The Anatomy and Physiology of Human Survival

Module 3

Module 3
Cell Structures and Their Functions

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 The Anatomy and Physiology of Human Survival
Module 3
Course Learning Objectives explored in Module 3: Cell Structures and their Functions

General Physiology - Foundational Knowledge

5. Explain how each organelle contributes to maintaining cell and organism function. (I)

6. Provide examples of how molecules and ions are selectively transported across cell
membranes. (I)

7. Outline the roles of different ions and ionic charge in creating cell membrane
potential and electrical signaling. (I)

8. Explain the role of DNA in determining the specialized structure and function of
different cell types.

• Which organelles contribute to each of the main functions of a cell?

• Why do some types of molecules move easily across the cell membrane while
others require complex transport mechanisms?
• How can some of my cells create electrical signals for communication
(neurons) and contraction (muscle)?
• Bone cells and muscles cells are so different in structure and function, how do 2
cell types develop and become so specialized?
 The Anatomy and Physiology of Human Survival
Module 3
After completing this module, you will be able to:

• Describe the four main functions of a cell, including the contributions that
various organelles play in the overall functions of a cell.
• Describe the structure and functional importance of the cell membrane.
• Describe the structural aspects of molecules and other substances that
leads them to move across the cell membrane in different ways (diffusion,
osmosis, carrier mediated transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis).
• Use examples of the types of carrier mediated transport to illustrate your
knowledge of their differences (facilitated diffusion, active transport, and
secondary active transport).
• Use your understanding of osmosis and osmotic pressure to explain the
movement of water across the cell membrane in different environments
(hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic solutions.)
• Describe gene expression including transcription and translation.
• Describe how cells develop special structures and function through
differentiation.
• Describe the life cycle of a cell including mitosis. You are not responsible for
the detailed stages of mitosis. 3
The Anatomy and Physiology of Human Survival
Module 3

Figure 3.2

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Figure 3.1

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Cytoskeleton – protein scaffolding creating internal framework of

the cell, holds organelles in place and allows cell to change shape
Figure 3.20

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Module 3

*
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*

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* Details will be discussed later within Module 3 7

 The Anatomy and Physiology of Human Survival
Module 3
Section 3.2 Functions of the Cell
A cell is the basic the living unit of all organisms, it has all the characteristics of
life. While cells of the human body are very diverse in structure and specialized
function, they share several important common functions.
1. Cell Metabolism and Energy utilization
• Metabolism - all the chemical reactions within a cell.
• Potential energy released during metabolic reactions is used for cellular
work – making molecules, muscle contraction, transport
2. Synthesis of Molecules
• Cells make proteins, nucleic acids, lipids,
• The types of molecules are made by specific cells is based on their
differentiated structure, the structure is guided by the selective gene
expression of DNA
3. Communication
• Chemical (hormone) and electrical (ion movement) signals are essential
for cellular, tissue organ and organism survival
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
• Each cell contains a full copy of your unique genetic information
• When cells divide, this information is copied for the new cell
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• Specialized cells transmit this information when we reproduce
 The Anatomy and Physiology of Human Survival
Module 3

Mitochondria – major site of ATP production in the cell

- Enzymes for the chemical reactions that break the bonds within
fats and carbohydrates to produce ATP – energy currency of cell
- Cells that require a lot of ATP (muscle) have more mitochondria

Figure 3.19

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Module 3

Figure 3.2

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Passive Membrane Transport – diffusion

- Movement is driven by concentration gradient

- Molecules move from area of high concentration to low
concentration Figure 3.3

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Figure 3.6 Figure 3.7

Diffusion through lipid portion of membrane and through leak or gated channels

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Osmosis – special
name for diffusion Figure 3.4
of water across a
selectively
permeable
membrane
- Water moves by
osmosis from an
area of high water
concentration to
an area of low
water
concentration
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 The Anatomy and Physiology of Human Survival
Module 3

Osmosis –
special name for
You are not responsible for calculating osmotic pressure
diffusion of Last 30 seconds of video
water across a
selectively
permeable
membrane
- Water moves
by osmosis from
an area of high
water
concentration to
an area of low
water
concentration
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Module 3

Osmosis – what happens in different cellular environments?

