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GEOLOGY
by
FRANK H. T. RHODES

Illustrated by

RAYMOND PERLMAN

FOREWORD
"THE EARTH - l ove it or l eave i t , " is a pop u l a r s l og a n
evol v i ng from o u r recog n i t i o n of the peril s of a n e x p l o d
i ng p o p u l a t i o n , a po l l uted envi ronment, a nd the l i m i ted
natura l resources of an a l ready p l u ndered p l a net . E ffec
tive s o l u t i o n s to our societa l p r o b l e m s d e m a n d an effec
tive knowledg e of the e a r t h on w h i c h w e l ive .
The ob ject of t h i s book i s to i ntroduce the e a r t h: its
re l a t i o n to the rest of the u n iverse , the rocks a n d m i nera l s
o f w h i c h i t i s made u p , t h e forces that s h a pe i t , a n d t h e 5
b il l i o n year s of h i story that have g iven it its present for m .
Many t o p i c s that a re d i scussed i n the book have a very
practi ca l and u rgent s ig n ificance for o ur society, th i ng s
such a s water s u p p l y, i nd u s t r i a l m i nera l s , o re deposits,
a n d fue l s . Others a re of i m portance i n l o ng er p l a n n i ng
a n d deve l o pment, such as earthquake effects , m a r i n e
eros i o n , l a n d s l id e s , a r i d reg i o n s , a nd so o n . The e a r t h
provides the u l t i mate b a s i s of o u r present society: the a i r
w e breath e , t h e water w e d r i n k , t h e food w e eat, the
mate r i a l s we use. All ar e the products of o u r p l a ne t .
The s t u d y of the earth o p e n s o u r eyes to a v a s t sca l e
of t i m e that provides u s with n e w d i me n s i o n s , m ea n i ng s ,
a n d perspectives . And it revea l s the order of the ear th ,
i t s dyna m i c i nterdependence a n d i t s structu red beauty.
I a m most gr atefu l to Sharon Sa nford , who typed the
m a n u sc r i pt of the revised editi o n .
F . H . T. R .
Revised Edition, 1991.
Copyright 1991, 1972 Golden Books Publishing Company, Inc., New York, New
York 1 01 06. All rights reserved. Produced in the U.S.A. No part of this book may
be copied or reproduced without written permission from the copyright owner.
Library of Congress Catalog Number. 72-150741.
ISBN D-307-24349-4.

A Golden Field Guide'", A Golden Guide", G Design'", and Golden Books" are
trademarks of Golden Books Publishing Company, Inc.

CONTENTS

GEOLOGY AND OURSELVES

4
THE EARTH I N SPACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
THE EARTH'S CRUST: COMPOSITION . 21
THE CRUST: EROSION AND
DEPOSITION
.
. .
32
WEAT H E R ING
. .
.
34
GLAC I E RS A N D G LAC IATION .
56
T H E OC EANS
.
63
WINDS
.
..
. 74
P R O D UCTS OF D E POSITION
. . . 78
THE CRUST: SUBSURFACE CHANGES 82
VOLCANO E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
C LASSIF ICAT I ON OF IGNEOUS
ROC KS . .
. . . . . . . 89
METAMO R P H ISM . . . .
. . . 94
MINE RALS AND C I V I L I ZATION . . 96
T H E C H ANGING EARTH . . . . . . 104
ROC K D E F O RMATION
. .
106
ROC K F RACTUR E S . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
MOUNTAIN B U I L D ING . . . . . . . . . . 115
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE EARTH. 122
EARTHQUA K E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
THE EARTH'S INT E R I O R . . . . . . . . 126
THE OCEAN FLOOR . . . . . . . . . . . 136
P LATE T ECTONIC S . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
HOW THE EARTH WORKS .
. 146
THE EARTH'S HISTORY . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
OTHER INFORMATION . . . . . . . . 1 56
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
. . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . .

. . . . .

. .

. . . . .

. . . .

. . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . .

. .

. . . .

. . . . .

. .

. .

. . . . .

. .

. . .

. . .

. . . . .

. .

. .

Volca n i c eru ption in Kapoho, Hawa i i . Many i s l a n d s in the Pacific a re

volca n i c in orig i n .

GEOLOGY AND OURSELVES

Geol ogy is the study of the earth . As a science, it is a
newcomer in comparison with , say, astronomy. Whereas
geology i s only about 200 yea rs old, astronomy was
actively studied by the Egyptians as long a s 4, 000 yea rs
ago. Yet specu lation a bout the earth and its activities must
be as old as the human race . Surely, primitive people were
fa m i l i a r with such natural disasters as earthqua kes and
volcanic eruption s .
Grad u a l ly, human society beca me m o r e dependent
upon the earth i n i ncrea singly complex ways . Today,
beh ind the insulation of our modern l iving conditions, civi
l i zation rema i n s basica lly dependent upon our knowledge
of the earth . All our m i nera l s come from the earth's crust .
Water supply, agricu lture, and land use a l so depend upon
sound geo logic informati o n .
Geology sti m u l ates t h e m i nd . It ma kes u s e o f a l most a l l
other sciences a n d g ives much to them i n return . I t i s the
basis of modern society.
4

T H E BRA N C H OF G E O LOGY

emphasized here is physical

geol ogy. Other Golden Guides of this series, Rocks and
Minerals and Fossils, dea l with the branches of m i nera l ogy,
petro logy, and paleonto logy.

PH YSIC AL GEOLO G Y

is t h e
overa l l study of the earth,
embracing most other branches
of g e o l o g y but stress i n g the
dyna mic a n d structura l aspects .
It i n c l udes a study of landscape
development, the earth's i n te
r ior, the nature of mounta i n s ,
and t h e composition of r o c k s a n d
m i nera l s .

HISTORIC AL GEOLOGY

i s the
study of the h i story of earth and
its inhabitants. It traces ancient
geog raphies and the evo lution of
l ife .

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

is geol
ogy applied to the search for and
exploitation of m i neral resources
such as meta l l i c ores, fuel s , and
water.

STRUCTUR AL GEOLOGY

(tec
tonics) i s the study of earth struc
tures and their relationship to the
forces that produce the
structures .

GEOPH YSICS

is the study of the

e a r t h ' s p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s . It
inc l udes the study of earthquakes
(seismology) and methods of m i n
e r a l a n d o i l explorat i o n .

PH YSIC AL OCE ANOGRAPH Y

is
c losely related to geology and i s
concerned w i t h t h e seas, major
ocean basins, seafl oors, and the
crust beneath them .

