2008
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'
. . . . .
'
.'
,
.
, .
. ,
.
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MBA
.
,
.
. ,
. ) (Wiggins,1988
" .
.
.
.
).(Kohlberg, 1984
.
) .(Haidt, 2000; Walker, 2000
,
"
. ,
.
:
, , .
, . ) (Haidt, 2001
. ) (
,
. , , ,
.
)( Damasio,1994
.
) & Conlisk,1996; Kahneman
.(Tversky,1979; March,1978; Simon,1972,1976;Tversky & Kahneman,1974
,
,
).(Frijda.1986; Izard,1977;Schwartz,1998
"
) ( , "
. NDM
) .(Naturalistic Decision Making
, , , ,
. ,
, ) Klein, Orasanu, Calderwood & Zeambok
.( 1993; Lipshitz, Klein, Orasanu,& Salas ,2001
.
).(Collins,2000;Weaver,2007
,
.Developmental Mixed Methods
. "
. "
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.
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,(Forsyth.1980) EPQ ,
EPQ .
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,
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) (Haidt, 2001 ,"
,
)(Haidt,Rosin,McCauley & Imada,1997
SIM-
. ,
. ) ( .
. ' )& Lieberman ,Gaunt, Gilbert
(Trope ,2002 ,
,
.
.
: .
. .
.
".
.1 15 ..........................................................................................................................
1.1 15 ...................................................................................................
1.2 17 ..........................................................................
1.3 20 ........................................................................
1.4 22 .......................................................................
1.5 23 .........................................
1.6 24 .................................................................................
1.7 24 ............................................................
1.8 27 ................................................
.2 29 ...............................................................................................................
2.1 29 ..............................................................................................
2.1.1 29 ......................................................................
2.1.2 33 ............................................................
2.1.3 36 ............................................................................
2.1.3.1 36 ....................................................
2.1.3.2 38 ..................................................
2.2 59 ...........................................................
2.2.1 59 .........................................................................
2.2.2 62 ................................................................
2.2.3 64 .................................................................
2.2.4 - 64 ..........................................................................................
2.2.5 65 .........................................................................................
2.3 69 ................................................
2.3.1 69 .............................................................
2.3.2 71 ..................................................................
2.3.3 72 ..................................................................................................
2.3.4 73 .......................................................................................................
" 2.3.5 " - 73 ................................................
2.3.6 74 .............................................................
2.3.7 75 ....................................................................................
2.3.8 )76 .................................................................... (omission bias
2.3.9 - ) ( 77 .........................
2.3.10 78 ........................................................................................
2.4 80 ..........................................................
2.5 83 ...............................................................................................
2.5.1 83 ................................................................................................
2.5.2 84 ....................................................................
2.5.3 86 .....................................................................
2.5.4 87 ..................................................................
2.5.5 88 ........................................
2.5.6 89 .......................................................................................
2.5.7 89 ...........................................................
2.5.8 90 .......................................................................
2.5.9 93 ........................................................................
2.6 97 ..................................................................
.3 98 ...................................................................................
.4 - 1 106 .................................
4.1 106 ................................................................................................................
4.2 106 .......................................................................................................
4.2.1 106 .........................................................
4.2.2 110 ....................................................................
4.2.3 - 112 ...................
4.2 113 .....................................................................................................
4.3 113 .......................................................................................................
4.3.1 113 .....................
4.3.2 118 ...........................................................................................
4.3.3 118 .................................................................................................
4.3.4 119 ................................................................................................
4.4 121 ...............................................................................................................
4.4.1 122 .....................................................
4.4.2 122 .................................
4.4.3 125 ..................................................................................
4.4.4 131 ...........................................................
4.4.5 137 ........................................................
4.4.6 144 ......................................................................
4.4.7 152 ................................................
4.5 156 .......................................................................................................
4.5.1 157 .............................................................................
4.5.2 166 ...................................
4.5.3 168 .............................................................................................
4.5.4 171 .........................................................
4.5.5 176 ................................................
4.5.6 183 .................................................................................
4.6 187 ...............................................................................................................
4.7 190 ...........................................................
.5 - 2 192 ................................................
5.1 192 ...............................................................................................................
5.2 192 .......................................................................................................
5.2.1 192 ....................................................................................
5.2.2 194 ......................................................................................
5.2.3 195 .............................................................................................
5.2.4 197 ..............
5.2.5 198 ...........................................................................
5.2.6 200 .......................................
5.3 201 ..............................................................................
5.3.1 201 ..............................
5.3.2 204 .....................................................................
5.3.3 205 ............................................................. In basket items -
5.4 207 ........................................................................................................
5.4.1 208 .............................................................................................
5.4.2 215 ...................................................................
5.4.3 217 ...............................................................................................
5.5 219 ...............................................................................................................
5.5.1 220 .........................................................................................
5.5.2 240 .........................................
5.5.3 241 .....................................................................................
5.5.4 241 ..................................................................................................
5.5.5 - 243 ...........................
5.5.6 245 ..........................................................................................
5.5.7 252 ......................................................................................
5.6 254 ......................................................................................................
5.6.1 254 ..................................................................................................
5.6.2 255 ..............................................................
5.6.3 256 ..................................................................
5.6.4 257 ..............................................................
5.6.5 258 ........................................................................
5.6.6 262 ..............................................................
5.7 264 .........................................................................................
5.8 266 ............................................................................................
.6 - 3 267 ......................................
6.1 267 ................................................................................................................
6.2 268 ......................................................................................................
6.2.1 268 ..............................
6.2.2 272 ............................................................
6.2.3 274 ...........................................................................
6.2.4 275 ...................................................................................
6.2.5 276 .............................................................
6.2.6 277 .........................................................
6.3 279 .......................................................................................................
6.3.1 279 ............................................................................................
6.3.2 280 ..............................................................................................
6.3.3 282 ................................................................................................
6.3.4 282 .............................................................................
6.3.5 282 .........................................................................
6.4 284 ..............................................................................................................
6.4.1 284 ........................................................................
6.4.2 285 ...........................
10
6.4.3 286 .....................................................
6.4.4 287 ................................................................
6.4.5 287 ..................................................
6.4.6 288 ...............................................................
6.5 289 ......................................................................................................
6.5.1 289 ...............................................
6.5.2 291 ..................................................
6.5.4 292 .......................................................
6.5.5 293 ............................................................................
6.5.6 294 ...........................................................................................................
.7 295 ........................................................................................................
7.1295 ....................................................................................................................
7.2 297 .........................................................................................................
7.3 299 .....................................................................................
7.4 300 ............................................................................................
7.5 301 .........................................................
7.6 303 ...........................................................
7.7 304 .........................................................................
7.8 305 ...................................................................
7.9 309 ..............................................................................................
.8 311 ........................................................................................................................
.9 312 .....................................................................................................................
.10 349 ...................................................................................................................
' 363 ................................................................................................................ 1
' 367 ................................................................................................................ 2
' 372 ................................................................................................................ 3
' 379 ................................................................................................................ 4
' 393 ................................................................................................................ 5
' 305 ................................................................................................................ 6
307
' 7
' 413 ................................................................................................................ 8
11
' 416 ................................................................................................................ 9
, :
' 1' - 126 ...............
' 2' " 129 ..............................................
' 3' " 130 .......................................
' 4' - 141 ....................................................
' 5' - " 142 ..................................................................
' 6' - 143 ..............................
' 7' 149 ...........................................................
' 8' - " 150 .......................................
' 9' " 151 .............................................
' 1' 210 ...................................
' 2' - 211
' 3' - " 211 ................
' 4' - 213 ............................................................................
5' 213 ........................................................................
' 6' - " 214 ..........................................
7' - " 221 ...................................
' 8' - 224 .............................
' 9' - 225 ...........................
' 10' - 225 .................................
' 11'- 226 ......................................................................
' 12' - 227 ..........................................................................
' 13' - 227 ............
' 14' - 228 .......................................................
' 15' - 229 ...............................................
' 16' - 231 .......................................................
' 17' - 233 ......................................
' 18' - 234 ........................................................
' 19'
234 .....................................................................................................................
12
' 20' - ) ( 235 .....................................
' 21' -
236 ...................................................................................................................
' 22' - 237 ......
' 23' - 238 ...................
' 24' - 239 .....
' 25' - 241 ............................................................................
' 26' - " 242 .........................................
' 27' - " 243 ................................
' 28' - 244 ..................................................
' 29' - 245 ...........................
' 30' - 245 ................................
' 31' - 246 .............................
' 32' - 247 ........................................
' 33' - " 249 ........................................
' 1' - " 5 281 .......................
' 2' - )281 ............ Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA
' 3' - - X 284 ..........................
' 4' t 285 ................
' 5' - ) (285 ...............................................
' 6' - ) ( 285 ........................................
' 7 ' - 286 ...........................................................................
' 8' - 278 ................................................
' 9' - 288 .........
' 10' - t 288 .............................................................
' 1' - )48 ................................................. ( Rest, 1986
' 2' - 49 ....................................
' 3' - " ' )52 .................(Lieberman et al, 2002
' 4' - ) 53 ....................................................(Walker, 2000
' 5' - )55 ...............................................................(SIM
' 6' - ' )81 ................................ ( Jones, 1991
' 7' - 87 ..............................................
13
' 7' - 99 .............................................................................................
' 8' - 100 ..............................................
' 9' - ) 103 ............... (Tashakkori &Teddlie, 1998
' 10' - 104 .................................................................................
' 11' - 105 .........................................................................................
' 1' - ) ,' 160 ...............................................
' 2' - 186 ........................................................
' 3' - 187 ...............................................
' 4' - 189 ..................................................
' 1' - 216 ...........................................................................................
' 2' - 218 .........
' 3' - 223 .........................................................
' 4' - 241 ..................................................
' 1' - 242 ...........................................................................................
' 1' - - 127 ............
' 2' - 141 ...............................................
' 1' - 220 ................
' 2' - 228 .........................
' 3' - 234 .........
' 1' - " 286 .........................................
14
.1
1.1
1
.
,
. ) (Wiggins, 1980
"
:
few moral situations come already inscribed with the names of all the concerns they
touch or impinge upon [and] the relevant features may not all jump to the eye
(Wiggins, 1980, p. 231).
' ) (Butterfield, Trevino & Weaver, 2000
. ,
, .
70 " " "
"" . .
) (Trevino & Nelson, 2004 )Dennis
(Gioia "" ,
)
( . '
, , .
) (Gioia, 1992 ,2004
. "
, ""
:
) .(Trevino,Weaver & Reynolds,2006" ) (2002
.
,
, .
15
The key question is how could I engaged in a decision process that appeared to
violate my own strong values - a decision process whose subsequent manifestations
continue to be cited by many observers as a supposedly definitive study of corporate
unethical behavior. I tend to discount the obvious accusations, that my values werent
really strong held, that I had turned my back to my own values in the interest of
loyalty to Ford, that I was somehow intimidated into making decisions in the best
interests of the company, that despite my principled statements I had not actually
achieved a high stage of moral development and so on. (Gioia, 2004, In Trevino &
Nelson, 2004, p.130).
My own schematized (scripted) knowledge influenced me to perceive recall issues in
terms of prevailing decision environment and to unconsciously overlook key features
of the Pinto case ,mainly because it didnt fit to existing scripts. Although the outcome
of the case carry retrospectively obvious ethical outcomes, the schemas driving my
perspectives and actions precluded consideration of issues in ethical terms because
the scripts didnt include ethical dimensions . (Gioia, 1992, p.365)
,
, ,
, ,
.( Haidt, 2001; Messcik & Bazerman, 1996; Narvaez, 1996; Walker, 2000)
.
.
Mixed Methods) ,
( Methodology
. "
..
25% , .(2000 ," )
, . ,
.
. ,
,
:
16
' :
" . , ,
.
. .
") . (
' :
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,
, ") .
(
,
."
" ,
. " ,
.
1.2
,
, ) .(Rest, 1986
,
.
.
, "
. : ,
. '" ) (Bazerman & Chugh, 2006
" "
) .(bounded awareness
, .
.
,
. " ,
. , "
, .
17
.
)Schwartz, 1996
.(2001
.
) .(Fiske & Taylor, 1991 ,
, ).(Broadbent, 1958
) (Fiske & Taylor, 1991
. ,
.
.
. ,
,
.
) (Walker, 2000
. "
,
.
. :
.
) .(Nisbett, Peng, Choi & Norenzayan, 2001 ,
: )& Kahneman, 2000; Kahneman & Tversky, 1979, 1984 ;Tversky
,(Kahneman, 1981 ) ,(Kahneman, Knetsch & Thaler, 1986
) (Boyle, Dahlstrom & Kellaris ,1998 . ) (Hogarth, 2001
.
, .
:
I have interacted with economists during of most of my professional career. What
strikes me about their discourseis how the terminology and reasoning processes of
economists, work their way into almost all the topics ...indeed when faced with issues
that they find hard to conceptualize, such as problem involving personal relationships,
18
they seem to have a strong desire to translate the discussion into economic terms as
well as a great sense of relief when they can tag the unfamiliar with familiar labels.
)(Hogarth, 2001, p.223
. ) (Rubinstein, 2006
, , ,
) (company )
( .
. ,
" :
"This appears to support the intuition that presenting a problem mathematically ,as
"we often do in economics, conceals the real life complexity of the situation
(Rubinstein, 2006, p.C9).
) (framing ,
, , , .
) .(Schwartz, 1996
.
) ,(Wyer,Strull,Gordon & Hartwick, 1982 ).(Hastie, 1981
,
, " " ,
) .(Gioia, 1992, Jordan, 2005 ' )& Dukerich, Waller, George
(Huber, 2000 " ,
:
" operations decisions may have also moral implications. the operational
decision of buying new equipment may have moral implications if it affects safety,
however, managers may not recognize such implications for these type of decision.
Our results suggest that certain problem labels, such as operations, were less likely to
)be associated with moral problems" (p.36
19
1.3
.
, .
.
, ) (Kohlberg, 1984
.
) ( , "
).(Etzioni, 1988
. ,
.
, ) :
, , " '
) . (Colby et al, 1987a, 1987b
.
) Blasi, 1980; Haidt, 2001; Krebs
& & Denton, 2005; Rest, Narvaez, Bebeau, & Thoma, 1999; Walker, 2000; Wark
.( Krebs, 2000
) (Kohlberg, 1984 .
" :
) ,(Blasi,1980;Nisan,1993 ),(Rest et al, 1999
" , "
) .(Haviv & Leman, 2002; Wark & Krebs, 2000
)Haidt, 2001; Haidt & :
.(Bjorklund, 2008; Greene & Haidt, 2002; Walker, 2000
) (Wark & Krebs, 2000 ) (Haviv & Leman, 2002
" " .