Figure 3.5

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Lyse means to burst
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Module 3

Passive Membrane Transport – facilitated diffusion

Figure 3.8

• Driven by
concentration
gradient
• Does not require ATP
• Requires carrier
molecule
• Glucose movement
into most cells

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Active Transport

– movement of Sodium (Na+) and Potassium (K+) against their concentration gradients
are directly driven by the chemical energy from ATP.

Figure 3.9

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Module 3
Active Transport
– movement of Sodium (Na+) and Potassium (K+) against their concentration gradients
are directly driven by the chemical energy from ATP.

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Module 3

Secondary Active Transport

- movement of glucose against its concentration gradient is linked to the movement of

sodium (Na+) down its concentration gradient.
- The sodium gradient is established by active transport and use of ATP. The movement
of glucose into cells of small intestine

Figure 3.10

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Module 3
Larger molecules require transport across membrane within vesicles (membrane sacs)

Figure 3.11
Figure 3.12a

Endocytosis Exocytosis 22
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Module 3

Golgi Apparatus – curved membrane bound sacs

- collects, modifies and packages proteins in secretory
vesicles – e.g. protein secretion (insulin)
- Membrane can be incorporated into cell membrane
Figure 3.18

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Module 3

Section 3.6 - Whole-Cell Activity

Fig 3.14 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is
found within the nucleus of
human cells

DNA is loosely coiled as

chromatin during normal cell
function - this allows access to
the DNA for the formation of
messenger RNA (mRNA) within
the nucleus

mRNA then travels out of the

nucleus to direct the formation
of protein molecules

DNA is tightly packed into

chromosomes during cell
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division
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Module 3

Transcription - Formation of Messenger RNA (mRNA) from DNA

Chromatin (loose DNA) separates to

Figure 3.23
allow access to one side of the DNA
double helix (pairs of nucleotides)

A copy of a gene or segment of DNA

strand is made by pairing specific
individual RNA nucleotides with the
DNA in sequence

As more RNA nucleotides are added,

and enzymes catalyzes a bond
between the RNA nucleotides,
forming a messenger RNA (mRNA)
strand

This encoded ‘message’ (mRNA) then

moves out of the nucleus into the
cytoplasm to direct the formation of
protein molecules 25
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Module 3
Translation – an mRNA sequence guides the formation of a protein molecule
Ribosomes – protein-based organelle in
the cytoplasm that guides the synthesis
of protein molecules from the mRNA
sequence Figure 3.22

The information in the mRNA sequence

is carried in groups of three nucleotides
(codons)

The structure and function of a protein

is determined by its amino acid
sequence.

The alignment of amino acids with the

mRNA sequence requires additional
types of RNA molecules

(See next slide)

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 The Anatomy and Physiology of Human Survival
Module 3
tRNA (transfer RNA) – each tRNA has three
nucleotides (anticodon ) that can pair with Translation - continued
the mRNA codon.

There are unique tRNA molecules for each Figure 3.22

mRNA codon. Each tRNA is associated with
a different type of amino acid that matches
its anticodon, and an mRNA codon

A ribosome guides the association between

the mRNA and tRNA molecule. An mRNA
codon pairs with the appropriate tRNA
anticodon.

A peptide bond forms between amino acids

aligned by adjacent codons in ribosome

The next amino acid is aligned to the

sequence and bonded to the growing chain
of amino acids (see video on next slide)
until a stop message codon is read 27
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Translation – amino acids are linked to form a polypeptide chain
The polypeptide chain is modified to become a protein

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Cell Cycle – most of the time a cell is involved in normal metabolic function, during
growth and development, or tissue repair, cell division is required
Figure 3.24
Interphase

G1 Phase - Cell function and metabolism

- Co-ordination of cell growth, replication,
differentiation and death (apoptosis)

S Phase – DNA replication

G2 Phase – preparation for cell division

- Repair DNA damage and replication errors

Cell Division (mitosis) – M Phase

- Formation of daughter cells

- You are not responsible for the detailed

stages of mitosis

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 The Anatomy and Physiology of Human Survival
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Differentiation – development of specialized structures and function within cells

- Selective activation and inactivation of segments of DNA

- Many cell types with specific structure are required to contribute all the
unique functions essential for our survival.

Figure 3.26

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