T H E S I ZE A N D S H A P E OF T H E EARTH were not always

calculated accurately. Most ancient peoples thought the
ea rth was flat, but there are many sim ple proofs that the
earth i s a sphere . For instance, as a s h i p a pproaches from
over the horizon, masts or funnels a re visi ble . As the s h i p
comes closer, more of i t s lower pa rts c o m e i nto view. F i nal
proof, of course, was provided by c i rcumnavigating the
g l obe a nd by photographs taken from spacecraft .
The Greek geographer a nd astronomer E ratosthenes
was proba bly the first (about 225 B . C . ) to measure suc
cessfully the ci rcumference of the earth . The basis for his
calculations was the measurement of the elevation of the
sun from two different poi nts on the globe . Two s i multane
ous observations were made, one from Alexa ndria , Egypt
(Point B , p. 7), and the other from a site on the N ile near
the present Aswan Dam (Point A) . At the latter point, a
good vertical sighting could be made, as the sun was known
to shine d i rectly down a well at noon on the longest day
(June 23) of the yea r.
E ratosthenes reasoned that if the earth were round, the
noonday sun could not a ppear in the same position in the
sky a s seen by two widely separated observers. H e com
pared the ang ular displacement of the sun (Y ) with the
distance between the two g round sites, A and B .

RECENT D ATA

from orbiting
earth sate l l ites have confirmed
that the earth i s actua lly s l i g htly
flattened at the poles. I t i s a n
oblate spheroid, t h e p o l a r c i r
cumference being 27 mi les less

than at the equator. The fol low

i ng measurements are currently
accepted:
Avg . diameter
7,91 8 mi.
Avg . radius
3 , 959 m i .
Avg . c i rcumference 24, 900 m i .

LA R G E AS T H E E A R T H I S , it i s m i nute i n comparison with

the u n iverse, where distances a re measured i n light yea rs
the d i stance light, movi ng at 1 80, 000 m iles per second ,
travels i n a year. This is a bout 6 billion m i les or 1 0 m i lli o n ,
m i llio n kilometers. Using these u nits o f measurements, t h e
m o o n i s 1 . 25 lig h t seconds from t h e earth , t h e sun i s Slight
minutes from the earth , and the nearest star i s 4 light years
from the earth . Our galaxy is 80, 000 light years i n d i a m
eter. T h e m o s t d i stant galaxies a re 8 billio n lig h t yea rs
from earth . It i s esti mated that there a re at least 400
m illion galaxies "visible" from earth using rad i o telescopes
a nd s i m ilar means of detectio n . Galaxies a re either ellip
tical or spi ral i n shape .

ERATOSTHE NES

measured the
distance (X) between Points A and
B a s 5 , 000 stad ia (about 575
m i l e s ) . Although the observer at
Point A saw the sun d irectly over
head a t noon, the observer at B
found the sun was i n c l ined at a n
angle of 7 1 2' (Y) to the vertica l .
S i nce a rea d i ng o f 7 1 2' corre
sponds to one-fiftieth of a full c i r
c l e ( 3 6 0 ) , Er a t o s t h e n e s
reasoned that t h e measured
ground d istance of 5 , 000 stadi a
m u s t represent one-fiftieth of t h e
earth's c i rcumference . He calcu
lated the entire c i rcumference to
be about 2 8 , 750 m i les.

T H E EART H'S S U R FAC E ,

for the purpose of measure

ments, i s commonly assumed to be un iform , for mounta i n s ,
va l leys, a nd ocea n deeps, g reat as some are, a re relatively
insignificant features i n comparison with the diameter of
the ea rth .
But mounta i ns are not insignificant to humans. They p l ay
a major role i n contro l l i ng the c l i mate of the continents;
they have profoundly i nfl uenced the patterns of human
m i g ration and settlement .
Mounta i n ranges, with very few exceptions, a re narrow,
a rcuate belts, thousands of m i les in length , genera lly
developed on the marg ins of the a ncient cores or shields of
the continents . They consist of g reat thicknesses of sed i
mentary a nd volcanic rocks, many of them of marine ori
gin. Thei r i ntense fol d i ng and faulting a re evidence of
enormous compressive forces.
Mounta ins a re not l i m ited to the land . The ocean floor
has even more relief than the continents . Most of the
continenta l margins extend a s conti nenta l shelves to a
depth of a bout 600 feet below the l eve l of the sea , beyond
8

7
6
5
4
3
2
I
ocean

which the seafloor (conti nenta l slope) p l u nges a bruptly

down (see p . 66) .
The ocea n floor adjacent to some isla nds a nd continents
has long, deep trenches, the deepest of which, off the
P h i l i ppi nes, is about 61/2 m i les deep (p. 1 3 8 ) . A worldwide
network of mid-oceanic ridges, of mountainous propor
tions, encircles the earth . This network has geophysical
and geologic characteristics that suggest it occupies a
unique role i n earth dyna mics - that a l ong these ridges
new seafloor i s constantly being created .
T H E E A R T H 'S C R U ST,

derived from the dense r, underlying

mantle (pp. 1 28- 1 29), consists of two kinds of roc k . The
continenta l crust differs from the ocea n i c crust i n bei ng
l i g hter (2 . 7 g m . /cc. compared with 3 . 0) , thicker (35 k m 7 0 km versus 6 km), o l d e r (up t o 3 . 5 b i l l i o n yea rs versus a
maximum of 200 m i l l ion years), chemica l ly d ifferent, and
much more complex i n structure . These d i fferences reflect
the d i fferent modes of formation of the two kinds of crust
( p p . 1 40- 1 45 ) .
9

e Pluto

THE EARTH
RELATIVE
DISTANCES
OF PLANETS
FROM THE
SUN

EARTH is one of n i ne pla nets revolving i n

1 ar ( e111pt1ca
I) or b"tts aroun d our
near 1 y c1rcu
star, the sun . Ea rth is the third pla net out from
the sun and the fifth l a rgest p l a net in our solar

PLANETS

vary i n size, composition, and orbit. Mer

cury, with a diameter of 3 , 1 1 2 miles, is the planet
nearest to the sun. It orbits the sun in just three earth
months. Jupiter, about ten times the diameter of Earth
(88 , 000 miles), is the largest planet and fifth in distance
from the sun, taking about 1 1 3/ earth years to orbit the
sun. Pluto, the most distant planet, tokes about 2473/
earth years to orbit around the sun. The inner planets
hove densities, and probably compositions similar to
Earth's; outer planets ore gaseous, liquid, or frozen
hydrogen and other gases.

Neptune

THE SU N,

on overage-sized star, makes up about 99

percent of the moss of the solar system. Its size may be
illustrated by visualizing it as a marble. At this scale,
the earth would be the size of a small groin of sand one
yard away. Pluto would be a rather smaller groin 40
yards away.

Uranus

SATELLITES

revolve around seven planets. Including the

earth's moon, there ore 6 1 satellites altogether; Mars
has 2, Jupiter 1 6, Saturn 1 8 , Uranus 1 5 , Neptune 8 ,
and Pluto 1 .