,
20
" " ) .(Colby et al, 1987a
, ,
, .
." ,
.
' ) (Walker ,2000' ) (Haidt, 2001 "
.
.
,
" , ,
. ,
:
"In daily experience, automatic, rapid cognitive processing goes on continuously,
unmonitored by conscious thought. In most cases , we can only become aware that
something morally important is happening because we experience an emotion which
tells us so...the emotion provides us with immediate, visceral, intuitive knowledge
about what is going before we have time to 'think' in any sort of controlled or rational
)way".(Walker, 2000, p.138
) (Haidt, 2001; Haidt & Bjorklund, 2008 Social
) .Intuitionist Model (SIM
, . ) (
,
. , , ,
:
"Moral beliefs and motivations comes from a small set of intuitions that evolution has
prepared the human brain to developmoral reasoning done by an individual is
& usually devoted to finding reasons to support the individual's intuition"(Haidt
Bjorklund, 2008, p.181).
21
1.4
.(Goleman, 1995)
,
. ,
.( Ben-Zee'v, 1997)
,
,
.
( Lazarus, 1991) .
:
"From an emotional reaction we can learn much about what a person has at stake in
encounter with the environment or in life in general, how that person interprets self
and the world, and how harms, threats, and challenge are coped with. No other
concept in psychology is as richly revealing of the way an individual relates to life.."
(pp 6-7)
( Kahneman, 2003)
, .
, " .
, .
:
"The idea of an affect heuristic (Slovic et al 2002) is probably the most important
development in the study of judgment heuristics in the past few decades. There is
compelling evidence for the proposition that every stimulus evokes an affective
evaluation, which is not always conscious The failure to identify the affect heuristic
much earlier and its enthusiastic acceptance in recent years reflect significant
changes in the general climate of psychological opinion It is worth noting that the
idea of purely cognitive biases appeared novel and distinctive in the early 1970s
because the prevalence of motivated and emotional biases of judgment was taken for
granted by the social psychologists of the time. There followed a period of intense
emphasis on cognitive processes in psychology generally and in the field of judgment
in particular. It took another 30 years to achieve what now appears to be a more
integrated view of the role of affect in intuitive judgment"t.(Kahneman, 2003. p.710)
22
)(Averill,1982; Parkinson, 1996; Salovey, 2007; Shaver, Wu & Schwartz,1992 :
.
,
) .(Rozin, Lowery, Imada, & Haidt,1999; Haidt, 2003
)(Haidt, 2001 ,2003
) .(Tangney & Dearing, 2002 ' )Skoe et al,
(2002
.
1.5
,
) .Damasio, 1994; Greene, Sommerville, Nystrom,Darley, & :
) .(Cohen, 2001; Moll et al, 2002 ' ) (Moll et al, 2002 ,
)"(
) ( .
) ( ,
. "
,
' ) .(Greene et al ,2001
) .(FMRI
. :
) " ( ,
, .
.
.
. ) ,(Kohlberg, 1984
,
,
.
.
23
1.6
. .
,
,, " "
.
.
.
,
.
)Badaracco, 1997,2001,2003 ; Lennick & Kiel,
.(2005; Messick & Bazerman, 1996; Ulriech & Thielemann, 1993; Watson, 1996
. ,
"
" ) .(Jackall, 1988
) (Badaracco, 1997
.
" , , ,
, .
, .
" " ' ) (Sartre, 1989 "
".
1.7
. 1928 )& Hartshorn
(May,1928 .
, ,
. ) ,(Kunda, 1999
24
. ' );Doris ,2002
(Harman, 2003
,
.
.
. .
) (Messick & Bazerman, 1996
. , , ,
,
. ,
, ,
.
, .
,
.
. ,
" .
"
. "
, , ,
. .
.
) .(Gioia, 1992 ' ) (Nisbet et al, 2001
:
" ," , ,
. ) (Abelson, 1981
" , "
.
) (Kunda, 2006
, .,
25
,
.
,
). (Jackall,1988; Schweitzer, Ordonez,& Douma, 2004
.
.
,
. ' ) (Payne, Raiborn & Askvik, 1997
, ) (Price, 2001
.
,
. )Blay
(2005
,
" " ) .(Kunda, 1990 ,
:
"This suggest that it is unlikely that different reporting choices resulted from a
conscious choice biase, but rather that motivated reasoning during evidence
evaluation plays a key role in the effect of risk in auditor decision making" (Blay,
2005 ,p782.).
' ) (Jordan, 2005
."
) (Hegarty & Sims,1978 :
"When the emphasis is on the bottom line ,it is not surprising that actions are taken in
& accordance with rationalization asserting that the end justify the means" (Hegarty
)Sims, 1978,p.456
) Bartunek,
(1988
.
.
. ) (Rosenberg, 1987
MBA . "
.
26
,
. ) "
(
.
"
" ,"
.
. ""
"" .
1.8& &
.
, , ,
, , , , .
: )Lutzen et al, 1994; Gardiner, 2003; :
,(Kitchener, 1992; Spark & Marensky, 2000, Walker, 2000 ):
;Butterfield et al, 2002; Karcher, 1996; Payne & Giacalone, 1990; Shaub et al, 1993
,(Sparks & Hunt, 1998 )Haidt, 2001; Moll et al, 2003; Nortvedt, :
,(2001 )(Aharony & Geva, 2003; Pask, 2001; Swider et al, 1985 :
) .(Sparks & Merenski, 2001; Zlotkowski, 1996 :
.
) :
, , ,(.
, "
.
) .(Morse,1995 ,2000 " "
.
" , "
:
a blind spot in moral theoriesas if the act of
"Moral perception tend to be
identifying and recognizing a situation as morally significant merited no theoretical
)inquiry and met with no practical obstacles" (Vetlesen , 1994 ,p,7
27
: , .
.
, ,
.
,
. ) (Covey,1989
,
. ,
,
.
.
.
/
.
,
.
.
. ) (1
/
. 1
. ) (2
. ) (2 ,
, ,"
, . 2
. ) (3
,
, ). (priming effect experiment
28
.2
.
, ,
.
.
. :
.
.
. ."
,
) ( ,
,
.
" " "" .
.
,
.
2.1
2.1.1
,
.
) ( ,
, )
( . .
" "
) .(Von Neumann & Morgenstern, 1947
) (Expected Utility ,
. ) (EU
,
.
29
Rational
,Choice Theory .
),(Macfadyen, 1986; Zey, 1998
) .(Baron, 2000 :
, ,
.
, . "
.
.
" " .
) (Hastie, 2001 ) (EU
." ,
. ) (Messick, 1999 :
The claim...is that, in many social situations, the assumptions of standard expected
utility theory may be invalid as descriptions of the processes underlying decision
makingI think our responses in these situations are often rooted in shallow rules,
habitual rituals, and other processes that are not directly intended to maximize
) outcomes, values, or utilities. (pp14-15
) (Hogarth, 2001"
" " : "" .
,
:
as someone who has taught many courses in decision making, I sense a gap
between what we teach and many characteristics of daily life.when making real
decisions people are sensitive to the context in which they are operatingthe effect is
that people quickly forget abstract principles and react to the context in which they
find themselvesour intuitions affect most of the small decision we make on a daily
) basis(p. ix
, .
,
.
30
. ,
) ;Conlisk, 1996; March,1978
.( Kahneman & Tversky, 1979; Simon ,1972, 1976; Tversky & Kahneman, 1974
) (Simon, 1972,1976
. ,
.
) .(bounded rationality ,
, )(satisficing
"" ) (optimizing " .
" ""
. ,
,
) .(Hanoch ,2002 ,
.
' ):( Loewenstein, Hsee, Weber, & Welch, 2001
"Even theories that do take emotions into consideration typically view emotions as a
consequence of one's decision. In contrast, our model, and the substantial body of
research on which it is based, suggest that gut feelings experienced at the moment of
making a decision, which are often quite independent of the consequences of the
decision, can play a critical role in the choice one eventually makes". (Loewenstein et
)al, 2001, p.280.my emphasis
) (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1996
.
,
.
.
"" ).(availability
,
. ,
. ,
.
31
. ) (Shwartz, 1998
,
.
. ) (Huber, 1997
)
( ,
.
'" ) (Chugh & Bazerman, 2004
,
. ,
) ( .
" " ) .(bounded awareness ,
)
( :
"we argue that people have bounded awareness that prevents them from focusing
on easily observable and relevant data. We define bounded awareness as the
phenomenon in which individuals do not see accessible and perceivable
information during the decision-making process, while seeing other equally
accessible and perceivable information; as a result, useful information remains out of
)focus for the decision-maker" .(Chugh & Bazerman, 2004, p.3
"
) ( , "
.
) ) Naturalistic Decision Making (NDM Lipshitz et :
.(al, 2001 NDM
. NDM
, , ,
. ,
,
.
,
. ""
"
.
32
)Greene & Haidt, 2002; :
.(Haidt, 2001; Walker, 2000
,
) ,(Kohlberg, 1984 " .
) (Walker, 2000
,
. ,
. ,
.
:
"Morality in everyday life is not a process of receiving facts about an objective world,
deducing what is right to do, and then acting or failing to act. Situations in the real
world are inherently ambiguous, and their moral significance in particular is
profoundly underdetermined by available facts" (Walker, 2000, p.136).
) (Haidt, 2001
. "
.
, :
"moral judgment is a product of quick and automatic intuitions that then give rise to
slow conscious moral reasoning". (Haidt, 2001, p.820).
:
.
2.1.2
NDM - :
. , , ,
.
. .
.
).(Lipshitz et al, 2001
) (Rasmussen,1997 NDM
:
33
"The appeal of the naturalistic decision making (NDM) approach is that it attempts
not only to describe decisions as spontaneous reactions to real events, but also views
decision makers to be expert, trained operatives rather than naive experimental
participants. The emphasis is very much on putting the decision maker in a realistic
)context and, in that sense at least, represents a departure from earlier work" (p.315
NDM ,
. ,
,
.
NDM- "
, ) & Flin et al, 1997; Kaempf, Klein, Thordson
.(Wolf, 1996; Lipshitz & Strauss, 1997 ) (Klein, 1993, 1998
,
. "
,
.
, . ,
.
. "
. .
,
. ,
.
( Reconition Primed Decision ) RPD-
:
.1
.
.
.2 "
.
34
.3
.
. RPD- ,
RPD 50% ) .(Kaempf et al, 1996; Klein, 1998
) (1999 ,
) (well defined ) .(ill defined
. , , : , ,
, ,
. : ,
, . .RPD
NDM
. ) (Lipshitz & Strauss, 1997 ,
.
.
.
: " ,
) (, .
,
. ,
.
"
)Kaufman, Patel & Magder; Kushmiruk, 2000; Lephron & Patel 1995, :
.(1996 ) (Elstein, 2001
NDM " , , :
"The characteristics (of the NDM) are all present in clinical medicine, where highly
trained and experienced physicians work in an environment characterized by illstructured problems, high level of uncertainty, and unclear or competing goals
further few physicians use formalism like decision analysis to select diagnostic tests
or to choose a treatment. Instead ,clinical reasoning is usually pattern matching to
)categorize situations and rule governed choice of action" (Elstein, 2001, p.363
35
, :
. .
. .
. .
. .
.
, .
. .
.
2.1.3
2.1.3.1
" "Moralis "" " " ."
,
, .
, .
,
)" : "" , "(
:
) .(2001 ,
) .(Frankena, 1963 ) (1980
" "?
" "? ,
, . ,
" .
, , " ),' .(5
.
,
/ ) .(Velasquaze, 1998
) (Ferrell & Fraderich, 1991
"" "" . ) (1991
36
.
"
" ) ' ,(27 "
" ) ' .(28
,
.
) .(1998
) (MacIntyre, 1967 ,
.
,
.
,
) .(1998 , ,
) ,(MacIntyre, 1967
, ,
:
"Moral concepts are embodied in and are partially constitutive of forms of social
life. One key way in which we may identify one form of social life as distinct from
another is by identifying differences in moral concepts". (MacIntyre, 1967, p.1).
) (Rawls, 1971 "
: . . . " "
"" ""
"" "" ) .(Rawls, 1971 ,p.24
, .
, " ." ,
.
"
. :
) , ( .
. ,
.
. ,
: . ,
. .
37
.
: . ? .
? ,
? .
?
2.1.3.2
) (Haidt & Bjorklund, 2008 ;1984,
. ) (
"
" .
.
, ).(Skinner, 1971
) ,(Freud, 1900/1976 ,
. ) (1984
. ) (Haidt & Bjorklund, 2008 "empty-hat
" .model " "
" "
:
"Infants and toddlers certainly seem like empty hats as far as morality is concerned,
and then, somehow, by the time they are teenagers, they have morality morality
must have come from outside in morality comes from society.., via the media and
)parents" (Haidt & Bjorklund, 2008, pp.183-184
.
. ) (
.
" .
.
"
) ,1984 ,' .(385 ) ( Haidt & Bjorklund, 2008 "
" . '
.
38
. Moral Sense Theory
" ".
" ) (Hume, 1969/1777
.
) :
] ([Damasio, 1994 ):
(de Waal, 2000; Pinker, 1997
" .
" ) (Haidt & Bjorklund, 2008:
" the sudden appearance in consciousness, or at the fringe of consciousness, of an
evaluative feeling (like-dislike, good-bad) about the character or actions of a person,
without any conscious awareness of having gone through steps of search, weighing
) evidence, or inferring a conclusion" (ibid ,p.187
20
. : , ) & Kurtines
,(Gewirtz, 1995 ).(Greene & Haidt, 2002 ,Haidt, 2001
) (Freud, 1900/1976 . ,
, ) .(1984 ,
,
" ."
. ,
, . , .
,"
" ,
"" . "
,
" . " .
.
39
) (
) (
. ) (Watson, 1913
) (Skinner, 1971
,
" . ,
.
" )( Bandura & McDonald, 1963:
. " ) (
,
.
. ) (Haidt & Bjorklund, 2008
) Garcia & Koelling,
(1966
, .
, , ,
. ,
, .
.
,
. ,
.
.
) (
.
.
.
, )Kohlberg,1969,
.(1971,1984; Piaget, 1932/1965
.
,
.
.
. "
40
) .(Kurtines & Gewirtz, 1995"
:
. , .
. .
. )
(.
. .
,
.
. , .
'
.'
,
:
"All morality consists in a system of rules, and the essence of all morality is to be
sought for in the respect which the individual acquires for these rules" (Piaget, 1932
)/1965, p.13
' ,
.'
:
.
.
.
.
