ENG5312 Mechanics of Solids II

6. Energy Methods
6.1 External Work
6.1.1 Work of a Force
The work done by a force is equivalent to the product of the component of the
force acting in the direction of motion and the distance travelled.

U
e

r
F

d
r
s
If the force acts in the

x-direction:

U
e
Fdx
0
x

If a force is applied to a prismatic beam in a gradual manner, i.e. the magnitude

of the force increases from 0 to

P
, and the bar stretches by

, when the
material behaves in a linear-elastic manner

F
P

x



_
,
then:

U
e

xdx
1
2
P
2

0
x

1
2
P (6-1)
6.1.2 Work of a Couple
A couple moment does work as it goes through a rotation:

U
e
Md
0

If a moment is applied to a body with linear-elastic material behaviour such that

the magnitude of the couple increases from 0 @

0
to

M
@

then:

U
e

d
1
2
M
0

(6-2)
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ENG5312 Mechanics of Solids II
6.2 Strain Energy
External work done by loads applied to a body will be converted into strain
energy. This strain energy is cause by normal and shear stresses that deform
the body.
6.2.1 Normal Stress
Consider a body deformed by a normal stress EQS:
The force on the top face is

dF
z

z
dxdy
and if it is applied gradually as the
element undergoes deformation

d
z

z
dz
the work done by the force is (using
Eq. (6-1)):

dU
i

1
2
dF
z
d
z

1
2

z
dxdy
z
dz
Or

dU
i

1
2

z
dV
So if a body is subjected to uni-axial normal stress, the strain energy is:

U
i

2
dV
V
(6-3)
For linear-elastic material behaviour, Hookes Law

(/E)applies, and:

U
i

2
2E
dV
V

(6-4)
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ENG5312 Mechanics of Solids II
Note:

U
i
is always positive.
6.2.2 Shear Stress
Consider an element subjected to shear stress,

:
The force

dFdxdy
on the top face will move

dz
. Assuming

dF
is
applied gradually, and using Eq. (6-1):

dU
i

1
2
dxdydz
1
2
dV
Or

U
i

2
dV
V
(6-5)
For linear-elastic behaviour, Hookes Law

(/G)
applies, and:

U
i

2
2G
dV
V

(6-6)
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ENG5312 Mechanics of Solids II
6.2.3 Multi-axial Stress
Consider an element subjected to a general state of stress.
Assuming linear-elastic behaviour and all loads are applied gradually, the strain
energy associated with each normal and shear stress can be added to give:

U
i

1
2

x
+
1
2

y
+
1
2

z
+
1
2

xy

xy
+
1
2

yz

yz
+
1
2

xz

xz

1
]
1

dV
V

(6-7)
Using the generalized Hookes Law:

1
E

y
+
z ( ) [ ]

1
E

zy

x
+
z
( ) [ ]

1
E

x
+
y ( ) [ ]

xy

xy
G
;

xy

xy
G
;

xy

xy
G
The strains can be eliminated from Eq. (6-7):

U
i

1
2E

x
2
+
y
2
+
z
2
( )
+
1
2G

xy
2
+
yz
2
+
xz
2
( )

y
+
y

z
+
x

z ( )



1
]
1
V

dV
(6-8)
And if only the principal stresses act on the element (i.e.

1
,

2
and

3
)
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ENG5312 Mechanics of Solids II

U
i

1
2E

1
2
+
2
2
+
3
2
( )

2
+
2

3
+
1

3
( )



1
]
1
V

dV
(6-9)
6.3 Elastic Strain Energy for Various Types of Loading
6.3.1 Axial Load
Consider a bar with a slowly changing cross-section that is loaded centroidally.
The internal load at

x from one end is

N
, and the normal stress is

N/A
.
using Eq. (6-4) the strain energy is:

U
i

x
2
2E
dV
V

N
2
2EA
2
dV
V

The volume

dV
can be expressed as

Adx
and:

U
i

N
2
2AE
dx
0
L

(6-10)
If the cross-sectional area is constant:

U
i

N
2
L
2AE
(6-11)
Note:
o

L,

U
i

A,

U
i

E,

U
i

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ENG5312 Mechanics of Solids II
o i.e. something that is easy to distort will store more strain energy.
6.3.2 Bending Moment
Application of a bending moment to a straight prismatic member results in a
normal stress.
Consider the element of area

dA
,

y
from the neutral axis, then

(My/I)
,
and using Eq. (6-4):

U
i

2
2E
dV
1
2E
My
I



_
,

2
dV
V

The volume

dV
can be written as

dVdAdx
, so:

U
i

M
2
2EI
2
y
2
dAdx
A

0
L

Will give the strain energy in the member, and since

y
2
dA
A

I
:

U
i

M
2
2EI
dx
0
L

(6-12)
Note: The bending moment needs to be expressed as a function of

x, then Eq.
(6-12) can be integrated.
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ENG5312 Mechanics of Solids II
6.3.3 Transverse Shear
Consider a prismatic beam with an axis of symmetry

y
.

The internal shear force at

x is

V, and the shear stress on the element of area

dA
is

VQ
It
. Using Eq. (6-6) the strain energy is:

U
i

2
2G
dV
1
2G
VQ
It



_
,

2
dAdx
V

Or

U
i

V
2
2GI
2
Q
2
t
2
dAdx
A

0
L

(6-13)
Defining the form factor,

f
s
, which is a function of geometry:

f
s

A
I
2
Q
2
t
2
dA
A
(6-14)
The strain energy can be written as;

U
i

f
s
V
2
2GA
dx
0
L

(6-15)
An example of the form factor calculation is given in the text. For a rectangular
cross-section

f
s
6/5.
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ENG5312 Mechanics of Solids II
Note:

U
i
due to shear is usually much less than

U
i
for bending (se e.g.14.4,
Hibbeler, 6e) and the shear strain energy stored in beams is usually neglected.
6.3.4 Torsional Moment
Consider a shaft with a gradually changing cross-section:
If the shaft is subjected to an internal torque

T at

x from one end, the shear

stress on the element

dA
at

from the centroid is

T/J
, and using Eq. (6-
6) the strain energy is;

U
i

2G
dV
1
2G
T
J



_
,

2
dAdx
V

Or

U
i

T
2
2GJ
2

2
dA
A

_
,

0
L

dx (6-16)
But the polar moment of inertia, J, is defined as:

J
2
dA
A

(6-17)
Using Eq. (6-17) the strain energy can be written:

U
i

T
2
2GJ
dx
0
L

(6-18)
If the shaft (or tube) has constant cross-sectional area:

U
i

T
2
L
2GJ
(6-19)
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ENG5312 Mechanics of Solids II
6.4 Conservation of Energy
The principal of conservation of energy states: Energy is a conserved property.
It can neither be created nor destroyed; only its form can be altered from one
form of energy to another.
Only mechanical energy will be considered, but kinetic energy will be neglected
since all loadings will be gradual.
Conservation of energy would require that the external work done by applied
loads (i.e. applied loads that cause deflections) must be equivalent to the strain
energy developed in a body as it deforms.

U
e
U
i
(6-20)
If the loads are removed the stored strain energy will restore the body to its
undeformed state (if the elastic limit has not been exceeded).
6.4.1 Trusses
Consider a truss subjected to the load

P.
If the point of application of the load

P deflects

in the direction of

P, and
the load is increased gradually from 0 to

P
, then from Eq. (6-1):

U
e

1
2
P (6-21)
This external work done on the body is stored as strain energy. If, due to

P, the
axial force

N
develops in a member, the strain energy stored in that member is

N
2
L
2AE
from Eq. (6-11). To determine the total strain energy stored in the truss:
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ENG5312 Mechanics of Solids II

U
i

N
2
L
2AE

(6-22)
Where the summation is over all the members in the truss.
Conservation of energy requires

U
e
U
i
, therefore:

1
2
P
N
2
L
2AE

(6-23)
The deflection

caused by

P can be evaluated after the axial forces in each

member of the truss has been determined using statics.
6.4.2 Vertically Loaded Beams
Consider a beam loaded with the vertical force P.
The deflection at the point of application of P can be determined from the
conservation of energy, Eq. (6-20), using Eqs. (6-1) and (6-12), for