Saturn

COMETS

Jupiter

ore among the oldest members of the solar

system. They orbit the sun in extremely long, elliptical
orbits. As comets approach the sun, their toils begin to
glow from friction with the solar wind.

e Mars
Earth
Mercury

Cl

Venus

IN SPACE
syste m , having a diameter of about 7, 9 1 8
m i l e s . It completes one orbit a round the sun i n
about 365V4 days, t h e length o f time that g ives
us our unit of time cal led a year.

THE MOON,

earth's natural satellite, has about 'I the

diameter, 1/a 1 the weight, and 3/s the density of our
planet. The moon completes one orbit around the earth
every 2 7113 days. It takes about the same length of time,
291/2 days, to rotate on its own axis; hence, the same
side, with an 1 8% variation, always faces us. The
moon's surface, cratered by meteorite impact, consists
of dark areas (maria) which are separated by lighter
mountainous areas (terrae). Terrae are part of the orig
inal crust, formed about 4 . 5 billion years ago; maria
are basins, excavated by meteorite falls, filled by ba
saltic lavas formed from 3 to 4 billon years ago.

ASTEROIDS,

the so-called minor planets, are rocky,

airless, barren, irregularly shaped objects that range
from less than a mile to about 480 miles in diameter.
Most of the asteroids that have been charted travel in
elongated orbits between Mars and Jupiter. The great
width of this zone suggests that the asteroids may be
remnants of a disintegrated planet formerly having
occupied this space.

METEORS,

loosely called shooting stars, are smaller

than asteroids, some being the size of grains of dust.
Millions daily race into the earth's atmosphere, where
friction heats them to incandescence. Most meteors dis
integrate to dust, but fragments of larger meteors some
times reach the earth's surface as "meteorites." About
30 elements, closely matching those of the earth, have
been identified in meteorites.

COMPARATIVE
SIZES OF THE
PLANETS
Pluto

Mercury

Mars

Venus

Earth

WINTER

SPRING AND F A LL

----,
I
I

'

w
,.

I
I
I
I
\

- .... ,,

s'

..

..

"SLLM MER

..

..

w
N

..

..

Ti lted a x i s determ i nes d iffere nt positions of sun at s u nri se, noon, a n d

s u n set at d ifferent seaso n s i n m i d d l e north latitude.
THE E A R T H 'S MOT I O N S determ i ne the daily phenomenon
of day and night and the yea rly phenomenon of seasona l
changes. The earth revolves a round the sun i n a slig htly
e l l i ptica l orbit and a l so rotates on its own axis. Si nce the
earth's axis is tilted about 231/2 with respect to the p l a ne
of the orbit, each hemisphere receives more light a nd heat
from the sun during one half of the yea r than d u r i ng the
other half. The season in which a hemisphere is most
d i rectly tilted towa rd the sun is summer. Where the tilt is
away from the sun, the season is wi nter.

RELATIVE MOTIONS OF THE EARTH

REVOLUTION is earth's motion PRECESSION is a motion at the

about the sun i n a 600- m i l l ion

mile orbit, a s it completes one
orbit a bout every 3651/ days
trave l i n g at 66, 000 m p h .

ROTATION

i s a w h i r l i ng motion
of the earth on its own axis once
i n about every 24 hours at a
speed of about 1 , 000 m ph at the
equator.

NUTATION

i s a daily circular
motion at each of the earth's
poles a bout 40 f t . in diameter.

12

poles describing one complete

circle every 26, 000 years due to
axis tilt, caused by gravitational
action of the sun and moon.

OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

revolves
around the center of our M i l ky
Way Galaxy. Our portion of the
Milky Way makes one revolution
each 200 m i l lion yea r s .

GALAXIES

seem to be reced ing

from the earth at speeds propor
tional to their d i stance s .

THE S U N is the source of a l most a l l energy on earth . Solar

heat creates most wind and a l so causes eva poration from
the ocea n s and other bod ies of water, resu lting i n prec i p i
tatio n . Ra i n fi l l s rivers and reservoirs, and ma kes hydro
electric power possible. Coa l and petroleum are fossi l
rema ins of pla nts and a n i ma l s that, when living , requ i red
sunlight. In one hour the earth receives solar energy equiv
a lent to the energy conta i ned i n more than 20 b i l l ion tons
of coa l , and this is only half of one b i l l i onth of the sun's
tota l radiation .
J ust a sta r o f average size, the sun i s yet s o vast that it
could conta i n over a m i l l i o n ea rth s . Its d i a m eter, 864 , 000
m i les, is over 1 00 times that of the earth . It is a gaseous
mass with such high temperatures ( 1 1 , 000 F at the sur
face, perhaps 3 25 , 000, 000F at the center) that the gases
a re inca ndescent. As a huge nuclear furnace, the sun con
verts hyd rogen to hel i u m , simulta neously chang i ng four
m i l lion tons of matter i nto energy each second .

Solar pro m i nences com pared with the size of the earth

THE MILKY WAY,

l i ke many
other galaxies, i s a wh i r l i n g
spiral w i t h a centra l lens-shaped
d i sc that stretches into spiral
arms. Most of its 1 00 b i l l i o n
stars a r e l ocated i n t h e disc.
The Milky Way's di ameter is
GALAX I E S

about 80, 000 l i g h t yea r s ; i t s

thickness, about 6 , 500 l i g ht
years. (A l i g h t yea r is the distance
light trave l s i n one year at a
velocity of 1 86, 000 m i . per sec . ,
o r a total o f a bout 6 t r i l l i o n
m i l es . )

are huge concentrations o f stars. With i n the

universe, there are i n n u merable g a l axies, many rese m b l i ng
our own M i l ky Way. Sometimes ca l l ed extraga lactic nebu
lae or i s l a nd u niverses, these star systems a re mostly visible
only by telescope. Only the g reat spira l nebula Andro
meda and the two i rreg u l a r nebu lae known a s the Magel
lanic C l ouds can be seen with the naked eye. Telescopic
i nspection revea l s galaxies at the furthermost l i m its of the
observable u niverse. A l l of these g igantic spira l systems
seem to be of comparable size and rotating rapidly.
N early 5 0 percent appea r to be isolated i n space, but
many g a l axies belong to multiple system s conta in i ng two
14

or more extraga lactic nebu lae. Our g a l axy is a member of

the loca l G roup, which conta i n s about a dozen o ther
galaxies. Some a re e l l i ptica l i n shape, others irreg u l a r .
G a laxies may conta i n up to hund reds of b i l l ions of sta rs
and have d i a meters of up to 1 60, 000 l ight years . G a l axies
a re separated from one a nother by g reat spaces, usua l l y
o f about 3 m i l lion l i g h t yea rs.
Many g a la xies rotate on their own axes, but all g a l axies
move bod i l y through space at speeds of u p to 1 00 m i les a
second . I n addition to this, the whole un iverse seems to be
expa n d i n g , movi ng away from us at g reat speed s . Our
nearest g a l a xy, i n Andromed a , is 2 . 2 m i l l i on light years
away.
About 1 00 m i l l i o n ga laxies are known, each conta i n ing
many billions of sta r s . Others undoubted ly lie beyond the
reach of our telescopes . It seems very probable that many
of the stars the ga laxies conta i n have p l anetary system s
s i m i l a r to o u r own . It has been estimated t h a t there may b e
a s m a ny a s 1 0 1 9 of these . Chances o f l ife occuring on other
pla nets wou l d , therefore, seem very h i g h , a lthough it may
not bea r a n exact resembla nce to l ife on earth .