) (Kohlberg ,1969, 1971 ,1984 ' .
,
,
) .(Endler et al.,1978
' ) ,
'( .
' .
.
) .(Gibbs, 1995 ,
, .
41
, .,
.
, ,
.
. ,
.
.
." ,
, " .
.
, )" "( .
.
, ,
. ) " "(
, , , .
,
. , .
"
. ,
.
) 5 .(6
. )
( ,
.
. "
:
" , .
. .
, .
200 2000 . ,
, ", " 1000 ,
.
, . "!
" ,
?"
42
) (Colby et al, 1987a,1987b
,
. : "
. ,
.
,
. "
"
5 .6 '
) (Colby et al, 1983 , 13% ,5
, ."
.6 ) (Snarey, 1985
.
. 5,
" .5
) (Gibbs, 1995 5
:
"In my view, even stage 5 is inappropriate definer of moral judgment maturity .not
because it is crossculturally incomplete, but more basically because any ethical
philosophical level, even in broadened form, misrepresents moral judgment maturity
as restricted to those who are philosophically articulate". (Gibbs, 1995,p.36).
) ( , )
( .
. ,
,
. , ,
) (Kuhn, 1970 .
). (Day & Tappan ,1996
) (Krebs & Denton, 2005
.
.
" . ,
43
.2 ,
2 .
.
, " ,
. , ,
" , , " .
,
,
.
, ).(Krebs et al, 1997
) (Lapsley & Narvaez, 2005 ""
,
:
"..his attempt to transform the study of moral behavior by appealing to a set of
assumptions and definition imported from ethics, has had the
philiosophical
unintended consequence of isolating moral psychological research from advances in
other domains of psychology, effectively pushing it to the margins of contemporary
)psychological research(p. 21
, :
.
.
.
.
. .
. .
) (Blasi, 1980 "" .
.
:
"A reasonable explanation for this neglect is the overwhelming influence that Piaget's
rationalistic views of human nature and of human functioning have had on cognitive
)developmental theory as a whole".(Blasi, 1980, p.41
2 ) (Krebs & Denton, 2005
.
, ,
). , 2008, (
44
) (Blasi, 1980 ' :
. . .
.
" "
. ) (Blasi, 1993,1995
, ,
.
. ,
.
.
, .
: ) (Hart & Fegley, 1995
.
, .
,
. ) (Colby & Damon, 1992
" . 23
" :
, , ,
.
,
" ) .(Kohlberg, 1984
.
) (Nisan, 2004 , .
) " (
" .
/ , .
,
.
. ) (
. , "
.
.
45
,
):(Nisan, 2004
our
"Moral judgment occasionally arises within us, seemingly detached from
personal stance. Sometimes a person wants to be "distanced" from himself, to stand
behind the "veil of ignorance" and to attain "objective" judgment. Such are the
'responses of subjects of Kohlberg's Heinz dilemma, which is remote from subjects
presented to them with the most minimal information. In reaching choice
lives and
,by contrast, the person cannot and does not want to be distanced from himself. This is
his choiceit is based on the recognition of the unavoidable limitations of objective
)judgment" (Nisan, 2004, p.155
, " ) ,(Nisan, 2004 "
.
, , ,
. " "
. ,
""
, :
"The identity in which morality is integrated differs from the universalistic identity
Blasi has in mind, and the judgment that grows out of the integration differs from the
autonomous judgment implied by the model" (Nisan, 2004, p.160).
) (Gilligan, 1982
. ,
. ,
. , , .
,
.
) .(White, 1991
" "In a Different Voice 1982 1995 :
"
,
" ) ,' 44 (.
,
. ,
46
"
. , .
.
.
'.
) (DesAutels, 1996
. .
" .
" .
,
.
' ) (Rest ,Narvaez, Bebeau & Thoma, 1999
3DIT(Defining Issues Test)-
. DIT " '
. :
. .
. .
. .
.
. ) (
.
, .
. .
, '
, .
) (Walker, 2002 "
,
.
3 ,
.
47
)
) (Rest, 1986 ) ' 1'(
/
:
: 1 .
.
. ,
.
: 2 .
" " ,
.
: 3
,
.
.
.
.
:4
. "
:
, . )ego
,(strength .
" , "
. ,
, ,1
. .
,
. "
.
' 1' )( Rest, 1986
48
' 2' -
) (Kohlberg,1984
:
*
.
*" "
*
*
)(Gilligan,1982
*
.
*
:
*
'
)(Rest et al,1999
.
* .
.
* ""
.
*
*
)( Blasi,1995
)( Nisan,1993
.
.
49
' 2' / ) (Kohlberg, 1984
: ),(Gilligan, 1982
) ,(Rest et al, 1999
) ,( Blasi, 1995 ) .(Nisan, 1993
). (Rest,1986
2'
, , ,
)(Watzlawick, Weakland & Fisch, 1974
.
)(Churchland, 1996; Haidt, 2001, Walker, 2000 :
)(Watzlawick et al, 1974
. " ,
" .
) ( moral sense theory
. "
18 .
) (Hume, 1777/1969 ,
. ,
" , ,
, ,
."
.
.
,
) (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999 :
)Damasio, 1994; :
.(Greene et al, 2001; LeDoux 1995,1998; Moll et al, 2002; Schwartz & Clore, 1996
,
. , .
, ,
.
50
. : ' ) (Robertson et al, 2007 ,
) (care & compassion
) .(justice ' ) (Moll et al, 2002
. " '
).(Greene et al,2000
" "
. " "Neural representation of social reality
''
) (Churchland,1996 " ,
, .
, .
." ''
. ,
. , ,,
' , .''
, )(framing
.
"
. , , "
.
) ;Kahneman & Frederick,2002; Nisbet & Ross,1980
.(Nolte, 2001; Zajonc, 1980 ):(Evans, 2003
"Dual-process theories of thinking and reasoning quite literally propose the presence
of two minds in one brain. The stream of consciousness that broadly corresponds to
System 2 thinking is massively supplemented by a whole set of autonomous subsystems
in System 1 that post only their final products into consciousness and compete directly
for control of our inferences, decisions and actions. However, System 2 provides the
basis for hypothetical thinking that endows modern humans with unique potential for
a higher level of rationality in their reasoning and decision-making". (Evans, 2003,
)p.458
51
' 3' " ' )(Lieberman et al, 2002
X-
1
C-
X-
X-
X-
C -
6
3
4
C-
5
" .
' ) ( Lieberman,Gaunt,Gilbert & Trope ,2002 X
" ,"reflexion C " ."reflection '
3' " " ' . X
, " ,
. :C .
, . .
.X C .
X
. X
, C
.X
)(Walker,2000
) (Walker, 2000
. "
" .
,
. ,
.
52
"
.
' 4' .
:
.1 ,
.
.2 .
' 4' ) (Walker, 2000
1
2 "
.
,
.
. .,
.
.
.
,
. ,
. " .
53
.
"
.
) )Social Intuitionist Model (SIM
SIM 2001" ' ) (Haidt, 2001 "The :
" emotional dog and its rational tail
. ,
.
.
) (
. "
, , . ,
, .
.
,
.
.
" , ,
. )
( " " " .
" . ,
. ,
.
' 5' ) ,(Haidt, 2001
:
)
, ( ,
. .
) ( ,
.
. , , , .
SIM ":
.1
.
54
.2 ) (post-hoc reasoning
. ) & Nisbett
(Wilson, 1977 ) (Kunda, 1990
,
.
.3 "
, :
"The reasons that people give to each other are best seen as attempts to trigger the
)right intuition in others". (Haidt & Bjorklund, 2008 p.191
.4 .
:
"" the social persuasion link, captures this automatic unconscious influence process
)(ibid p.192
.5
.
. .
"People may at times reason their way to a judgment by sheer force of logic,
)overriding their initial intuition".(ibid p.193
.6 .
.
.
.
' 5' )(SIM
5
1
'
'
'
2
4
'
'
55
'
)SIM
SIM .
.
:
.
" ) (Saltztein & Kasachkoff, 2004 ) Haidt,
(2001 " "
.
"the point is not that affectively based intuitions do not appear, but rather that they
are not determinative; reason plays a critical role, and although it is not the entire
)dog, it is also not just the tail" (Saltztein & Kasachkoff, 2004,p.276
) (Hogarth ,2001 ,
. ,
:
"I am not saying that the tacit system involves absolutely no conscious attention or
deliberation There is always some level of process monitoring that is under
conscious control...it should be noted that, if deliberative- system action are repeated
)over time ,they can move to the domain of the tacit system."( Hogarth, 2001,pp.21-22
"It is possible to improve your decision making skills by taking steps to educate your
)intuition" (Hogarth, 2001, p.X
. .
) (Haidt, 2001 ) (dual processes model
, . ,
,
.
, .
) (Nisbett & Wilson ,1977
, "
" . )& Ericsson
(Simon,1993
. ,
"
)Bifulco et al, 1997; Cohen, 1996; Day & Tappan, 1996; Heath et al, 2003; :
.(Snell, 1996,
56
' ) (Koriat,Goldsmith & Pansky, 2000
" " :
"it seems to us that the interest in memory illusions and false memories ,spurred
perhaps by real life problems, has led researchers to selectively focus on the dark side
)of memory, resulting in somewhat biased pictures"(p.422
, ' ) (Bazerman, et al, 1998
. , "
. , .
" " ) (Want " " )" .(Should
" , . " " ,,
" . " "
)( " "
X ' ) .(Lieberman et al, 2002 ,
) " ,(C " " .
) (Haidt & Bjorklund, 2008
) ' 5(.
"People may at times reason their way to a judgment by sheer force of logic,
overriding their initial intuition. In such cases reasoning truly is causal, and cannot
)be said to be the slave of the passions". (p.183
,
,
) : .(Walker, 2000
) ' 4 ( SIM
) (Haidt,2001
.
) .(Bamberger & Biron, 2007 : ,"
3"
, "
.
.
57
)(Moral dumfounding
' ) ,(Bjorklund, Haidt & Murphy, 2000 SIM
" " ) .( moral dumfounding
. ' 4
. ,
, LSD"
" )
( . " '
. , ,
, ,
)
( . SIM
, .
.
.
.LSD
. ) (Haidt & Bjorklund, 2008
" " " :
"Subjects who got scenarios with vividly described disgust made stronger moral
)judgments, even though the disgusting features were morally irrelevant".(ibid,p.197
' ).(Bjorklund et al, 2000
"
) .(Haidt, MaCauley& Rozin, 1994:
.
) (Walker, 2000 ) ' 4'( 5
).(Haidt & Bjorklund, 2008
: ) (Haidt, 2001
" ) (
. .
"" " "
' ) .(Lieberman et al, 2002" ,
58
"" .C ,
X
. .
"
, C .X
,
.(Polanyi, 1967) tacit knowledge , ) (Schon, 1983 "
" " " knowledge in action
. "
" ) (know- how " " ) (know - what" " )" .(know why
" , .
" " ,
, ) ( .
) (Nisan, 1990,1993
"
.
. , ,
.
: ) ,(Blum, 1991 :
)Churchland, 1996; :
,(Damasio, 1994 )Bargh & Chartrand, :
(1999 " )(Walker, 2000
, ) ,(Haidt & Bjorklund ,2008 ' ) (Greene et al, 2001
."
)
( .
2.2
2.2.1
.
. , ,
, , , , ,
, , )& Diener, Sandvik,
.(Larsen, 1995 ) (Shwartz & Color, 1983 ,
.
59
. , "How do I feel about
" it .
).(Mellers, Schwartz & Ritov, 1999
)Averill, :
(1982; Kemper, 1978; Oatley & Johnson-Laird, 1987; Parkinson, 1996; Salovey, 2003
)Fridlund, 1991; Izard, 1984; Rime, :
.(Finkenauer, Luminet, Zech & Philippot, 1998
) .(Izard, 1984
) Frijda, 1986; Shwartz,
.(1990 ) ,(Damasio, 1994
.
) (de Sosa,1987
:
Emotions are among the mechanisms that control the crucial factor of salience
among what would otherwise be unmanageable plethora of objects of attention,
)interpretation, and strategies of inferences and conduct(de Sousa, 1987,p.XV,
: , ,
).(Ortony ,Clore & Collins, 1988
." ) (Ben-Zee'v, 1997
. ,
.
,
. ) (Lazarus, 1991
:
"From an emotional reaction we can learn much about what a person has at stake in
)encounter with the environment or in life in general" (p. 6
) ,(2003 ,
,
.
.
60
) .(Hanoch, 2002 ) (Markus & Zajonc, 1985
" " " "
. '
) (Loewenstein et al, 2001
. ,
.
) (Kaufman, 1999" .
, , ,
.
90
)Bechara & Damasio, 2005; Churchland, :
.(1996; Damasio, 1994; Edelman, 1992; Ledoux, 1995; Naqi ,Shiv & Bechara, 2006
)" (Damasio,1994 " )" ("Descartes' Error
. " " , "
" , " .
,
) .(Greene & Haidt, 2002
.
, ) (somatic marker hypothesis )(Damasio, 1994
) (
) ( ,
."
. " " Goleman, ) 1995 -
(1995 , ,
.
,
. ) (Haidt, 2003
.1999 1975
. :
1975 79 18 "" 1999 1995
173 . 105 .1975 79
1999 1995 525 .
303 1995 99 , 1975 79 .195
61
2.2.2
.
) .(Forgas ,1995
. ' ) & Forgas, Laham
(Vargas, 2005 , .
,
. ) ,(Zajonc, 1980,1998
. ,
.
,
. ,
.
,
. ,
. ,
,
. ) (1994 , ,
.
"
.
) .(de Sousa, 1987 ' ) (Loewenstein et al, 2001
. " ) (Damasio,1994
, ,
.
...." : ...
, ;
, , ...
" ), ,1967 ,' .(73 ) & Raghunathan
(Pham, 1999 .
:
62
" ." . : ,,
, )Cunningham, 1988; Wright :
.(& Bower, 1992
).(Bower, 1981
. .:
, ,
)(Conway & Giannopoulos, 1993:
. . :
, " "
" ) .(Forgas, 1991 )& Albarracin
(Kumkale, 2003
.
. .
. ,
).(Isen , Nygren, & Ashby, 1988
. ) .(Briner, Harris & Daniels, 2004
) (Kendler, 2003 , .
) ,(Mann, 2004 .
. . )OConnor & Arnold,
(2001
" .
" . ' ) (Keltner et al, 1993
.
'
) (Baumeister et al, 1998 " ."ego depletion '
."
) (Ellis & Ashbrook, 1988
'
,
. , ' ) (Beal et al, 2005
.