U
e
and

U
i
, respectively:

1
2
P
M
2
2EI
dx
0
L

(6-24)
The bending moment would be written as a function of

x.
Note: the beam deflects due to bending moment and shear, however, the strain
energy due to shear is usually neglected, thus the deflection can be written as a
function of bending moment only.
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ENG5312 Mechanics of Solids II
6.4.3 Beams Loaded with a Couple
Consider a cantilever beam subjected to an applied moment

M
o
.
The couple moment will cause the rotation

at the point of application, and it

does work due to this rotation:

U
e
M
o
/2from Eq. (6-2).
The strain energy would be caused by the bending moment

M, and

U
i

M
2
2EI
dx
0
L

from Eq. (6-12).

Conservation of energy, Eq. (6-20), would require:

1
2
M
0

M
2
2EI
dx
0
L

(6-25)
Where

Mis a function of

x.
Note: Application of the conservation of energy is limited to situations where only
one applied load exists. For multiple applied loads, each load would have an
associated external work and deflection, but there is only one conservation
equation, so only one unknown deflection can be solved.
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ENG5312 Mechanics of Solids II
6.5 Impact Loading
Remember Mechanics II? Remember work-energy and conservation of energy
methods?
E.g. A weight is dropped from rest from a height

h
on to a linear spring, with
spring constant

k
. What is the maximum deflection of the spring?
o Conservation of energy:

T
1
+V
1
T
2
+V
2

Wh+
max
( )
1
2
k
max
2
o Or Work-Energy:

U
e
U
i
strain energy in the spring.

Wh+
max
( )
kxdx
1
2
k
max
2
0

max

o The result can be rearranged to give:

max
2

2W
k

max

2W
k
h0
o The quadratic equation can be solved to give the maximum root:

max

W
k
+
W
k



_
,

2
+2
W
k
h



_
,

(6-26)
o If the weight is applied statically (i.e. gradually)

Wk
st
or

st
W/k, and
Eq. (6-26) can be written as:

max

st
+
st
2
+2
st
h
o Or

max

st
1+ 1+2
h

st



1
]
1 (6-27)
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ENG5312 Mechanics of Solids II
o Where the term in the square root is the extra displacement due to dynamic
loading.
o Note: if

h0
, i.e. the weight W is released while it just touches the spring,

max
2
st
.
E.g. A weight W travelling with velocity

v on a frictionless horizontal surface

impacts a linear spring, with spring constant

k
. What is the maximum deflection
of the spring?
o Conservation of Energy;

T
1
+V
1
T
2
+V
2

1
2
W
g



_
,

v
2

1
2
k
max
2
o Or

max
2

Wv
2
gk
(6-28)
o A statically loaded spring would deflect

st
W/k, so Eq. (6-28) can be
written as:

max

st
v
2
g
(6-29)
How to convert this information into deflections of dynamically loaded members?
i.e. How is impact loading simulated?
Assume:
i. The moving body is rigid.
ii. The stationary body deforms in a linear-elastic manner (i.e. it behaves as
a linear spring).
iii. No energy is lost during the collision.
iv. The bodies remain in contact during the collision.
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ENG5312 Mechanics of Solids II
These are conservative assumptions, which lead to overestimates of forces (i.e.
good for design purposes).
With these assumptions, the deformable body behaves like a linear spring.
i.e. an effective spring constant can be defined and Eqs. (6-27) or (6-29) can be
used to determine

max
.
An equivalent spring constant is not required. All that is needed is the static
deflection,

st
, for use in Eq. (6-27).

st
can be obtained from the equation of
the elastic curve, Hookes Law, Appendix C, or conservation of energy and strain
energy.
An impact factor,

n, can be defined from Eq. (6-27):

n1+ 1+2
h

st



_
,
(6-30)
So:

max
n
st
n
W
k
( )
And

P
max
nWk
max
And the maximum stress is then:

max
n
st
.
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