WHIRLPOOL NEBULA in Canes

Venatici , showing the relatively
close packing of stars i n the cen
tra l part

GREAT SPIRAL NEBULA M31

in
Andromeda i s s i m i l a r i n form but
twice the s i ze of our awn g a l a xy,
the Mi lky Way.

T H E C H E M I CAL E L E M E NTS

a re the s i m plest components

of the universe and cannot be broken down by chem ica l
mea n s . N i nety-two occur natura l ly on earth , 70 i n the sun .
They deve lop from thermonuclear fusion within the sta rs,
i n which the e lementary partic les of the l i g htest elements
(hydrogen a nd helium) are transformed i nto heavier
e lements .
/

T H E O R I G I N OF T H E U N I V E R S E

is u nknown , but a l l the

bodies in the universe seem to be retreating from a common
point, thei r speeds becoming g reater a s they get farther
away. This gave rise to the expanding-un iverse theory,
which holds that a l l matter was once concentrated in a very
sma l l a rea . O n l y neutrons could exist in such a compact
core . Accord ing to this theory, at some moment i n time
at least 5 b i l l ion years ago - expa nsion beg a n , the chem i
ca l e l ements were formed , and turbu lent cel l s of h o t gases
proba bly origi nated . The latter separated i nto galaxies,
withi n which other turbulent clouds formed , a nd these
u ltimately condensed to g ive sta rs. Proponents refer to this
as the " B i g Bang" theory, a term descri ptive of the i n itia l
event, perhaps as long as 1 0- 15 bi l lion yea rs a g o .
T H E O R I G I N O F T H E S O LA R SYSTEM

is n o t fu l ly under
stood , but the s i m i l a r ages of it s components (Moon ,
meteorites, Earth at about 4 .5 -4 . 6 b i l l ion years) a n d the
s i m i l a r orbits, rotation, a nd d i rection of m ovement a round
the sun, all suggest a single orig i n . The theory currently
most popu l a r suggests that it formed from a c loud of cold
gas, ice, and a little dust, which beg a n s l owly to rotate
and contract. Conti nuing rotation and contraction of this
d i sc-shaped cloud led to condensation and thermonuclear
fusion - perhaps triggered by a nearby supernova , from
16

which sta rs such as the sun were formed . C o l l i sion of

scattered materia l s in the d i sc gradua l l y led to the forma
tion of bodies - pl a netisma l s - which beca me proto p l a
nets . T h e g rowi ng heat o f t h e sun probably eva porated off
the light e lements fr om the i n ner pla nets (now represented
by the d e n s e , r o c k y " te r restr i a l" p l a n e t s - M e r c u r y ,
Venus, Earth, M a r s , a nd t h e Moon) . The outer p l a nets,
beca use of their g reater d i stance from the s u n , were less
affected and reta i ned their l i ghter hyd rog e n , heli u m , and
water compositio n . Perhaps they formed from m i n i-solar
pla net system s withi n the l a rger disc. This composition may
wel l reflect that of the parent gas cloud .
Each pla net seems to have had a d i sti nct "geologic"
history. Some, l i ke Ea rth a nd l o, a moon of J upiter, a re
sti l l active . Others, l i ke Mercury, Mars, and our moon, had
an ea rlier a ctive h i story, but are now "dead . "
This theory, i n a n earlier version, has a long h i story,
going back to I m m a nuel K a nt, the p h i l osopher, in 1 75 5 ,
and t h e French mathematician P ierre-Simon de La p l ace
( 1 796).
Arti st's i nterpretation of t h e d u stcloud theory

THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE is a gaseous enve l op e sur

rounding the earth to a height of 5 00 m i les a nd i s held in
p lace by the earth's g ravity. Denser gases l i e withi n three
miles of the earth's surface . Here the atmosp here p rovides
the gases essentia l to l ife: oxygen, carbon d ioxide, water
vap or, a nd n itrogen .
Differences i n atmosp heric moisture, temp erature, and
p ressure combi ned with the earth's rotation a nd geo
grap hic features p roduce varying movements of the atmo
sp here across the face of the p la net, and conditions we
exp erience a s weather. C limatic conditions ( ra i n , ice,
wind , etc . ) a re i mp ortant i n rock weathering; the atmo
sp here a lso i nfluences chemica l weathering .
G ases in the atmosp here act not only as a g i gantic
insulator for the earth by fi ltering out most of the u l travio l et
and cosmi c radiation but a l so burn up m i l l ions of meteors
before they reach the earth .
The atmosp here insulates the earth agai nst l a rge tem
p erature changes and makes long- di stance rad i o commu
nications p ossible by reflecti ng rad i o waves from the earth .
It a lso p robably reflects much interste l l a r "noise" i nto
space, which would make rad i o and tel evision as we know
them i mp ossib l e .

THE RATIO OF GASES

Composition of
a i r at altitudes
u p to about
45 m i les

Composition of
air at a ltitudes
a bove 500 m i les
helium 50%

n itrogen 78%
hydrogen 50%
oxygen 2 1%
argon0 .93%
carbon d ioxide 0 . 03%
other gases o.o.! %.____
___.

in the
atmosphere is shown i n the chart
at left . C louds form i n the tropo
s p h e r e ; the o ve r l y i n g s t r a t o
sphere, extending 50 m i les above
the earth, is clear. The iono
sphere (50-20 0 m i les) contains
layers of charged particles (ions)
that reflect rad i o waves, perm i t
ting messages to be transmitted
over long d i stances . Faint traces
of atmosphere exist i n the exo
sphere to about 500 m i les from
the earth's surface .

300

250

ultraviolet rays
fmmsun

200

150

aurora borealis
100

90

80

70

--900

-67

60
vJ/>.ll/l OZONE

50

unmanned
balloon
27 miles

40

TROPOSPHERE

30

20

-10

Atmospheric circulation i nvolves the cont i n uo u s recirculation of various

su bsta nces .
O U R P R E S E N T ATM O S P H E R E and oceans were probably
derived by degassing of the sem i - molten earth a nd conti n
uing later additions from volcanoes and h o t spri ng s . These
gases - such as hydrogen , nitrogen, hydrogen c h l o rides,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and water va por
probably formed the atmosphere of ear l ier geologic times.
The lig hter gases, such as hyd rogen , proba bly esca ped .
The later devel opment of l iving organisms capa b l e of pho
tosynthesis slowly added oxygen to the atmosphere, ulti
mately a l lowing the colon ization of the land by provi d i ng
free oxygen for respiration and a l so forming the ozone
layer, which shields the earth from ultravio let radiation of
the sun .
Some evidence for this seq uence in the deve lopment of
the atmosphere is conta i ned in the sequence of P recam
b r i a n rocks and foss i l s , which suggests a transition from a
non-oxygen to free-oxygen envi ronment.