63
2.2.3
) .(Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996
(Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) Affective Events Theory
) (Ashkanasy et al.,
.(2002
, ) Ashkanasy et al,
.(2002; Lord, Klimoski, & kanfer, 2002; Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996
) Glomb, Steel & Arvey,
,(2002 ), (Saks & Ashforth, 2002
),(MacDermid, Seery & Weiss, 2002 ) ,(Humphrey, 2006
) ,(Niklas & Domann, 2005
) (Dasborough,2006 ).(Bratton, 2004
.
) (Maitlis & Ozcelik, 2004
" " )toxic
.(decision processes
"" , .
) (Flam, 1993 "" ) (greedy organization
" ".
, , , .
) (Frost, 2003 , , .
" "" ." "
.
2.2.4 )
) .(Berkowitz, 1990; Haidt, 2003; Smith & Ellsworth, 1985 :
.
) .(Rafaeli & Rozilio, 2006
.
. ) (Heuer & Reisberg, 1992
)Baumeister, Bratslavsky, :
.(Finkenauer & Vohs, 2001; Chahill & McGaugh., 1994
,
64
, ) .(Gold, 1987; McEwan & Sapolsky, 1995 ,
.
,
,
) .(Craik & Lockhart, 1972; Gross, 2002
.
) (Haidt, 2001,2003
. ,
. ,
":
".
2.2.5
) :
.(Tangney, Stuewing & Mashek, 2007 ) (Gilligan,1982
.
.
' ) ( Skoe et al, 2002
.
) (Oakley,1992 " "Moralty and Emotions .
, .
:
"it seems that the unemotional person will, as such, have a narrow perception of
various features of the world and will lack certain kinds of morally significant
knowledge regarding others and the world in generala sympathetic ,compassionate
or kind person is not only apt to perform beneficent acts, but also characteristically
perceive more situations as warranting beneficent actions when this is in fact the case,
than would a person lacking in sympathy, compassion and kindness. But further,
when encountering someone in distress, having such emotions as sympathy and
compassion for her often seems necessary in order to understand exactly what her
)distress involves and what her needs in that situation are" (Oakly, 1992, p. 51
.
) ,(Kant, 1785/1959 ) (Hume, 1739/1969
. , ,
65
.
"" :
Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of passion, and can never pretend to any
) other office than to serve and obey them (Hume, 1739/1969, p.415
) (Smith, 1759/1976 ." ,
.
,
, . " ,
.
. ,
,
, .
.
, . ,
) ;Kohlberg, 1984; Lapsley, 1996
(Piaget, 1932/1965; Turiel, Hildebrandt & Wainryb, 1991
):
.(Greene et al, 2001, Haidt, 2001, Pizarro, 2000 ) (Kagan, 1984
, ,
,
. ,
) ,(Self . ,
,
.
, ,
) .(Haidt, 2003 ) (Haidt, 2003 11
. , , , .
, , . ,
" ,
. , ,
. .
.
66
) (2001
, , "
. ) (Walker, 2000
" "
. )(Eisenberg, 2000
) ,(Hoffman,1987
. ,
" .
"
.
) (Greene et al, 2001
) .(FMRI
" )" ,(36 )
(, " ,
.
) : 5(
.
.
, .
" ' ) (Moll, et al, 2002
. ' ) (Robertson et al, 2007
.
.
" " ) (1998/1994
.
.
." ,
.
.
. " ,
67
, . ,
. . , Saver & ) ,
(Damasio, 1991 )
( .
) (
)" (Kohlberg, 1984 .
" " ),(Saver & Damasio, 1991
.
" " ,
. ,
. ,
,
" .
) ,(Gaudine & Thorne, 2001
,
.
.
.
) (Lurie, 2004
. ,
, ,
. "
.
) (Nussbaum, 1995 )(Etzioni, 1988
" ".
. . '
' ) (Tangney et al, 2007:
"Little research has examined the relation between moral standards and moral
emotional factors, much less their interactive influence in moderating the link between
moral standards and peoples moral behavior With the advantage of greater
conceptual clarity, future researchers can address many questions about the functions
)and costs of various forms of moral emotion" (p. 363
68
:
.
.
),(Kohlberg, 1984
.
.
.
2.3
2.3.1
, .
, .
. ,
, , ,
) .(Tsang, 2002 ,
.
. ,
, .
) Camerer & Loewenstein, 2004, Chugh & Bazerman,
2004; Gino & Bazerman, 2005; Hammond, Keeney & Rraiffa, 2006; Kahneman,
.(2003; Messick & Bazerman,1996; Watkins & Bazerman, 2003
' ) (Hammond, ,Keeney & Raiffa, 2006
:
"At every stage of the decision- making process, misperceptions, biases, and other
tricks of the mind can influence the choices we make. Highly complex and important
decisions are the most prone to distortion because they tend to involve the most
assumption, the most estimates, and the most inputs from most people. The higher the
)stakes ,the higher the risk of being caught in psychological traps".(p.126
69
' ) (Ludwig & Longenecker, 1993 , ,
,
." ) (2000 " 3 "
: , , .
"" .
) (Sternberg, 2004
:
" , ".
.
" "
,
" " )
.
" "
.
) ,(Allport, 1937
. "
) (Greenwald, 1980 .
"
. ,
, .
, )& Taylor
.(Brown, 1988 ) (Messick & Bazerman, 1996
.
.
: . , .
, .
.
) (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979,1984
:
.
.
.
:
70
.
. ,
. , :
.1
.2 . :
,(Kunda,1990) motivated reasoning ) ,(Asch, 1951
), (Schweitzer, Ordonez,& Douma, 2004 ) Darely & Latane',
,(1968 ) (Milgram, 1963 ) Zimbardo, Haney, Banks
(& Jaffe, 1973
.
. .
"" .
) : ( ,
.
. ) (the boiling frog legend
. "
,
. ) (Senege, 1990 " "
) (Sedgwick, 1882, In Hall & Motora, 1887
) : ( .
. ' ,
.
.
2.3.2
" " ) (Jones, 1991 )( .
, .
, .
) (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979, 1984
, , .
.
71
.
. ,
, 31 , ,
.
.
" .
' ) (Rothbart et al, 1978
.
.
.
2.3.3
) .(Abelson, 1981
.
." ' ) Hammond, ,Keeney & Raiffa,
(2006
" , .
.
) (Kelman & Hamilton, 1989 " "
. ,
.
.
) (Trevino & Nelson, 2004 "
." ) (Gioia,1992, 2004 "
. ,
. )(Gioia, 1992, 2004
." "" "
" . , "
"
. ,
" . "" ,
"" . ,
72
, , ,
.
2.3.4
, ,
) .(Messick &Bazerman, 1996
,
.
, , )
( .90%
. )& Kahneman
(Tversky, 1984
" .
" , .
,DES
) .(Messick & Bazerman, 1996
,
.
.
,
.
,
.
" 2.3.5 " )
' ) (Gino & Bazerman, 2005
" ""
.
"We argue that managers or third parties might ,over time ,grow accustomed to
unethical behaviorgradual deterioration of others' behavior affects people's
)propensity to overlook such behavior". (p.7
' , " " ) .(foot in the door,
365 .
""
):
Levin,
.(Simons ,Angelone & Chabris, 2002 ' )(Cain, Loewenstein & Moore, 2005
73
""
.' ) (Gino & Bazerman, 2005
.
" ,
. , "
. "
, .
.
"" .
2.3.6
) (Klayman, 1996
. ,
, .
.
) (Klayman, 1996
:
"The risk of maladaptive perseverance is great in many ethically troubling situations
because the status quo favors maintaining current questionable behaviors ,basic
beliefs about oneself and one's organization are challenged ,and evaluative feedback
)is skimpy and biased." (Klayman, 1996, p254
:
. , ,
.
.
.
) (Klayman, 1996 ,
. "
.
)False
(positive . "
5
" ) (Vaughan, 1996 '' 1986 .
.Normalization of deviance
74
,
.
. )false
,(negative .
' ) (1977/1980 " "
.
" .
.
,
,
" ) ' .(109
''
) .(Herkert,1991,Werhane, 1991
, 28 1986
'' 73
.
. ,
1977
" ,
.
.
2.3.7
.
. ,
, .
) (Wilson et al, 2000 ).(Focalism
, ,
. ) (Trope& Liberman, 2003
.
,
, :
75
of
"individuals form more abstract representations, or high-level construals,
distant-future events than near-future events... judgments, predictions, and choices
regarding the more temporally distant events are likely to be based on higher level
construals of those events". (p.403).
.
.
) .(Nisan, 1972
) (Trope& Liberman, 2003 " " "
.
) (Street, Robertson, Geiger, 1997
) (escalating commitment
.
/ ) ," ,(
" .
. )Kahneman & Tversky,
(1979
, .
,
.
.
2.3.8 )(omission bias
' ) (Jones, 1991
.
, . ,
. "
)" .(Baron, 1995
"
" ) Baron & Ritov,
76
.(1994 ) (Ritov & Baron, 1990
,
.
) ( .
,' ) (Spranca, Minsk & Baron, 1991
.
. .
.
, , , ,
.
.
." ) (2000
,
.
) .(Singer, 1979 ,
,
. ,
.
.
) (Baron, 2000 :
"Omission bias help people believe that they are completely moral if they obey a list
)of prohibition while otherwise pursuing their narrow self-interest" (p.401
2.3.9 & ) ) (
.
."
.
' ) (Bazerman et al, 1994
. , ,
, , " .,
77
.
) ( .
. ,
, )( .
.
) (Lowenthal, 1993
.
.
,
)(.
' ) (Bazerman ,Tenbrunsel & Wade-Benzoni, 1998
)
( .
, want- ,
, ,should
.
,
.
2.3.10 .
) . (Trevino, 1992 ) (Gioia, 1992
:
I call this seemingly fundamental assumptions into question. The unexplored ethical
issue for me is the arguably prevalent case where organizational representatives are
not aware that they are dealing with problem that might have ethical
)overtone.(p.388
) ,(Asch, 1956
.
,
.
,
. ,
78
.
.
. ,
.
) (Kunda, 2006
. ,
.
" ,
,
" . " "
:
"The well-known specter of the organization man who has no questions looms in the
background: deprived of an autonomous self or sense of "authentic" experience ,and
driven instead to strategically design an organizational self governed by standards of
corporate profitability and its rewards ,such people lack the foundations of moral
framework that would enable them to evaluate corporate activities" (Kunda, 2006,
)p.226 ; my emphasis
" " " ) .(Fromm, 1941" ,
.
.
.
. , ) (VanSandt, 2001
) (moral awareness
.
:
.
. ,
" " .
"
79
, " " .
) (Messick & Bazerman,1996 :
" we accept the fact that human mind has an infinitive and creative capacity to trick
)to deny this reality is to practice deception" (Bazerman & Messick, 1996, p.22
2.4
. ,
.
. ,
. ) (Macintyre, 1981
, ' .' ) Bernard,
(1982 , "
" 1938 .
:
"It seems to me inevitable, that the struggle to maintain cooperation among men
"should as surely destroy some men morally as battle destroys them physically
)(Bernard, 1982,p. 278
) .(Collins, 2000 ,Werner, 1992
,
. :
: , , , ,,
'.
.
) , ,( , ,
, '.
""
) (Trevino, 1986 .
"
, .
80
.
, )
( , , ,
)
(.
"
" " ) (reasoned action )Ajzen & Fishbein,
(1980 ) .(Dubinsky & Loken, 1989
) ,(Vroom, 1964
, .
) (Rest, 1986
)Ferrell & Gersham,
.(1985; Hunt & Vitell, 1986; Jones, 1991
" " ' ) .(Jones, 1991'
) (Rest, 1986
) 6'( . '
) ,(Rest, 1986 " " " " . '
).(Collins, 2000
' 6' ' )( Jones, 1991
81
" ' ,
: .'
,
.
" " " " .
. "
' .
" '
.
:
"people will decide and behave in the same manner wether the issue is the theft of
"few supplies from organization or the release of dangerous product of the market
)(Jones, 1991, p.371
' ,
, ." " " ' ,
, , .
" "
. :
.1 " )( ) (
/ . : 1000
10 . ,
.
.2 "
) ( . :
.
' .
.
.3 /
.
.4 .
. /
.
.5 ) , , (
)( )( .
82
.6 )
" (.
"
' . ' , , ,
" )& Flannery & May, 2000; Frey, 2000; MacMahon
.(Harvey, 2006; May & Pauli, 2002; Singhapakdi,Vitell & Kraft, 1996
: ,
." ,
. ' ) (Trevino, Weaver & Reynolds, 2006
:
" ethical decision-making research is entrenched in an assumption that ethical
behavior is primarily a cognitive process, but recent research in many different areas
has challenged that view and is dramatically expanding our perspective" (Trevino et
)al, 2006, p.979
2.5
2.5.1
) .(Blum, 1991; Hunt & Vitell, 1993; Jones, 1991; Rest, 1986
. ,
, , .
,
"" ) ( ' "".
,
).(Bazerman & Chugh, 2006
"" . '"
" , :
"The information that life serves is not necessarily the information that one would
order from menu, but like polite dinner guests and other victims of circumstance
people generally seem to accept what is offered rather than banging their flatware
and demanding carrots( Bazerman & Chugh, 2006, p15).
83
"" ,
, .
. ,
"" "" ,
.
2.5.2
. "
.
):(Holland, 1998
"Yet, if we conceive of ourselves as agents we miss an aspect of what is involved in
moral life. Moreover, we miss one of the sources of moral differences, as well as
avenues for moral improvement part of what can be gained from understanding moral
perception, namely the activity of construing the features of a moral situation ,is that
moral engagement involves being an observer and interpreter as well as an agent".
)(p.299
);Blum, 1991; Herman, 1993; Holland,1998; Johnson, 1993
.(Murdoch, 1970; Nussbaum, 1986; Sherman, 1989; Werhane, 1998
,
. ) (Blum, 1991
. ,
, . ,
.
moral perception ,
,
:
)" It is moral perception which constructs what an agent is faced with "a (moral
situation" in the first place .The idea of moral judgment as bridging general rules
and particular situation depends on prior individuating "the situation". It is moral
perception which does that individuating, thus providing a setting in which moral
judgment carries out its task (Blum, 1991, p.712).
84
.
, .
. ,"
. ).(p.706
" ,
,
, . , ,
" ) .(Werhane, 1999 ,
. ,
)(
.
) (Werhane, 1998 "
" ) .(moral imagination ,
.
,
.
. "
" . " "
) (reproductive imagination
, " ,
. " " )productive
(imagination ) (reframing
. " " " )(creative imagination
" ) , '(.
.
"
.
