convection
– Convection on top Dx
– Conduction right, left, and bottom
6 7 8
y T8  T7  Dy
h  x  T  T7   k    12 13 14
2 x
  k  x
T13  T7 
 k  y
T6  T7 
 g 7  x 
y
0
y x 2 T= 90 ºC
 2hL  2hL g 7 L2
T6   4  T7  T8  180  T 
 k  k k
T6  4.128  T7  T8  202.4 256
Finite Differences
(Example 2.15)
Convection
– Identical to Node 7 Dx
7 8 9
Dy
13 14 15
T= 90 ºC
 2 hL  2 hL g L2
T7   4    T8  T9  180   T  8
 k  k k
T7  4.128  T8  T9  202.4 257

Finite Differences
(Example 2.15)

h, T= 25ºC
– qr heat flow on right
qr= 5000
– Convection on top
W/m2
– Conduction on bottom and left 8 9
x y x  T15  T9  Dy
h  T  T9   q R   k      14 15
2 2 2  y 
y  T8  T9  x y Dx
 k     g 9   0
2  x  2 2 T= 90 ºC
 hL  q R hL g 9 L2
T8   2    T9  90  L   T 
 k  k k 2k
T8  2.064  T9  105.2 258
Finite Differences
(Example 2.15)
• We now have 9 equations and 9 unknowns, so we can solve:
Node 1:  2.064  T1  T2  T4  11 .2

Node 2: T1  4.128  T2  T3  2  T5  22.4
Node 3: T2  2.128  T3  T6  12.8
Node 4: T1  4T4  2T5  109.2
Node 5: T4  T2  T6  4  T5  109.2
Node 6: T3  2  T5  6.128  T6  T7  212.0
Node 7: T6  4.128  T7  T8  202.4
Node 8: T7  4.128  T8  T9  202.4
Node 9: T8  2.064  T9  105.2 259
Finite Differences
(Example 2.15)
• Solving:
T1= 112.1 ºC
T2= 110.8 ºC
T3= 106.6 ºC
T4= 109.4 ºC
T5= 108.1 ºC
T6= 103.2 ºC
T7= 97.3 ºC
T8= 96.3 ºC 260
Finite Differences
(Example 2.15)
Temperature
(ºC)
Hi Convection
h, T= 25ºC
1 2 3
insulation
4 5 6 7 8 9
Low qr= 5000 W/m2
10 11 12 13 14 15
T= 90 ºC
261
262
263
264
2.7 Transient Conduction
265
Transient Conduction
• Many heat transfer problems are
time dependent (unsteady) or
transient.
• Transient problems generally arise
when the boundary conditions of
the system are changed.
• There are procedures to determine
the temperature distribution within
a solid during a transient process.
Turn up
the Heat!
266
Lumped Capacitance Method
• The essence of the lumped capacitance method is
the assumption that the temperature of a solid is
spatially uniform at any instant during the transient
process. This assumption implies that temperature
gradients within the solid are negligible.
Ti
Eout = qconv
T(t)
Est
t>0 267
Cooling of Hot Metal
• Therefore for this cooling metal slag:
 E out  E stored
dT
 h  As Ts  T     V  C p
   dt

• Define the temperature difference as:
  T  T
268
d dT
• Since:  T ~ cons tan t
dt dt
  V  C p d
  
h  As dt
• Separating variables and integrating from the initial
condition that t=0, T(0)= Ti:
 V  C p d
 t

h  As  
   dt
0
i
where :  i  Ti  T 269
• Integrating we get:
 V  C p  i 
ln    t
h  As  
• or rewritten:
 T  T   h A  
  exp   s  t
 i Ti  T 
    V  C 
p   
• This may be used to determine the time required for a
solid to reach some temperature (T) or conversely.
270
• To determine the heat transfer (Q) up to some time
(t):
t t
Q   q  dt  h  As    dt
0 0
t   h A  
 h  As   i  exp   s   t   dt
   V  C  
0   p  
    
   V  C p   i  1  exp 
h A s
 t    E storage
    V  C 
 p 
271
C
END OF C ONDUCTION S C
ECTION
272

CH02 - Conduction 1 November 2021

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MEC551

Aman Mohd Ihsan Bin Mamat

• Steady implies no change with time at any point

• Transient implies variation with time or time

• Three prime coordinate systems:

• Taylor Series Expansion:

• In addition to the heat flow into and out of the

- Heat being stored within the element, as in the

• The rate of heat generated is:

• Assuming the element may expand or contract freely

Net rate of Rate of

• In equation form this is:

• Substituting α in, this equation becomes the general

• Now calculate the general conduction equation in

• Now calculate the general conduction equation in

dV  dr  rd  r sin   d 

• Heat conduction rate in r-direction (out of element):

• Total heat conduction rate in r-direction:

• Heat conduction rate in -direction (in to element):

• Heat conduction rate in -direction (out of element):

• Total heat conduction rate in -direction:

• Heat conduction rate in Ф-direction (out of element):

• Heat conduction rate in Ф-direction (in to element):

• Total heat conduction rate in Ф-direction:

• Rate of Heat Generation:

• The energy balance is given by:

Net rate of Rate of

• Now  by r2, sin(), and k:

• Therefore the conduction equation in spherical

• Equations for cylindrical coordinates:

• Example 2.1 - One-dimensional steady-state heat

(I): Integrate and apply b.c’s and solve constants C1 & C2

(II): Solve for Q

• Slab (Plane Wall)

• The general equation for conduction with heat

• Solving differential equations:

• Solve C1 and C2 by using the boundary conditions:

• Substituting in the constants gives:

• Once the temperature distribution T(x) in the slab is

• Cylindrical and spherical systems often

• Steady State Condition:

• The equation for 1-D, steady state heat conduction

• For constant heat generation:

• Clearly, two boundary conditions are required to

• An alternative boundary condition at the center (r=0)

• Boundary Conditions T2= 100 ºC

• The general conduction equation for a cylinder is:

• Applying boundary conditions at r= 0 gives:

• The temperature distribution in the solid cylinder is:

• The heat flux in the cylinder is thus:

• The heat flux at the outer surface of the cylinder is:

• Conduction in a spherical shell

• Apply boundary conditions:

• Spherical composites may be treated in much the

• Thermal conductivity (k) of a material is the

Gas Liquid Solid 85

• One-dimensional (1D) heat conduction

• 1D/SS analysis can be applied to problems to

• The thermal resistance approach (similar to

• This is like Ohm’s Law:

• Therefore, circuit representations can provide a

Heat Transfer Electrical current flow

• Example 2.2 - Multi-Layer Wall: Determine Q.