20

THE EARTH'S CRUST: COMPOS IT ION

We have so fa r been able to penetrate to only very sha l l ow
depths beneath the surface of the earth. The deepest m i ne
is only a bout 2 mi les deep, and the deepest wel l a bout 5
mi les deep.
But by using geophysical methods we can "x-ray" the
earth. Ca refu l tracing of earthquake waves shows that the
earth has a d i sti nctly layered structure. Studies of rock
density and compositio n , heat flow, and mag netic and
g ravitational fields a l so aid i n constructing a n earth model
of three layers: crust, ma ntle, and core. Estimates of the
thickness of these l ayers, and suggested physica l and
chemical cha racteristics form an i m portant part of modern
theories of the earth {p. 1 26).
The crust of the earth i s formed of many different kinds
of rocks {p. 92), each of which is a n agg regate of m i nera l s ,
descri bed on pp. 22-3 1.

Gra nd Canyon of Colorado River, Arizona, i s 1 m i l e deep, but exposes

only a s ma l l port of u pper portion of earth's crust.

M I N E RALS

a re natura l l y occurring substa nces with a char

acteri stic atomic structure and characteristic chemica l and
p hy si ca l properties . Some m i nera l s have a fixed chemical
composi ti on; others va ry wi thi n certai n li m i ts . It is their
atomi c structure that d i stingui shes mi nera l s from one
a nother.
Some m i nera ls consist of a single element, but most
m i nera l s a re composed of two or more el ements . A dia
mond , for i nstance, consi sts only of carbon atoms, but
quartz i s a compound of sili ca and oxygen . Of the 1 05
elements presently known , n i ne make u p more than 99
percent of the mi nera ls and rocks.
2.0
2.59
2.83
3.63
5.00
"'

"'

Aluminum

8. 1 3

0
"'
"
-=
c:

"'

""'''"''"''.,.."-'"'

E liii.ik:r;::!;.', :..

"
-.;

c:
D
...,
c:
"
...a
D
"'
0

.00

:::ii:

Tota l

22

98 .59

OXYGEN AND SILICON are the

two most abundant elements i n

the earth's crust. Their presence,
i n such enormous quantities, i n d i
cates t h a t m o s t of the m i nera l s
a r e s i l i cates (compounds of met
als with s i l i con and oxygen) or
a l u m i nosi l i cates . Their presence
i n rocks i s also a n i ndication of
the a bundance of quartz (SiO, ,
s i l icon dioxide) i n sandstones and
granites, a s well a s i n quartz
veins and geodes .

The most strik i ng feature of m i nera l s is the i r crysta l

form , and this is a reflection of the i r atomic structure. The
s i m plest example of this i s rock sa lt, or h a lite ( N a C I ,
sod i u m c hloride), i n which t h e positive i o n s (charged
atoms) of sod i u m a re l i nked with negative l y charged c h lor
ine ions by their u n l i ke electrica l charges. We can imagine
these ions a s spheres, with the spheres of sod i u m having
a bout half the rad i u s of the chlorine ions ( . 98 A a s aga i n st
1 . 8 A; A i s a n A ngstrom U nit, which is equiva lent to one
hundred m i l lionth of a centimeter, written numerica l l y a s
0. 0000000 1 em or l 0-8 c m ) . T h e u n i t i s na med for Anders
A ngstrom , a Swedish physicist.

X-RAY STU DIES

show that the

internal arrangement of halite is
a defi nite cubic pattern, i n which
i o n s o f s o d i u m a l te r n a t e w i t h
those o f c h l o r i n e . Each sod i u m
ion i s t h u s held i n t h e center o f
and at equ a l d i stance f r o m six
symmetrica l l y a rranged chlorine
ions, and vice versa . It i s t h i s
b a s i c a to m i c arrangement or
crysta l l i n e structure t h a t g ives
hal i te its d i stinctive cubic crysta l
form and its characteristic physi
cal properties .

H a l ite crysta l

SODIUM ATOM joi n s CHLORI N E ATOM

to form ionic crysta l

sod i u m c h l oride

T H E ATOM I C S T R U CT U R E

of each m i nera l is d i sti nctive

but most m i nera l s a re more com plicated than h a l ite, some
beca use they comprise more elements, others beca use the
ions a re l i n ked together in more complex ways . A good
exa m p l e of this is the difference between d iamond and
graph ite. Both have a n identica l chemica l composition
(they are both pure carbon) but they have very d i fferent
physical p roperties. Diam ond is the hardest m i neral
known , and graph ite is one of the softest. Their different
atomic structures reflect their different geolog ic modes of
orig i n .

DIAMOND,

t h e hardest natura l
substance known, cons i sts of pure
carbon atoms. Each carbon atom
i s l inked with four others by e l ec
tron-sharing. The four electrons
in the outer she l l are shared with
four ne i g h b o r ing a t o m s. E a c h
atom of carbon then h a s eight
electrons i n its outer shell. This
provides a very strong bond. Its
crysta l form i s a reflection of its
structure and of the cond i tions
under which i t was formed. Dia
mond i s usua l l y pale yel low or
colorless, but i s found a l so in
shades of red, orange, green,
blue, brown, or black. Pure white
or blue-white are best for gems.

24

GRAPHITE,

quite different from

diamond , i s soft and g reasy, and
widely used as an industrial lubri
cant. I n graphite, carbon atoms
are a rranged in layers, g iving the
m inera l its flaky form. The atoms
w i t h i n each layer h ave very
strong bonds , but those that hold
s u c c e s s i v e l a y e r s t o g e t h e r are
very weak. Some atoms between
layers are h e l d together so
poorly that they m ove freely, g iv
ing the graphite its soft, s l i ppery,
lubricating properties. Because
of its poor bonding , g raphite i s a
good conductor of electricity. Its
b e s t - k n o w n u s e is in " l e a d "
penc i l s.

CR YSTAL FORM of m i nera ls is an i m portant factor in their

i d e n t i fi c a t i o n . G r o w n w i t h o u t o b s t r u c t i o n , m i n e r a l s
develop a cha racteristic crysta l for m . The outer a rrange
ment of p l a ne surfaces reflects their i nterna l structure .
Perfect crysta l s a re ra re . Most m i nera l s occur i n i rreg u l a r
masses o f sma l l crysta ls because o f restricted g rowth . Si nce
a l l crysta l s a re three-di mensiona l, they may be c l a ssified
on the basis of the i ntersection of the i r axes . Axes are
i m a g i nary l i nes passing through the geome tric center of a
crysta l from the middle of its faces and i ntercepti ng i n a
single poi nt.