) ,( Blum,1991 ) Bebeau et al,1985; Lutzen, Dahlqvist, Eriksson
,(& Norberg,2006;Rest,1986 ) ,(Butterfield et al, 2000
) ,(Wittmer ,2000 ),(Werhane ,1998 ) (Staub,1978 .
.
85
2.5.3
" '
) (Rest, 1982 .
" " ) (moral sensitivity :
.
:
Minimally in component 1, a person realizes that she/he could do something that
)would affect, the interests ,welfare ,or expectations of other people (Rest, 1986, p.5
"
:
Interpretation of the particular situation in terms of what actions (are) possible ,who
(including oneself) would be affected by each course of actions , and how interested
)parties would regard such effects on their welfare (Rest, 1986, p.3
.
, " "
. , , ,
.
:
. ,
. ,
. " , .
) (Butterfield, 1997
) (Blum, 1991 " " ).(moral awareness
,
, , / .
. "
) (Rest, 1986 :
"Moral awareness occurs when a person realizes that his/her response to a given
issue could affect the interests ,welfare or expectations of the self or others in a
"fashion which may conflict with one or more ethical standards or norms.
)(Butterfield, 1997 ,p.12, my empasis
. .
,
86
) .(Jones, 1991"
)" "( ,
. ,
: ,
) .(Butterfield et al, 2000; Hunt & Vitell, 1993; Wittmer, 2000
) Rest et al, 1999; Butterfied et
.(al, 2000, Schwartz, 1977 ' 7'
. , ,
' . ,
, ' .
, '.
' 7'
2.5.4
' ) (Jones, 1991
. "
), ( . ' ,
, .' "
" " " .
:
, )( , )( , )
(, ), (,
. "
)(Vividness , .
,
.
87
" .
) (Myyry & Helekma, 2002 " .
. :
, , .
.
) (Weaver, 2007
.
2.5.5
) (Lind & Rarick, 1995 .
:
. )
,
(.
.
, .
.
.
.
.
.
) (Wittmer, 2000 " "
.
, .
. , .
" . ) & Hunt
(Vitell, 1993
. ' ) (Jones, 1991
" " .
. , '
) (Robin, Reidenbach & Forrest, 1996
.
88
" "" . '
. ' )(Jones, 1991
.
' ) .(Lutzen, Dahkquist, Erikson & Norberg, 2006
. ' ,
) ,(Hume
.
" " "
") " .(p.189 " ,
" " ' .
2.5.6 &
) (Narvaez, 1996
. : ) moral
(perception ) .(moral interpretation ,
, .
/ . ,
. ) (Fleck-Henderson, 1995
: ,
.
2.5.7&
. /
.
, /
. ) (Weaver, 2007
.
56 / .
: , , ,
. ,
:
"multiplicity of descriptors ,lack of conceptual clarity ,gaps in understanding and
)difficulty with generalizing and integrating findings" (Weaver, 2007,p.150
89
" " :
" ) (moral recognition
) , ( ,
), ,( , , ,"
, ,
,& " .
,
.
.
.
:
. ///
) / ( .
)(Jones,1991
. ,
/ " ,
( Butterfield et al, 2000).
. ".
. ).(Wittmer, 2000
.
).(Lutzen, Dahkquist, Erikson & Norberg, 2006
2.5.8
.
" )(Bebeau, Rest & Yamoor,1985
.DEST-
.
.
. ' )(Bebeau et al ,1985
: . DEST
DIT-
) ( . "
90
.
) .(Rest, 1986 .
.
. "
. ' "
,
. ) ( Lipshitz, 2008
. '
.
.
) (Rest, 1986
'
:
"The ethical dilemma is the main focus of the tape and all subjects recognize that
)there is some sort of value/moral problem"(Rest, 1986, p.24
) (Spurks& Hunt, 1998 '.
" ,
. ' ,
, .
.
) (Voker, 1984
' . )(Schwartz, 1968
. ,
.
' ) (Bebeau et al, 1985
. ,
.
, .
. ,
.
" ) , ,
( 5 . :
, .
) .(2 ,
91
. ' ,
. ) (Lindsey, 1986
.
.
.
.
50%
. ' ) (Herbert, Meslin, Dunn, Byme& Reid, 1990
.
5 7 9
. .
2.72 . ' ' '.
) (Voker, 1984 ' ) (Bebeau et al, 1985
' ) (Herbert et al, 1990 ) (Shaub, 1989
. "" ,
.
.
.
." ,
)" EPQ ] ([Forsyth, 1980
.
) (Sparks & Hunt, 1998 .
) .(Voker, 1984" ,
.
" .
,
. " " ) (Jones, 1991
. , )"
EPQ ] ([Forsyth, 1980 .
" ' ' ) .(Singhapakdi,Vitell & Frank, 1999' ) Chan & Leung,
(2006 .
) (Sparks & Hunt, 1998' ' ) ,(Singhapakdi et al, 1999
" EPQ ) Forsyth,
.(1980
92
) (Lind, 1997, Lind & Rarick, 1995,1999
.
.
, . "
: , ,
, .
.
) ( "
) , ,
(.
) (VanSandt, 2001' ) .(Jordan, 2005 ) (VanSandt, 2001
" "Other People's Money
. " .'
,
.
) (
. 3 5
, , .
" " .
.
.
.
2.5.9
.
" " ' ) .(Jones, 1991
" " ".
) (May & Pauli, 2002 " "
.
" " " " .
) (McMahon & Harvey, 2006 "
" ) (PMIS ' ' ) (Singhapakdi et al, 1999
93
" " : ,
. ) (Dukerich et al, 2000 "
.
:
" .
' ) (Jones, 1991
, , .
. '
) (Butterfield ,Trevino,& Weaver, 2000
.
)
( , . :
" ,
" .
, ' .
.
" 8
: , , , ,
, , ,
. ) (VanSandt, 2001
.
) (Bredemeier & Shields, 1995
, .
. . ,"
.
. )(Hunter, 1998
,
.
. ,
5.12 7 .
.
. ) (Weber, 1996 259
94
,41 22
.
' ) (Jordan, 2005
.
.'
,
.
. ' )Simga-Mugan,
(Daly,Onkal & Kavut, 2005 "
.
) (society
.
. ' "
.
) (VanSandt, 2001
. .
:
.1 )" ( ."
) ;Bebeau, Rest,&Yamoor, 1985; Chan & Leung, 2006
( Sparks & Merenski, 2000; Voker, 1984
.2 , .
)(Bebeau,Rest,& Yamoor,1985; Lindsey, 1986; Sparks & Hunt,1998 ;VanSandt,2000
.3
).(Dibatista, 1989; Hunter, 1998
.4 , ,
MBTI , )& Chan & Leung, 2006; Loe,Ferrell
(Mansfield, 2000; Ford & Richardson, 1994
95
.5 .
)" (EPQ
Shaub,1989; Singhapakdi, Vitell & Frank, 1999;) .
( Sparks & Hunt, 1998; Sparks & Merenski, 2000
.6
Chonko & Hunt, 1985; Malavika & Suresh, 1993; Myyry & Helkama, 2002; Ruegger
.(& King, 1992; Simga-Mugan, et al, 2005; SwensonLepper, 1998; Tyson,1992
// / ,/ , ,
.
) (Collins, 2000
.2000 1990
:
"After reviewing this extensive research, a general conclusion is that many factors
impact person ethical sensitivitiesgiving credit to all of the factors is meaningless
from practical perspectiveresearch in the field suffers from lack of consensus on
a
appropriate measurement techniquesas a result researchers have gathered
tremendous amount of situation specific knowledge that is not generalized" (Collins,
)2000, p.14
' ) (Loe ,Ferrell & Mansfeild, 2000
:
"The findings were widely diverse researchers fail to relate awareness to ethical
behavior in organizations , representing a significant opportunity for study.".(Loe et
)al, 2000, p.198
) .(Weaver, 2007
" .
: :
.1
.
/ ,
/ / .
96
.2 ) , (
) . : ) (1984
: , , (
.3
.
.4 .
.
.5 ) Jones,
(1991 .
.6
.
.7 .
.8 .
.9
.
.10
.
" 2.5.7
,
" .
.
2.6
.
.
) (Haidt, 2001 ) Krebs & Denton ,2005
(;Walker, 2000 ) (Kohlberg, 1984
"
.
.
.
.
97
.
:
. / ?
. / ?
. " ?
. /
.
.3
) (Cialdini, 1995
,
. .
) ( .
) (mixed methods research
.
" .
" " ,
."
. )".(2000 ,
/
. " ,
, .
, "
" .
. . , , ,
.
). (Johnson & Turner, 2003
.
98
. ,
, ,
.
. ,
)( )( ,
" ."
, ,
).(Denzin & Lincoln, 2000
, ,
. ,
, ,
).(Guba & Lincoln,1989
"
:
. ) (
. ) (
' 7'
2
Grounded theory
' 7' 4 "
. ' 1
" ) & Glaser
.(Strauss, 1967 ' 2
/
) : ( . 3
99
" ' 4
) : (
.
. "
,
/ .
. ' 8'
' 8'
) (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000; Miles & Huberman, 1994; Silverman, 2001 :
)
. ,
.
.
.
,, .
,
. , ,
..
,,,
, , .
:
.
,
.
"
"
.
100
. ,
,
) ( incompatibility thesis ) Howe,
.(1988 ) (Guba, 1990
:
accommodation between paradigms is impossible . . . we are led to vastly diverse,
disparate, and totally antithetical ends (Guba, 1990, p. 81).
.
" .
)Goldman, 1999; Gelso :
.(1979;Howard, 1983 ,
)Creswell, 1999, 2002, 2003
.(Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998, 2003
.
. ,
"
. ) (Tashkkori & Teddlie, 1998
:
"we believe it is clear that both qualitative and quantitative research have many
benefits and many costs. In some situations the qualitative approach will be more
appropriate; in other situations the quantitative approach will be more appropriate.
In many situations, researchers can put together insights and procedures from both
)approaches to produce a superior product ".(p.17
) (Glazer & Strauss, 1967
:
"There is no fundamental clash between the purpose and capacities of qualitative and
quantitative methods or datawe believe that each form of data is useful for both
)verification and generation of theory ".(p.17
,
: ) & Rocco, Bliss, Gallagher
.(Perez-Prado, 2003' ) (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004
) .(Dewey, 1929; James, 1907
.
101
.
" ,
) .(Patton, 1988"
.
, )Maxwell & Loomis,
(2003; Green and Caracelli, 1997
. ,
,
.
, )Green and Caracelli
.(,1997 " ) Miles & Huberman,
( 1994 " " .
) (Alexander, 2006 .
:
" knowledge in human conditions ,in short, is first qualitative in nature and to
extent that measurement comes into play, it is for the sake of making more precise the
qualities that we seek to clarify, understand ,and distinguish we understand and
create meaning out of experience, in other words through examples communicated in
narratives ,allegories ,and parables.(Alexander, 2006, pp.214-215).
) (mixed methods study "
,
,
.
) : (
) .(Sandelowski ,2000
: ) (mixed - model
) (mixed - method .
) (Creswell ,2002 :
."
. " " exploratory research
design ." concurrent research design
.
.
.
102
.
.
.
. "
.
" ,
. ,
, ,'.
' ) ,(Greene,Caracelli, & Graham, 1989 5 ,
:
.1 ) (triangulation "
) (
.2 ) (complementarity "
.3 ) (development
.4 ) (initiation
.5 ) (expansion .
) (Tashakkori &Teddlie, 1998
. ,
.
. .
) ( ) ( . "
) , " ) (trustworthiness ,
.
" , ) ' 9'(.
" .
.
7
. 8
.
.
103
' 9' - ) (Tashakkori &Teddlie, 1998
1
5
.
,8
. "
"
. ' 10'
' 11'
.
' 10' "
'
reports
Retrospective
'
1 110
MBA
. 90 MBA
, .
104
2
24 24- ,
.
," ,
.
.
3
. ,
. ,
.
' 11' " .
,
.
' 11' -
Think aloud
" .2005 2002
105
.4 ) 1
4.1
1
.
, .
) .(Robin, Riedenbach & Forest, 1996
, . "
).(Wark & Krebs, 1996 :
4.2
.
,
.
4.2.1
.
" "
) ;Wark & Krebs, 2000; Krebs,Denton and Wark, 1997; Wark and Krebs, 1996
.(Haviv & Leman, 2002
"
.
,
) .(Walker, 2000
. )(Toffler, 1986
,
? ? . ,
. ,
.
,
) (Gilligen, 1982 .
106
. ' (Skoe et al, 2002) ,
"
:
"Obviously ,such personally experienced conflicts have more direct relevance to the
participants than hypothetical dilemmas and thus may be more engaging ,they also
provide more representative information about how people make moral decisions in
)their own lives (p.964
) (Smetana, 1982
.
.
,
.
.
' ) Krebs, 2000; Krebs, Denton and Wark, 1997; Wark&Krebs,
(1996 .
: ,
) ( , "
. " :
?" , " :
?" . ,
,
, . ,
, .
) (Krebs & Laired, 1998 ,
.
,
.
, ) (Wark & Krebs, 1996 ,
.
4 :
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107
.2 -
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.
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.(2000
. .
) .(Wark & Krebs, 1996 '' ) Juujarvi
( 2005,
.,
.
.
, ,
)
( . ,
,
.
. ,
:
" if we are to understand human morality, we must attend to other functions moral
judgement servewhen people make moral judgements on Kohlberg test ,they make
them about imaginary characters such as Heintz, from a third person perspective. In
108
real life, most of moral decisions of people make, pertain to what they, not imaginary
)characters, should do" (Krebs et al, 1997, p 134
) (Carpendale & Krebs, 1992
"
, "
. ) ( Haidt, 2001
.
.
. : ) (Wark & Krebs, 1996
,
:
we believe one of the most important processes in which people engage when making
real life moral decisions is to anticipate the consequences of available courses of
actions to themselves and to other The value people place on consequences they
anticipate may influence their moral decisions which may influence the form of moral
) judgment they invoke to justify them . ( p, 224
) (Kunda, 1999
,
. ,
. ) (Damon, 1977 ,
" ,"
. ' )(Krebs et al, 1997
.
) (Haviv & Leman, 2002 ,
, , .
,
. ,
.
. ) (Saltzstein, 1994
109
:
In the behavior case, the task is cognitively easy and emotionally difficult in the
but possibly easier emotionally
judgment case, the task is cognitively difficult
)(p.307
"
, " ") .(2000
22.5% "
8%" " . ' ) (Skoe et al, 2002
.
: ,
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4.2.2
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. ) (Snell, 1993,1996; Maclagen, 2003
" " ,
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) (Watson, 1996 " " .
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,
.
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110
" Intention, Aside ) (Nash, 1990
:
"It always seem to be wearing two hats :my private hat and my corporate hat. On
)questions of conscience they often tell me to do different things" (Nash, 1990,p.213
) (Maclagen, 2003 "" "
" . ,
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) (Toffler, 1986 . ,
) (
.
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. 33 10
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,
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.
) (Park, 1998 ,
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4.2.3 )
. ) ( Elm & Weber, 1994
" .
) (Snell, 1996
.
, . ,
. ,
.
:
"The research found that ethical theory in use was volatilewhen a manager was
faced with a real dilemma, a process of inner struggle would ensue where lower
stages could defeat higher ones. This contrasts with standard kohlbergian espoused
theory research, which has found stability, individuals resolve the question of what
should be done in hypothetical dilemma cases by drawing on the highest stage of
which they are capable ."(Snell, 1996 ,p.46).
. ' ) (Dukerich et al, 2000
:
We believe that the existing knowledge regarding managers' responses to moral or
ethical dilemmas in organizations would be expanded by (1) examining problems
112
embedded in their original context, and (2) examining problems in which the
managers involved with the problem, not the researchers, did the categorizing of the
)problem or dilemma as moral or nonmoral.(p.30
:
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113
.
);Miles & Huberman, 1994
.(Patton, 2002; Van Manen, 1990
.
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." , ,
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, , .
,
.
.
114
) .(Bruner, 1986; Vitz, 1990 ) (Labov, 1972
:
"The experience and emotions involved (in personal narratives) form an important
part of the speakers biography ,he seems to undergo a partial reliving of that
experience,and he is no longer free to monitor his own speech as he normally does in
)face to face interview( Labov, 1972, p. 67
. ) (Schwartz, 1998
, , , .
,
. , "
" ." ) (MacIntyre, 1981
" "
. ) (Walker, 1997
:
one can learn more about peoples habit of interpretation and reflection by finding
more about how they characteristically highlight the element of context that they see
as important in establishing the significance of the situation, derive moral significance
from situations, consider alternative interpretation , introduce power relations and
)strategies for managing conflict (Walker, 1997,p.144
" ) ,(Toffler, 1986
, :
Only through first-hand reports of what is experienced as ethical concerns on the job
and of the processes affecting the creation and handling of those concerns can
managers ,organizations ,and those outside who would judge them understand what is
)essential to produce ethical practices in business (p.3
) (Stewart, 1989
. , " " ) (Argyris & Schon, 1974
. ,
.
115
" " .
) (Mangham, 1980
, " "
.
. ) (1972
. ,
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.
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:
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' ) (Koriat,Goldshmidt & Panski, 2000
:
"while memory may in fact be more fallible and malleable than is assumed by the
layman ,it seems to us that the interest in memory illusions and false
116
memories,spurred perhaps by real life problems, has led researchers to selectively
)focus on the dark side of memory, resulting in a somewhat biased picture (p.252
)Dukerich & Al, 2000; Klein, 1998; Lipshitz & Bar-:
.(Ilan, 1996;. Lipshitz & Ben- Shaul, 1997 ) ,(Klein, 1998 ,
, . .
) (Flanagen ,1954 ,
. ) (Lipshitz & Ben- Shaul ,1997
.
) (Lipshitz & Bar -Ilan ,1996
. ' ) (Cohen & Al ,1996
. ' ) (Dukerich & Al ,2000
.
.
" " ) :
Bifulco, Brown, Lillie, & Jarvis, 1997; Cohen et al, 2005; Erbert et al, 2005; Heath et
.( al, 2003; Reich et al, 2003 ' (Reich et al, 2003) ,
. , , 6
. ' ) (Erbert et al, 2005
.
. '
) ,(Bifulco, Brown, Lillie, & Jarvis, 1997
. ,
, " .
: ,
. ) (Piccinini, 2003
,
:
"Introspection can be construed as a cognitive process yielding a kind of behavior,
which can yield information like any other process and behavior. When this is done,
117
the supposed unverifiability of introspective reports becomes a non-issue. If we
establish what information can be extracted from which sorts of introspective reports
under what circumstances, there is no reason why we shouldnt use them as sources of
)scientific data (p.154
/
.
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" .
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.(Werhane, 1991 "
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) (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979
. ,
,
)
( .
:
Individuals tend to exhibit risk-seeking behavior when faced with a decision
alternative in the domain of losses and risk-averse when facing a decision in the
domain of gains therefore, individuals facing a situation where they have
experienced negative outcomes from a previous decision are likely to choose the
option that has the potential to bring the individual back to their original outcome
)expectation level .(Kahneman and Tversky, 1979, p,270
' 1' - ) ,' ] ( [Street et al, 1997, p.1159
"
0
1
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, , .
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?
.
.
,
.
. ? ) (Nisan, 1972
, :
"often, in skill dependent tasks, temporal distance allows the individual to prepare
himself better and acquire a better control of the environment; temporal distance thus
)increases his chance for success"(p.175
) (Trope & Liberman, 2003 ,
:
We specifically propose that individuals form more abstract representations, or highlevel construals, of distant-future events than near-future events... we argue, then,
that judgments, predictions, and choices regarding the more temporally distant events
)are likely to be based on higher level construals of those events. (p.403
, "
.
. , .
,
, , .
.
. "
161
" .
.
. "" "
. ) (Kunda, 1990 " " "
) ,(Theory of Motivated Reasoning
, .,
, .
" .
"" " .
' ) (Schweitzer, Ordonez & Douma, 2004
,
.
. ,
" " .
:
While goal setting can be used constructively to motivate desirable behavior ,our
results demonstrate that goal setting can lead to unethical behavior.Our results also
underscore the importance of organizational controls and offer insight into how
managers should allocate their limited resource of attention. For example, when
empoloyers are close to a goal or deadline ,managers should be particularly
)vigilant. ( Schweitzer et al, 2004, p.430. my emphasis
,
.
,
,
. "
" , ,
) .(Ritov & Baron, 1990 ;Spranca, Minsk & Baron, 1991
) (omission ) .(commission
.
' :
" .
, , .
,
, "
162
,
" " ) 30% 42.8%
( .
: . .
. .
. . ,
) (Toffler, 1986 "
66.1% .
" ) (2000
49% .
? ) (Snell, 2001
. ,
,,
, .
,
.
.
,
.
."
,
, . ) & Winstanley
.(Woodall, 2000 " " " ,"The Moral Dimension
) (Etzioni, 1988
.
The neoclassical paradigm does not merely ignore the moral dimension but actively
oposses its inclusion. Thus, it is stressed that various individuals may have different
ranking of preferences over the field of choice ,but none can be deemed better
)(Etzioni, 1988, p.12
) (2001
. ) (Greenwood, 2002
:
163
it is contended that the majority of people would accept that an individual or
organizations must treat individuals with respect ,and that an individual or
organizations does not have the right to interfere with the freedom of an individual.
This two minimum standards are used to asses HRM. HRM in its various guises fails
this evaluation (Greenwood, 2002, p.275).
.
. )(2000
. ,
"
. ,,
:
" ,
...
: " , ...
...
") ,2000 ,' ( 271, 270
, ,
.
. 30% ,
. ,
42.8% "
.
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, "
, , ,
.
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.
164
.
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.
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".
' ) (Jackall, 1988 " "Moral Mazes
:
The hierarchical authority that is the linchpin of bureaucracy dominates the way
managers think about their world and about themselves .Managers do not see or
experience authority in any abstract, instead, ,authority is embodied in their personal
165
relationships with their immediate bosses and their perceptions of similar links
between other managers up and down the hierarchy .(p. 17)"the superordination
and subordination of bureaucratic hierarchies guarantee clashes between the egos
of men and woman who like to control things whose choice of occupation ,in
to
habituation
fact,has been at least partly shaped by their orientation and
)control.(p.195
,
.
. "
.
/ "
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.
4.5.2
" .
.
35 .35
.
.
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" 24%
" 17.5%
.
." )(2000
, ""
."
:
" . ,
.
.
. .
166
,
) ".,' (135
.
)Callan, 1992, Harris, :
.(1990 "
" " . )(Jackall, 1988
, .
"
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.
2003" ) .(ERC, 2003 "
21% 30
14% .
"
.
. ,
" .
.
, " "
. ,
) ( .
,
, ) (Wark & Krebs, 1996
.
,
:
)The finding suggest that women attribute more significance to prosocial (helping
types of dilemma than do men, perhaps because of sex differences in socialization.
The tendency for men and women to report different types of real life dilemma ,in
part reflecting their experience and in part reflecting the significance they attach to
different dilemmaswomen may attach more significance to prosocial dilemmas
because those are the dilemmas about which the feel most guilt (Wark & Krebs,
)2000, p.20
);Marz, Power & Queisser ,2003
167
.(Ibrahim & Angelidis, 1994
.
. ) ,(1982
:
"
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.
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.
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168
.2
.
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.3 )
(
)(Rol stress theory
).(Rizzo,House, & Litzman 1970
) (Badaracco, 1998
:
, , .
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.
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) (Klein, 1998
. "
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.
.
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?
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. ,
.
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) (
) ( . ,
169
.
, , ) (equilibrium
. ) (Badaracco, 1997
.
. ,
. "
.
.
.
.
) (Nisan,1997
.
. ,
"" .
.
.
" .
,
.
.
" " ,
. ' ) (Jordan, 2005
" . ,
.
" " .
) (Nash, 1990
170
. "
:
A manager continually faces internal conflicts between what he or she would do as a
loyal representative of the company and what a private individual, friend ,consumer
or citizen would think is rightKeeping the conflict between ones noncorporate
even
in a state of balance, or
perspective and ones managerial obligation
integration, is one of the most difficult responsibilities of the ethical executive (Nash,
) 1990, p.214
9
4.5.4
.
,
.
,
. "
/ . ,"
13 .
' ) (Dukerich et al ,2000
.
' ) (Jones, 1991 , .
.
.
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) .(Glaser & Srauss, 1967
.
13 .
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9 .
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.
171
. " "
,
) .(Nisan, 2004 " " ,"
)(Gilligan, 1982
.
" "
, , , .
)Kahneman, 2003; Salovey, 2003; Schwartz & Color,
;de Sosa, 1987
=.(1983 ,
) (Damasio, 1994 .
);Greene & Haidt, 2002; Haidt, 2001, 2003; Hanoch, 2002
.(Ledoux, 1996; Skoe et al, 2002
. ,
) 33.3% 22.6% (.
) .(Collins, 2000
.
,
" . , ,
.
) .(Wark & Krebs, 1996,2000
.
.
.
,
172
,
.
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" .
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, " ".
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,
, .
.
173
", "" ," ," "
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' ) (Jones, 1991 . "
' .
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( . ,
35 18.9% , 3.3%
35 ."
" " " ,35
.
35
" " .
) Callan, 1992; David, Kantor & Greenberg, 1994; Dawson, 1997; Jones, 1990; Harris,
.(1990; Peterson, Rhoads & Vaught, 2001
""
. ,
" " ,
) Jackall,
. (1988: Kunda, 2006; Lennick & Kiel, 2005
.
.,
,
,
) (
. ) (Ziegenfuss ,1999
)" (Forsyth, 1980
.
) 39% .(13%
,
.
) :(Trevino & Nelson, 2004
Another way of noting how the organizational context so strongly affect individuals
is to recognize that ones personal identity becomes heavily influence by corporate
174
identity. As a student ,my identity centered on being a good person (with a certain
dose of moral righteousness associated with it).As a recall coordinator ,my identity
)shifted to a more corporate definition(ibid, p.131, my emphasis
,
. ,
. . ,
" " .
" " . ,
"
" " ".
) ,
( " 71.1% 62.5%
.
) Borkowski & Ugras, 1992; Kujala & Pietilainen, 2004; Marz,
.(Powers & Queisser, 2003; Smith & Oakley, 1997 ;Peterson et al, 2001
"
) (Haidt, 2001
. SIM
.
). (Nisbet & Wilson, 1977; Polanyi, 1967
.
"
. "
" . " "
"
. " "
. ,
.
: :
.
" " ) (Jones, 1991
,
175
, ,
.
4.5.5
. " ) (2000
,
, " .
) ,(Carroll, 1978
) (Messick & Bazerman, 1996
, .
,
.
) (Werhane, 1998 ,Moral Imagination
.
, '
, .
16
. 16 "
" : " ) ": "" , "
" " " "(" , " ) " :
"" , " " "(" ," ) " : ",
" " " "( " ) " /" "
"( " " ) " : " " "(.
.
"
)Abelson, 1981; Higgins & Bargh, 1987 ;Ross & Nisbett, :
(1991 )Ashforth & Fried, 1988; Gioia & Manz, 1985 ;Gioia, :
.( & Pool, 1984; Snook, 2000; Schweitzer et al, 2004
) .(Sonenshein, 2007" ) (Kunda, 1990
:
""We all come to believe what we want to believe because we want to believe
)(p .213
176
,
.,
" "" , "" ,
"" , " ," "
.
:
" .
. . .
"
" " .
""
. :
" , ...
"
"
:
"
.
.
"
" ).(McClelland, 1985
" "
. :
"
.
".
) (Herzberg, 1966 .
,' ) (Jackson & Dutton, 1988
.
.
Regulatory Focus Theory )Higgins,
(1997 " .
, ,
, , , .
177
,
.
" "
. " "" , " " "
.
.
. ) ,(Senege, 1990 )Gioia,
,(1992 ) (Werhane, 1999 ) (Abelson, 1981
.
:
" . "
" " "
?"
' ) (Johnson, 1993
): ( imaginative structure
We have seen that various kind of imaginative structures, such as image schemas,
metaphors, and prototypes, are crucial in defining the idealized cognitive models we
bring to situations, in terms of which we understand them. Obviously,how we frame
)those situations will make all the difference in the world (Johnson, 1993, p.192
:
) 9.9% ( ) 8.2%
(
:
"" .
,
".
" " .
.
) .(Werhane, 2002
"
.
) (Werhane, 1998 . ,
,
178
.
:
system thinking require conceiving of management dilemmas as arising from within
a system with interdependent elements ,subsystems, and network of relationships and
)patterns of interaction (Werhane, 2002, p.33
:
" .
.
"
" ,
" " .
,
, " ).(Kunda, 1999
. :30
"... "
16 ,
) .(14.8%
.
, .
" .
' : 35
" " ""
".
" , , .
" " .
Weiss & Cropanzano, ) .
.(1996; Ashkanasy et al, 2002
) : .(Forgas, 1995
)(Ellis & Ashbrook, 1988
,
, ,
. , ' ) (Beal et al, 2005
,
179
" . ) (Forgas, 2000
.