CUBIC CRYSTALS

have three
a x e s of equa l length meeting a t
right a n g l e s , as i n g a l e n a , gar
net, pyrite, and halite.

TETRAGONAL CRYSTALS

have
three axes a t right angles, two of
equal length, as i n z ircon , rut i l e ,
and scapo l i t e .

Galena

Zircon

HEXAGONAL CRYSTALS

have
three equa l h ori zontal axes with
60 angles and one shorter or
l o n g e r at r i g h t a n g l e s , as i n
quartz and tourma l i n e .

ORTHORHOMBIC CRYSTALS

-,
Quartz

Staurol ite

MONOCLINIC CRYSTALS

have
three unequa l axes, two formi n g
an obl ique a n g l e and one perpen
dicu lar, as i n augite, orthoclase,
and epidote.

have three a x e s at r i g h t a n g l e s ,
b u t e a c h i s of d i fferent l e n g t h , a s
i n barite a n d stauro l i t e .

Epi dote

TRICLINIC CRYSTALS have three

axes of unequal lengths, none

form ing a right a n g l e with others,
as i n plagioclase feldspars .

25

MINERAL IDENTIFICATION i nvolves the use of various

chemi cal and physical tests to determine what m i neral s a re
present i n rock . There are over 2 , 000 m i nera l s known , and
ela borate l a boratory tests (such a s X -ray d iffraction) a re
requ i red to identify some of them . But many of the common
m i nera l s can be recogni zed after a few simple tests . Six
i m portant physical properties of m i nera ls (hardness, l us
ter, color, specific g ravity, c l eavage, and fracture) a re
easily determi ned . A ba la nce is needed to fi nd s pecific
gravity of crysta ls or m i nera l frag ments . For the other
tests, a hand lens, steel fi le, knife , and a few other common
items a re h e l pfu l . Specimens can sometimes be recogn ized
by taste, tenacity, tarnish, transpa rency, i ridescence,
odor, or the color of the i r powder streak, espec i a l l y when
these observations a re combi ned with tests for the other
physica l properties.
diamond

MOHS'
SCALE OF
HARDNESS

HARDNESS

i s the resistance af a
m inera l surface Ia scratc h i ng . Ten
wel l -known m i nera l s have been
arranged i n a sca l e af i ncreasing
h a r d n e s s ( M o h s ' sca l e ) . O t h e r
m i nera l s a r e assig ned compara
ble numbers from l to l 0 to rep
resent relative hardnes s . A
m i neral that scratches orthoclase
(6) but is scratched by quartz (7)
would be assig ned a hardness
va lue of 6 . 5 .

LUSTER

is the a ppearance of a
m i neral when l i g h t i s reflected
from its surface . Quartz i s usua l l y
g lassy; g a l e n a , meta l l i c .

Ga lena crysta l s

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

is the rela
tive weight of a m i neral com
pared with the weight of an equal
vo lume of water. A balance i s
n o r m a l l y u s e d to determine t h e
two weights. S a m e m i nera l s a r e
s i m i l a r superfi c i a l l y b u t differ i n
density. Barite may resemb l e
quartz, but quartz has a specific
g ravity of 2 . 7; barite, 4 . 5 .

COLOR varies i n some m i nera l s .

Pigments or i m purities m a y b e the

cause. Quartz occurs i n many
hues but i s sometimes colorless.
Among minerals with a consta nt
color are galena ( lead g ray). sul
fur (ye l low), azurite (bl ue). and
malachite (g reen) . A fresh sur
face i s used for identification, a s
wea t h e r i n g c h a n g e s the t r u e
color.

CLEAVAGE

is the tendency of
some m i nerals tq split a long cer
tain planes that are para l l e l to
their crysta l faces . A hammer
blow or pressure with a knife
blade can cleave a m i nera l . G a l
ena and hal ite have c u b i c cleav
age. Mica can be separated so
easily that it i s said to have per
fect b a s a l c l eava g e . M i n e ra l s
without an orderly interna l
arrangement of atoms have no
cleavage.

Rhombohedra l
cleavage:
ca l c i te

FRACTURE

is the way a m i neral

breaks other than by c leavage .
Minera l s with little o r no cleavage
are apt to show good fracture
surfaces when shattered by a
hammer blow. Quartz has a she l l
l i ke fracture surface . Copper h a s
a rough, hackly surface; clay, a n
earthy fracture .

Conchoidal fracture:
obsidian
Uneven fractu re:
arsenopyrite

27

COMM O N R O C K - F O RM I N G MI N E RALS

incl ude ca rbon

ates , sulfates , and other compounds . Many mi nera l s crys
ta l l i ze from molten rock materia l . A few form i n hot springs
a nd geysers, and some during metamorphism . Others a re
formed by preci pitation , by the secretions of orga nisms,
by eva poration of sa l i n e waters , and by the action of
ground water.

MINERAL CARBONATES, SULFATES, AND OXIDES

LIMONITE is o group nome for GYPSUM i s o hydrated calcium

hydrated ferric oxide m i nera ls,

Fe,O,. H,O. I t i s o n amorphous
m i nera l that occurs i n compact,
smooth, rounded mosses or i n
soft, earthy m o s s e s . No cleav
age. Earthy fracture . Hardness
(H) 5 to 5 . 5 ; S p . Gr. 3 . 5 to 4 . 0 .
Rusty or blackish color. D u l l ,
e a r t h y l u ste r g i v e s o ye l l ow
brown strea k . Common weather
ing product of iron m i nera l s .

CALCITE i s o c a l c i u m carbonate,

CoCO,. It has dogtooth or flat

hexagonal crysta l s with exce l lent
cleavage. H. 3 ; Sp. Gr. 2. 7 2 .
Colorless or white. I m purities
show colors o f ye l l ow, orange,

sulphate, CoS0,. 2H,O. Tabular

or fibrous monoc l i n i c crysta l s , or
massive. Good c l eavage . H. 2 .
S p . Gr. 2 . 3 . Colorless o r white.
Vitreous to pea rly luster. Streaks
ore white. F lexible but n o elastic
flakes. Sometimes fibro u s . Found
i n sed i m entary eva porites and as
single crysta l s i n block sha les.
The compact, massive form is
known as alabaster.

brown , and gree n . Transparent

to opaque. Vitreous or dull lus
ter. Ma jor constituent of l i me
stone. Common cave and vein
deposi t . Reacts stron g l y i n d i lute
hydroch loric acid.

Calcite

F i brous Gypsum

QUARTZ is s i l icon dioxide, SiO, .

Quartz
crysta l

Massive or prismatic . No cleav

age. Conchoidal fracture. H. 7;
Sp. Gr. 2 . 6 5 . Commonly color
less or white. Vitreous to greasy
luster. Tra nsparent to opaque .
Common in acid ig neous, meta
morphic, and c lastic rocks, vei ns,
and geode s . The most common of
all m i nera l s .

ROCK-FORMING SILICATE MINERALS

FELDSPARS

a re a l um i na-sil icates
af e i t h e r p o ta s s i u m (KA I S i308
orthoclase, m icroc l ine, etc . ) ar
sod ium and calcium (plagioclase
fe l d s p a r s N a A I S i ,08 , C a A I ,
Si,08}. We l l -farmed monoc l i n i c
ar triclinic crysta ls, with good
cleavag e . H. 6 to 6 . 5 ; Sp. Gr.
2 . 5 to 2. 7 Orthoclase feldspars
are white, g ray, or pink, vitreous
to pea r l y l uster, and lack surface
striations . P l ag ioclase feldspars
are white or g ray, have two good
cleavages, which produce fi ne
para l l e l striations on cleavage
surfaces . Common i n igneous and
metamorphic rocks, and arkosic
sandstones .

MICAS

a r e s i l i c a t e m i n e ra l s .
W h i t e m i c a ( m u scovi te} i s a
potassium a l u m i no - s i l i cate. Black
mica (biotite} i s a potassi u m ,
iron, magnesi u m a l u m i no-si l i
cate . Both occur i n thin, mono
clinic, pseudo-hexagona l ,
sca l e l i ke crysta l s . Superb cleav
age g ives t h i n , flexible flakes .
Pea r l y to vitreous l uster. Micas
are common i n ig neous, meta
morphi c , and sed i mentary rocks.

B i otite
(black mica)

PY ROXENES

i n c l ude a l a rg e
g r o u p of si licates of c a l c i u m ,
magnes i u m , and iron . Augite,
( C a Mgfe A I ),( AIS i ), 06, a n d
h y p e r s t h e n e , ( FeMg ) S i03, a r e
t h e m o s t com m o n . Stubby, eight
sided prismatic, orthorhombic or
monoc l i n i c crysta l s , or massive.
Two cleavages meet at 90 (com
pare a m phi boles), but these a re
not a l ways developed . Gray or
green, grading into black. Vitre
ous to d u l l l uster. H. 5 to 6. Sp.
Gr. 3 . 2 to 3 . 6 . Common i n nearly
all basic ig neous and meta mor
phic rocks . Sometimes found in
meteorites.

AMP H I BO L E S

are complex
hydrated sil i c a t e s o f c a l c i u m ,
magnesium, iron, a n d a l u m i n u m .
Hornblende, a c o m m o n a m p h i
b o l e , h a s l o n g , s lender, pris
matic, six-sided orthorhombic or
monoc l i n i c crysta l s ; s o m e t i m e s
fi b r o u s . T w o g o o d c l e a v a g e s
meeting a t 56. H . 5 t o 6; S p . Gr.
2. 9 to 3 . 2 . Black or dark g reen .
Opaque with a vitreous luster.
Common i n basic i gneous and
metamorphic rocks. Asbestos is
an amphibo l e .

OLIVINE

i s a magnesium-iron
s i l i c a t e , ( Fe M g ), S i O, . S m a l l ,
g lassy gra i n s . Often found i n
large, granular masses. C rysta l s
a r e relatively r a r e . P o o r cleav
age. Conchoida l fracture. H. 6 . 5
t o 7 ; S p . Gr. 3 . 2 t o 3 . 6 . Various
shades of green; sometimes ye l
lowi s h . Transparent or translu
cent . Vitreous l u ster. Common i n
b a s i c i g n e o u s and metamorphic
rocks. Olivine a l ters to a brown
color.

30

C O M M O N OR E MIN E R A L S
GALENA i s a lead sulphide, P b S .

Heavy, b r i t t l e , g r a n u l a r masses
of cubic crysta l s . Perfect cubic
cleavage, H. 2 . 5 ; S p . Gr. 7 . 3 to
7 . 6 S i lver-gray. Meta l l i c l uster.
Streaks o re lead-gray. I m portant
lead ore. Common vei n m i nera l .
Occurs with zinc, copper, and
si lver.

SPHALERITE is a zinc s u l phide,

ZnS. Cubic crysta l s or granu lar,

compact . Six perfect cleavages
at 60 . H. 3 . 5 to 4; Sp. Gr. 3 . 9
t o 4 . 2 . Usua l l y brownish; some
times yel l ow or black. Transl ucent
to opaqu e . Resinous l uster. Some
s p e c i m e n s a r e fl u o r e s c e n t .
I m portant zinc ore. Common vein
m i neral with g a l e n a .

PYRITE

i s a n iron s u l p h i d e , FeS, .
Cubic, brassy crystals with
striated face s . May b e granular.
No cleavage. Uneven fracture.
H . 6 to 6.5 ; S p . Gr. 4 . 9 to 5 . 2 .
Brassy yellow color. Meta l l i c lus
ter. Opaque and brittle. A l so
c a l l e d foo l 's g o l d . C o m m o n
source o f sulfur.

THE CRUST: EROSION AND DEPOSITION

The earth's crust is i nfluenced by three g reat processes
which act together:
G ra d a t i o n incl udes the va rious surface agencies ( i n
contrast t o t h e two i nterna l p rocesses below), w h i c h break
down the crust (degradation) or build it u p (aggradati o n ) .
Gradation is brought a b9 ut b y r u n n i n g water, winds, ice
and the ocea n s . Most sed i ments a re finally deposited in the
sea s .
D i a s t ro p h i s m i s the name given t o a l l movements o f the
sol i d crust with respect to other parts (p. 1 06) . Someti mes
this i nvolves the gentle upl ift of the crust . Ma ny rocks that
were formed a s marine sed i ments gradu a l l y rose until they
now stand thousands of feet above sea leve l . Other dias
trophic m ovements may i nvolve intensive fol d i ng a nd frac
ture of rocks.

COASTLIN ES t h e w o r l d ove r

provide evi dence of changes i n

the earth's unstable crust . The
photograph shows c l i ffs made of
rocks that were depo s i ted under
the seas that covered the area
about 130 m i l l ion years ago .
These were u p l ifted and folded ,
so the i r original layers now stand
a l most vertica l . At present they
are undergoing erosion by the
sea, typified by the form of the
arch. Eroded material i s being
re d e p o s i t e d os a b e a c h . T h e
r o c k s of w h i c h coa s t l i n e s a r e
formed are themselves t h e resu l t
o f earlier gradationa l events .

NATURAL ARCH

reflects process
of erosion, w h i l e deposition has
p r o d u c ed the be a c h . D o r s e t ,
England.