):
.(Lazarus, 1991; Scherer, 1984, 1988; Scherer et al, 2006;Weiner, 1980,1986.
. "
):(Lennick & Keil, 2005
Destructive emotions are the most common culprits in keeping us from acting
consistently with our goals. Emotions such as greed, hate, ,or jealousy are powerful
and can overwhelm our normal ability to act in a morally and emotionally competent
)manner (p.72
,
.
.
.
.
" " .
) (Haidt, 2003 ,
. .
. "
" . ,
. , ,
, .
) & Dubinsky, Jolson, Kotable
.(Lim, 1991; Cohen, Pant & Sharp, 1992 ;Jackson & Atrola, 1997
) (Hofstede, 1980,1991 "
: ,
, .
.
) (Scholtens & Dam, 2007 24-
.
180
" "" " "
" "
" " " .
"
,
.
.
) " (
.
, "
.
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" , .
.
, .
.
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,
.
, "" )Robin
.(,Reidenbach & Forrest, 1996
. ,
.
.
' 33 " ":
" .
. .
. "
' ) (Hockey, Maule, Clough & Bdzola, 2000
. :
181
The hypothetical impaired control under high fatigue would then reduce the
effectiveness of protective function, leading to an increase in risky chices (Hockey et
)al, 2000, p.852
.
, '
: 30
"
' , "
" "
.
) .(Lavie, 1995 "
.
) (Bjorklund, 2003 ,
.
.
.
.
)Butterfield et al , 2000 ; Jones & Kunda, 2000; Trevino, 1986; Van Sandt,
.(2001; Vardi, 2001;Walsh, 1995 Ryan,' ) (Jones & Ryan, 1997
,
.
3.3% .
' , ,
:
" .
""
,
. ".
) 9.3% .( 1.1%
) .(Kunda,2006
.
182
)Heider,1958; Weiner,1980,
.(1992
4.5.6
,
, .
" : " ) 5.7% ( " " )4.9%
( . "
.
).(Klein, 1998
. ,
,
. .
) (Nussbaum, 1990
:
The claim seem to be that if you really vividly experience a concrete human life
,imagine what its like to live that life ,and the same time permit yourself the full range
of emotional responses to that concrete life you willbe unable to do certain things to
)that person. (Nussbaum, 1990, p.46
. )(Nortvert, 2001
,
, ) (Fleck-Henderson, 1995
.
:
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. ".
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183
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.
) ; Basseches, 1984; Fisher, Merron,& Torbert, 1987
.(Kegan, 1982; Perry, 1970 ;2004 ,
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6 :
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.
)Blum, 1991; Narvaez, 1996; :
,(Starkey ,2006 . ) (Starkey, 2006
,
:
Yet despite the growth of interest in the topic [moral perception] and its inherent
significance ,the issue of what moral perception is ,that is ,what the term moral
perception refers to has not been systematically addressed, let alone answered
)(Starkey, 2006, p,75
) (Narvaez, 1996 ) Coren & Ward,
(1989 ,
" " ." ,
.
: ) (moral perception ) .(moral intrepretation
) (preconcious
) (unconscious
.
,
) .(configuration integration" ,
. ,
.
.
. ) ( Blum,1991
:
Moral perception should not conceived of as a unified capacity , but that it involves
)multifarious moral and psychological processes. (Blum, 1991,p,702
: .
. :
. ,
. .
.
. ,
. .
194
. ,
" " ,
. ' )(Morton, Worthley, Testerman, & Mahoney, 2006
: .
. , " '
. .
.
:
.
) ( .
/
. :
.1 ? .
.2 ?
5.2.3
.
.
) .(Dane & Pratt, 2007
) (Rummelhart, 1980 :
. ) (Fiske & Taylor, 1991
/ .
) .(Anderson & Pichert, 1978
, , ) .(Klein, 1998
, ) ( ,
) ( .
, ) & Taylor
.(Crocker, 1981; Gernsbacher, 1996 "
) (Abelson, 1981 ) .(scripts
.
" ) (Rest et al, 1999
.
."" " ) (Narvaez, 2007
.
195
.
) (Narvaez, 1999
)
( ) ( ,
, .
) (Singer & MacKenzie, 2002
. "
. , " ,
.
) (Park, 2000 .
." ,
. " ,
,
. "
.
' ) (Jordan, 2005
" . :
.1 .2 ,
.3 . "
:
.
.
.
.
.
196
:
.
.
3
?
5.2.4
1 . ) (1991 ,
) ( ) (
." ) (Wolf, 2001
,,
. ) (Nortvert, 2001
, ) (Fleck-Henderson ,1995
.
"
.
.
) .(Jackall, 1988
. ,
" .
) (Barnett & Karson, 1989
.
" ) (2000 ,
.
" ," ,
. ,
)" .(2000 , )(Predmore & Manduley, 2005
. ,
197
)Callan, :
.(1992; David, Kantor & Greenberg, 1994; Jones, 1990 ;Harris, 1990
) .(Kelley, Ferrell & Skinner, 1990; Kim & Choi, 2003 ' )(Kelley et al, 1990
10
. ' ) (Kim & Choi, 2003
,
.
) (Mahoney, 2003
:
I know that I am now more culpable of handling ethically compromising situations
than I was 15 years ago. Had I known more about organizational dynamics then,I
believe I could have dealt more honestly with various dilemmas. (Mahoney, 2003,
)p.10
5.2.5
, ,
. : ) (Stanga& Turpen, 1991
, . ' ) & Jones
(Gautschi, 1988
. ) (Lane, 1995
. ' ) Wood et
) ( al, 1988 :
"Egoism and individualism are deeply ingrained in the psyche of current business
students population. A substantial number are willing to resort to any means to
) achieve their interests".(Wood et al, 1988, p.256
.
) (Lowry, 2003 '
' .
,
' , , '.
' )(Ruegger & King, 1992
. . '
198
) (Ebrahimi,Petrick,& Young, 2005
) (
. ' ,
:
The most managerially motivated Hong Kong undergraduate business students have
been conditioned by cultural ,family and work contexts to support socioeconomic
harmony These multiple forces for collectivism constrain their possible excesses in
individual competitivenessThose Hong Kong undergraduate business students who
anticipate assuming managerial roles locally realize that becoming a social and
moral role model is part of the implicit set of cultural, family and work expectations
)for credible management performance.(Ebrahimi et al, 2005,p,251
? ' ) (Wood et al, 1988
" .
. " ) Arlow & Ulrich,
(1980 ) .(Stevens, 1984 ) (Wimalasiri, 2001
.
. ) (Shafer & Park, 1999
. "
) " (EPQ
) .(Axinn, Blair, Heorhiadi & Thach, 2004; Kraft & Singhapakdi, 1991
. : '
.
.
) (Ziegenfuss, 1999 ,
. -
, ,
.
199
:
, . ,
, ) (Collins, 2000
.
5.2.6
:
. /
/ .
/ .
.
) Jones, 1991; Rest
.(1986
.
.
) (Keefer & Ashley, 2001
.
. " 4
: .
. . , . , .
.
, .
.
.
, .
) ( ,
, . ,
.
:
"Focusing exclusively on the justification for moral decision, have minimised the more
deliberative or practical dimension of ethical reasoningthe practical effect of this
200
tendency has been to conceive moral problems essentially from the perspective of the
moral judge orcritic while ignoring deliberative perspective of the moral actor or
) agent"(Keefer & Ashley, 2001, p. 395
,
. .
" "
.
:
:4 .
:5 .
5.3
5.3.1
.
:
.
)( Lopes, 1987; Tversky & kahneman, 1981:
. )Montgomery & Svenson, 1989; Payne,
.( Bettman & Johnson, 1993" ,
. .
.
) .(Gee, 1989
) Wood
.(& Kroger, 2000 ,
" " 1984 .1993 -
) (Verbal Protocol Analysis - VPA
"
) .(Kuusela & Paul, 2000
"
, ,
" .
) (think aloud
201
) .(Doyle, 1997
.
. / ,
" ).(post decision summary
. "
.
, ,
).(Svenson, 1979
" ) (Todd & Benbasat, 1987 "
:
(it) provide access to what information is examined ,the manipulation conducted on
the input stimulus and ,additionally, what evaluations or assessments are made by the
problem solverand provides the greatest data richness and information value per
) data point (Todd & Benbasat, 1987, p.496
"
) .(Payne, 1994 , " "
. : ,
, , .
. )( Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995
:
.1 .
.
.2 .
.3 .
"
) & Ericsson
; Simon, 1993 .(4
:
"When verbal reports contradicts theories that are not disconfirmed by other
experimental data , it is convenient to disregard the reports as ephiphenomenal. But if
we believe that verbal reports are pertinent and not ephiphenomenal, we should show
that a general theory adequately capture the verbal informationon some level of
202
abstractionwe will also point that to cases where such tests lead to rejection of the
)corresponding theory (Ibid, p.216
) (Ericsson & Simon ,1993
) (Nisbet & Wilson, 1977 ,
,
. ,
.
"
.
.
) (Fisher & Geiselman, 1992
. ) (Cotton, 1980
:
"If the researcher assumes verbal reports are inaccurate and those reports are
ignored, valuable data may be squanderedinstead of using the subjects responses
to test the theory , the psychologist is using the theory to determine the correctness of
)the subjects responses". (Cotton, 1980, p,279
:
.
. .
' ) (Williamson, Ranyard & Cuthbert, 2000
"
. ,
.' ' ) (Arch, Bettman& Kakkar, 1978
. )(Payne, 1994
:
"Verbal protocol methods may not be perfect but they are a very satisfactory tool to
include in the toolbox of psychologists and other behavioral scientists" (Payne, 1994,
)p.247
:
) ,(Corcoran-Perry, Narayan & Cochrane, 1999; Simmons et al,
(2003
) ,(Kushniruk, 2000 ) ;Dauber, 1980
203
(Lowell, 1996 ),(Hershey et al, 1990; Nickles, 1995
) (McCombes-Tolis,2001; Wolfe,1996
) ,(Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995
) (1997 , ) (Kuusela et al, 1998
) (Payne, 1994 ) ,(Klein et al, 1995
) ,(Tor & Bazerman, 2003
).(Papantonopoulos, 2004
) (Kuusela & Paul, 2000
.
.
. ) (Narvaez, 1998 ,1999
. ,
:
Discourse processing techniques are useful for examining the effects of schemas on
moral cognition. Discourse processing focuses on a more everyday kind of moral
than the more global approaches in which undividuals process moral
thinking
information that is mixed with other kind of information ,as is often the case in real
life .Moral discourse reaearch also allows more control over stimuli so that
)differences between input and output can be compared ". (Narvaez, 2007, p.20
: VPA "
, , .
"
) (2
.
5.3.2
) & Cohen
.(Bradley, 1977; Guetzkow, 1962; Heckman, 1981
) Brehmer, 1992; Buchner,
.(1995; Funke, 1988
.
. "
204
.
:
. .
. ,
,
.
.
" . " , ,
).(Brehmer, 1992
) ,(Axelrod, 1997
.
," :
"Simulation is a third way of doing science. Like deduction, it starts with a set of
explicit assumptions. But unlike deduction, it does not prove theorems. Instead, a
simulation generates data that can be analyzed inductively. Unlike typical induction,
however, the simulated data comes from a rigorously specified set of rules rather than
direct measurement of the real world. While induction can be used to find patterns in
data, and deduction can be used to find consequences of assumptions, simulation
)modeling can be used as an aid intuition.( Axelrod, 1997, p.5
5.3.3 In basket items -
)(in-basket simulation
.
)Lopez, 1966
) .(York, Stubler & Smith, 2005
) , ," '(
)" ( . "
.
" . "
" .
" " . ' '
) (Schippmann, Prien & Katz, 1990
30 , " "
."
205
. ) (Moses &Byham, 1977 ,
93%
" .0.71 0.44' ' ) Schippmann, Prien
( & Katz, 1990 :
"In summary, the studies of criterion related validity did reveal a large number of
significant correlations between in-basket measures and various criteria. Thus the
evidence of criterion related validity for certain in-baskets is sufficient to support the
making
decision
various
for
procedures
the
of
use
and
development
)procedures"(p.853
.
.
" "
) .
Ashkanasy ,Windsor & Trevino, 2006 ;Caldwell & Moberg, 2007; Laczniake & :
Inderrieden, 1987 ; Mumford, Helton, Decker, Connelly & van Doorn, 2003; Trevino
.(& Youngblood, 1990 ' ) (Ashkanasy et al, 2006
,
. ' ) (Mumford et al, 2003
. ) Trevino
(& Youngblood, 1990
.
. ' )(Connelly, Helton-Fauth& Mumford, 2004
. 40 16
.
.
, ,
. ) (Wittmer, 2000 10
.
. ) (Caldwell & Moberg, 2007
206
. : .
..
" "
.
.
.
.
5.4
: .
" .
. .
'
68 MBA .
. .MBA
:
19 49- . 31 .5.4 6
.4.5 68 7 28
17 16- " . 31 :
13 21 3- .
'
24 : 24- .
,"
. 12 .
' -' "
. > 35 70.
:
15 9
25 2..4
17 7- .
207
:
6 18.
17 7
50 9 35 45 10 35 5
5.4.1
.
"
" . " "
"
" . .
:
. 10 4 .
"
" .
" .
"
.
. ) ( think aloud 9 )
( 3 .
.
:
. .
. .
. .
:
. ) (Wark & Krebs, 1996
. :
.
. " )" :(2000 ,
: , .
.
. " "
) (Young, 1993"
. . "
208
) (Wittmer,2000
. ) (Caldwell & Moberg, 2007
.
:
.1
, .
.1.1
) (
.1.2
,
) (
.2
. .
.2.1
)
"(.
2.2 )
(
,
). (.
" 4 ) ' :( 4
:
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. , " 10 4
. " "
.
) : ' (4
.1 " "
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
209
.8
.9
.10
' :
"
.
' :
" .
' :
" '
.
' :
) 4 ( 8 3
5 15 .
.
" " "
" 7) 87.5% .(8
.75%
)
"
(
)
(
' :
' 1' ) (68
.
.
' 1'
67
61
50
27
"
. : ,
, .
210
" .
.
/ /
/ .
. ) ( .
:
." 4-
) 4 ( .
."
, 4
, 3 .
' 2'
. ' ) (Skoe et al ,2000
, . ' 3'
"
" . "" ""
. ""
. "
' 2'
64%
50.5%
' 3' - "
129
86
91
106
100
38
27
48
211
.
"
3 . 15 "
. .
,
. ) (
" .
"
.
. "
. "
90 120- .
) + ( .
:
.
.
. " " .
, )Skoe et al,
.(2000 ' .5
,
. ), ,(
10
. / / ,
.
. ,
, " .
' 4' "
. : ,,
. ' 5'
,
.
10
' ) ( Jordan,2005 ) (moral awareness
).(strategic awareness.
212
,
)( MRS- Moral Recognition Scale :
0 .
1 .
2 .
' 6'
.
' .6
' 4'
*
* /
*
*
*
*
*
*
5'
*
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213
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.
.
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.
.
,
200
.
.
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.
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.
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.
.
.
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214
...
. "
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.
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. .
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5.4.2&
.
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.
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"
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.
215
"
: . .
" .
" " .
"
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. " " " : " .
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.
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-
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.
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216
" . ".
. '
: . ) (
)
( . .
. .
5.4.3
. ) (Morse, 1994
.
.
:
.
) (etic
)(emic
11
:
.1 "
.2
.1 & " ) (Phase Theoreme
"
) .(Brim et al, 1962 ;Lipshitz & Bar Ilan, 1996; Witte, 1972
) (emic
)(etic
.2
" " " ,
" . "
11 " "etic .
" "emic . "
" ) ( Pike,1967 " "phonemic " "phonetic
. 60 "
) (Harris,1964,1978" .
".
217
" . "
) (
. "
.
) '
2' (:
. " " )
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. / "
) ' (2
. ,
) ' (3
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2
3
) (2 0
) (6 0
) ' ( .
2 0"
:
218
0 ' ) "
(
' ) (.
1
.
2
.
"
" "
. 2
:
12 " 36 .
k" ) (Cohen,1960 .77
k" ) (Cohen,1960 .70
k" ) (Cohen,1960 .84
5.5
."
.
.
: . , . /
, . . "
. '
. '
. '
) ( .
.
.
219
5.5.1
"
. : 0 . 1
, 3 . :
. .
.
' 7'
, ' 1'
.
. ) .(t,47 df) =2.273 p<0.05
) (ANOVA repeated measures ) F,2,96= 51.69
.( p<0.001 Post hoc" ) ( Sidak, 1967
.
" . .
)
) (t (df 24) =7.04, p<0.01 , )t (df 24)=5.12, p<0.01
(.
' 1'
1.5
Mean
0.5
220
7' "
1.57
0.57
1.10
0.88
1.32
0.43
0.77
0.63
1.14
0.14
0.73
0.38
3.32
0.96
2.38
1.41
&
.
.
. "
. 144
) (48X3 )(emic
) .(etic
) (,
) "(.
109 - 144 ) (75.6%"
:
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".
221
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.
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1 2
1 2- ' ) (Brim et al.1962
, .
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:
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.
.
.
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. '
8' .
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.
222
) : (1991 ,
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.
,
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.
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.
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.
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223
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120
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224
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.
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.
.
.
225
' 11'
10
.
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.....
.
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.
.
) (Chi square=32.04 15df p <0.05
) .(chi square=17.98 9df p<0.05
.
) 26 15
( . )20
26 (
) 29 15
( .
. ,
226
.
.
' 12'
"
11
20
12
29
26
15
10
10
17
18
"
24
24
24
72
24
24
24
72
' 13' 5'
.
' 13'
292
191.8
106
263
192
123.4
197
161
106.7
66.3
59.4
29.09
47 t"
)
4.232
3.255
3.137
P<0.01
P<0.05
P<0.05
) (
.
280 25 108
.31
.
.
227
' 2'
300
250
200
Mean
150
100
50
& .
.
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.
.
:
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.
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228
.
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.
120
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.
229
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230
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231
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1
.
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3
.
232
17'18 ,'19 ,'
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17' :.
) 59.7% ( .
27% 13.2% .
. . ,
.
"
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.( 21% " , ,
) 22 56.4%
17 43.6% ( .
, 35 40.6%
, 59.3%
.
.
' 18' "
.
) 5.10 ( 1.59 )
3.85 (1.65 ) .( t 47 df = 2.674 p<0.05
) 2.16
1.50 ( .
) 1.78 1.25
( . )
1.33 1.29 (.
' 17'
%
79
21
(48.6%)35
(70.8%)51
40.7
59.3
(30.5%)22
(23.6%)17
56.4
43.6
(20.8%)15
*(5.5%) 4
100
"
86
100
39
100
19
Chi square=57.9 3 df p<0.01
*
233
' 18'
1.78
2.16
1.33
5.10
1.25
1.50
1.29
3.85
0.85
0.76
0.48
1.59
0.44
0.72
0.55
1.65
t 47 df = 2.674 p<0.05
' 3'
2.50
2.00
1.50
Mean
1.00
0.50
0.00
' 19'
*0.187
*0.351
*0.363
)* (P<0.05
' 19'
.
.
234
,
. : '
" . ,
.
' 20'
) (
**.344
.248
** p<0.01
' 20' .
. ,
.
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.
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.
,
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.
235
?
.
' ) (Skoe et al, 2000
, . '
,
) ( . ,
."
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.
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. )(observed
) (expected . ,
.
' 21'
12
33%
64%
Chi square 1 df = 7.84 p<0.01
.
. ,
,
. ' 22'
12 ,
" .33%" ) 3. ( 9
)(
.
236
.
: .
. . . ,
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.
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16
12
17
15
19
21
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:
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:
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237
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238
:
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.
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239
:
.
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5.5.2
: .
, .
.
.
" "
.
" "
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) ' 23'( . .
,
.
' 23'
2.85
1.26
3.60
1.12
t 46 df =-3.493 p<0.01
' 24'
.
) .(t 46df = 2.78 p<0.01
.
' 24'
4.03
0.94
14 1 .
240
1.41
2.67
t 46df= 2.78 p<0.01
5.5.3
2 .
' 25'
' 25'
N=28
N=20
2.71
0.745
2.80
0.754
t46df=.235 p>0.05
3.40
1.29
3.70
1.49
t46df=.456 p>0.05
4.5
1.73
4.3
1.95
t46df=.469 p>0.05
5.5.4
) ' 4'(:
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241
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40% .
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)Lipshitz & Ben-
(Shaul, 1997
.
. " '
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.
255
)(situation awareness
) .(Endsley, 1997
:
.1 .
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. ) (Walsh, 1995
: .
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) (Blum, 1991 ) (Walker, 2000
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, C , X
.
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.
5.6.2
.
.
/ . ,
)Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1990; Narvaez & Lapsly,
.(2006 ,
256
) Adelson,
(1984; Arkes & Freedman, 1984; French & Sternberg, 1989
.
.
.
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257
.
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.
.
.
);;Basseches, 1984; Kegan, 1982,1994; Merron et al, 1987; Perry, 1981
.(2004 ,' ) (Basseches ,1984 "
" .'
:
" adults' confrontations with problems involving coordination and transformations
of interacting systems over time ,in contexts which critical reflection, should stimulate
and the development of dialectical thinking in
adult development in general
particularthe division of labor and social relations of work may shield individual in
particular jobs for inter-systematic or trans-systematic issues inherent in the nature of
work organizations" (Basseches , 1984,p.364).
.
.
) (Haidt, 2001
. "
. , '
) (DIT
) Narvaez., Gleason, Mitchell & Bentley,
(1999
5.6.4
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. ' )(Skoe et al , 2002
258
. ' ) (Robin et al, 1996
. ' '
,
.
: .
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) .(Jones, 1991
);Ben-Ze'ev, 1997;Damasio, 1994; Green et al, 2001
.( Haidt, 2001; Moll et al, 2002
,
) .Eisenberg, 2000; Kahneman, 2003; Loewenstein et al, 2001 ;Moll et :
(al , 2002
5.6.5
2
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259
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2 3 "
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. ) (
260
) 4 5" " " " "
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,
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.
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261
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262
) (accessible ) Higgins,
;.(2000;Wyer & Srull, 1986
,
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.
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.
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( ,
16
5.6.6
.
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. .
263
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.
264
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267
.6 ) 3
6.1
,
. '
) .(Chong,1993'
,
, ) (framing :
People typically choose their frames of references hastily or off the top of their
heads. They might react to an especially prominent cue in the question or relate the
issue to a personal experiencefor many individuals, the choice of one side or
another on a given issue depended on which considerations were jogged by the
)question(p.869
,
, ,
, . 1 2
,
. " " "
, .
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, . )(priming
3
1 2- . 1
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)
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268
) .(Higgins, 1996
" " "" )(Priming
, '
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, ) Gilligan, 1982; Rest
.(et al, 1999; Skitka, 2003
.
.
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:
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, ,
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) . (Broadbent ,1958
, , ,
)& Rumelhart & Ortony, 1977; Taylor
.(Crocker, 1981
)(Higgins & King ,1981; Wyer & srull, 1981
: " " "" .
269
.
: .
. ,
.
) .(Higgins, 1996
:
It is preferable ,therefore, to define accessibility in terms of potential for knowledge
)activation rather than potential for knowledge use" (Higgins, 1996, p.134
.
, .
) (Higgins & King, 1981
.
. ) (priming
." ) Tulving,
(1983 ,
.
.
, ) & Wyer,Srull ,Gordon
(Hartwick,1982 ).(Hastie & Park, 1986
" : .
. : , ,
, .
. .
.
) .(Higgins, Bargh & Lombardi, 1985; Higgins,Rholes & Jones, 1977
, , )Baldwin, Carrell, :
& & Lopez, 1990; Bargh, Chen & Burrows, 1996; Chen & Bargh, 1997; Dijksterhuis
.(Bargh, 2001; Higgins, Rholes, & Jones, 1977
270
.
, ) Epley & Gilovich,
,(1999 : ) ,(Greenwald & Banaji, 1995
) (Garcia, Weaver Moskowitz & Darely, 2002 ) Maxwell, Nye
.(& Maxwell, 1999
,
) .(Mandel, 2003
"
) .(Hong et al, 2000 ,
' ) (Kay, Wheeler, Bargh and Ross, 2004
.
.
,
.
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"" , . ) (Yi, 1990
)(
, .
.
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.
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(Burrows ,1996 ,
, .
).(Dijksterhuis et al., 1998
271
:
.
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(1977
.
).(Martin, 1986; Moskowitz & Skurnik, 1999 :
) Wheeler & :
(Petty, 2001 /
. :
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) .(Wheeler et al., 2001
) :
(
, ) .(care & compassion
.' ' ) (Dijksterhuis et al, 1998
,
.
.
. excitation
.(Higgins, Bargh & Lombardi, 1985; Wyer & Carlston, 1979) transfer model
" ,
" . ,
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.
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.
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)1992
.(Dittmar,
" '
.
,
272
, , .
.
"
.
.
.
:
" it appears that prior exposure to images of business-related objects can produce
changes not only in cognitive accessibility of concepts and in situational construals,
but also in the explicit behavioral choices (that involve real financial stakes) that
should logically follow from these changes in perception and cognitive accessibility.
Furthermore, these behavioral effects again occurred without participants discerning
any connection between their prior exposure to a particular class of culturally
)meaningful stimuli and their subsequent behavioral choices". (p.,89-90
6.2.2
. "
.
, ,
. ' )Ralston,Cunniff & Gustafson,
(1995 ,
, .
) (Dixon, 2007
.
.
) ,(Norasakkunkit,2003 ,
, ,
,
, .
" ' )Hong, Chiu, & Kung, 1997 ; Hong, Morris, Chiu,
( & Benet-Martinez, 2000" " . '
." ' ,
.
273
"" ,
. ,
" :
"culture is not internalized in the form of an integrated and highly general
structure, such as an overall mentality, worldview, or value orientation. Rather,
culture is internalized in the form of a loose network of domain-specific knowledge
structures, such as categories and implicit theories individuals can acquire more
than one such cultural meaning system, even if these systems contain conflicting
theories. That is, contradictory or conflicting constructs can be simultaneously
"possessed by an individual; they simply cannot simultaneously guide cognition
(Hong et al, 2000, p.710).
, '
.
, -.
,
. "
. "
. , ) & Trafimow, Triandis
(Goto, 1991
, .
. ' ) (Gardner, Gabriel & Lee, 1999
.
. ) (Mandel, 2003
. ,
.
) (Triandis, 1989
,
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.
274
. ,
.
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,
.
6.2.3
.
) (Rest et al, 1999
.
,
) ,(Kohlberg, 1984 .
" "
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(Wark & Krebs, 1996,2000
.
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. , "
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.
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) , (.
275
"
.
" ,
. :
material identity
.
social identity
"
.
.
.
personal identity -
.
: , ,
).(Rest et al, 1999
,
,
' '
.
6.2.4
.
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. : ) (van den Bos, 2003
,
. ' ) (Maxwell, Nye & Maxwell, 1999
.
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,
. ' )(Cowan, Resendez,Marshal & Quist, 2002
,
. '
,
276
.
,
.
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.
. , )Berkowitz & Alioto,
(1973 " .
) (
.
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) : ( .
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.
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6.2.5 &
.
) . (Anderson & Bushman, 2002; Higgins, King & Mavin, 1982
.
277
) Fisher, Merron & Torbert, 1987; Kegan, 1982; :
.(Nisan & Applebaum, 1995; Perry, 1970; Sternberg, 2005
1 2-
. .
.
),
.(2004
.
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.
2 .
,
. .
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.(Chen, McDonel, & Sherman, 1982 )DeCoster & Claypool
(,2004 .
. ,
. ' )Bartholow et al,
(2005
. )
( ,
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, ) Machiels-Bongaerts, Shmidt &Boshuizen,
.(1993" ' ) (Jordan, 2005
. ,
278
.,
. ' ) (Kay et al,2004
,
) ( .
' .2
:2
.
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6.2.6
) .(1998 ,
).(Forsyth, 1980
) (Forsyth, 1980,1992 "
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.
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.
,
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.(EPQ) Ethical Position Questionnaire -
.
, "
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, .
" ' ) (Forsyth, Nye & Kelly, 1988
) (Gilligan, 1982 ) ( r = 0.53
).(r = 0.13
EPQ-
, , . , '
279
) (Barnett,Bass & Brown, 1994
21 26 ,
26 . ' )& Barnett,Bass
(Brown, 1996
. ' )(Vitell,Lumpkin,& Rawwas,1991
, .'
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.
.
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) ,(Jones, 1991
.
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). (Sparks & Hunt, 1998
:
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.
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6.3.1
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MBA
. MBA- :
, 500 GMAT - .
58
21
37
26.81
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280
6.3.2
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.
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. 2
)Cui et al, 2005;Davis et al,2001;Forsyth,1980; Lee & Sirgy,1999;Singhapakdi
.(et al,1999 ,
) 0.88 0.80 ( .
281
) (6 3 5
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1
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1
2
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