Eruption of Kapoho, Hawa i i , show i n g paths of molten lava

V U LCAN I S M

i nc l udes a l l the processes associated with the

movement of molten rock materia l . This i n c l udes not o n l y
volca nic eruptions b u t a l so t h e deep-seated intrusion o f
granites a nd other rocks ( p . 83).
These three processes act so that at any time the form
and position of the crust is the resu lt of a dyna m i c equ i l i b
r i u m between them , a lways reflecting the c l i mate, season,
a ltitude, a n d geologic environment of parti c u l a r area s . As
a n end product of deg radatio n , the conti nents would be
reduced to flat p l a i ns, but the ba lance i s restored a nd the
processes of erosion counteracted by other forces that tend
to elevate parts of the earth's crust . These cha nges reflect
changes i n the earth's i nterior (p. 1 46 ) .
33

Yosem ite va l ley i s the res u l t of i nteraction of vari o u s types of eros ional
processes.

EROSION i nvolves the brea king down and remova l of

materi a l by var ious processes or deg radation .

YOSEMITE VALLEY in California

i s a good example of the complex

interplay of gradational proc
esses . A narrow canyon was first
carved by the River Merced . This
was later deepened and widened
by glaciation. Running water i s
n o w m o d i fy i n g t h e r e s u l t a n t
hang ing and U-shoped vo l l eys ( p .

5 8 ) , so characteristic of glacial
topography. The level of the main
vo l ley floor lies 3 , 000 feet below
the upland surface of the Sierras .
D ifferences in topography ore
portly the result of differences in
j o i nting and resistance of u nder
lying granites. H a lf Dome and El
C a p i t a n ore r e s i s t a n t g r a n i t i c
monoliths l a i d bore b y t h i s d iffer
e n t i a l weathe r i n g . The r e g i o n
thus shows t h e effect of many
degrodotionol processes . But the
300-ft . -thick sed iment on the vo l
l e y floor revea l s t h e continuing
aggradational effects that ore
a lso a t wor k .

WEAT H E R I N G

Weathering is t h e genera l n a m e f o r a l l t h e ways i n w h i c h a

rock may be broken down. It takes p lace because m i nera l s
formed i n a particular w a y (say at a h i g h temperature i n
t h e c a s e of a n ig neous rock) a re often unsta b l e when
exposed to the various conditions affecting the crust of the
earth . Because weathering i nvolves i nteraction of the litho
sphere with the atmosphere and hyd rosphere , it va ries with
the c l i mate. But all k i nds of weathering ulti mately produce
broken m i neral a nd rock fragments and other prod ucts of
decompositio n . Some of these rema i n in one place (clay or
laterite, for exam ple) while others are d i ssolved a n d
removed by r u n n i n g water.
The earth's surface, above the level of the water ta b l e
( p . 5 0 ) , i s everywhere subject t o weathering . T h e weath
ered cover of loose rock debris (as opposed to solid bed
r o c k ) i s k n o w n a s t h e r e g o lith . T h e t h i c k n e s s a n d
d i stribution of the reg o lith depend upon both the rate of
weathering and the rate of remova l and tra nsportation of
weathered materia l .

THE EFFECTS o f weathering are

most str i k i n g l y seen i n arid and

s e m i a r i d e n v i r o n m e n t s , where
bare rocks are exposed without a
cover of vegeta t i o n . Bryce Can
yon, Utah , shows the effects of
the bedding and d iffering resis
lance of rocks i n producing d i s
t i n c t i v e e r o s i o n a l l a n d fo r m s .
Weathering is of g reat i m por
lance to humanki nd . Soils are the
resu lt of weathering processes,
and are enriched by the activities
of a n i m a l s and plants . Some
i m portant e c o n o m i c resources,
such as our ores of iron and alu
minum, are the result of residual
weathering processe s .

MECHANICAL WEATHERING

FROST SHATTERING

i s often
produced by a lternate freezing
and thawing of water in rock
pores and fissures . Expansion of
water during freezing causes the
rock to fracture .

SPHEROIDAL WEATHERING

occurs i n we l l - j ointed rocks,

because weathering tokes place
m o r e r a p i d l y at c o r ne r s a n d
edges (3 and 2 sides) than o n sin
gle faces .

involves the d i sintegration of a

rock by mechanical processes .
These include freezing and thaw
ing of water in rock crevices, d i s
r u p t i o n by p l a n t r o o t s o r
burrowing ani m a l s , and the
changes in volume t h a t resu l t
from chem ical weathering within
the rock. T h i s weathering i s espe
cially common in high latitudes
and a l titudes, which hove d o i l y
f r e e z i ng and t h a w i n g , a n d i n
d e s e r t s , w h e r e t h e re is l i t t l e
water or vegetation. Rother
ang u l a r r o c k f o r m s o r e p r o
duced, and little chemical change
in the rock is involved . It was once
thought that extreme do i l y tem
perature changes caused
mechani cal weathering, but this
now seems unce rtain.

C H E MIC A L W E AT H E RING

invo lves t h e d e c o m p o s i t i on o f
r o c k by chem ical changes or s o l u
t i o n . The c h i e f processes ore o x i
dati on, car bona tion and
hydration, and solution i n water
above and below the surface .
Many i ron minera l s , for example,
ore rapidly oxidi zed ("rusted")
and l i m e s t one is d i s s o l ved by
water conta ining carbon dioxide.
Such decomposition i s encour
aged by worm, wet c l i matic con
d i t i o n s a n d i s m o s t a c t i ve i n
tropical and temperate c l i mates .
Blankets of s o i l or other mater i a l
o r e produced which ore so thick
and extensive that solid rock i s
rarely seen in the t r o p i c s . Chem
ical weathering i s more wide
spread and c o m m on than
mechani cal weathering , a l though
usua l l y both oct together.

S O I L is the most obvious result of weathering . It is the

weathered part of the crust capable of supporting p l a nt
l ife . The thickness and character of soil depend upon rock
type, rel ief, c l i mate, and the "age" of a soi l , as we l l as the
effect of living orga n i s m s .
I mmatu re soils a r e l i t t l e more t h a n broken r o c k frag
ments, g r a d i n g down into so lid rock . Mature s o i l s i n c l ude
qua ntities of humus, formed from decayed pla nts, so that
the upper surface (topsoi l ) becomes d a r k . Orga nic acids
and carbon d i oxide released during vegetative decay d i s
solve l i m e , i ron, and other compounds and carry them
down i nto the l i g hter subsoi l .
Residua l soils, formed i n place from the weathering of
underlying rock, incl ude laterites , prod uced by tropica l
leaching and oxidizing conditions which consist of iron and
a l u m i n u m oxides with a l most no humus. Tra nsported soi ls
have been carried from the parent rocks from which they
formed ond deposited el sewhere. Wind-blown l oess ( p .
77), a l l uvia l deposits ( p . 44) , a n d g l a c i a l t i l l ( p . 5 9 ) a re
common exa m p l es of transported soi l s .

LAT E RITIC SOI L P R O F I L E

Fr iable clay
Concretions
rich i n iron
and manganese
oxides
Iron-rich
clays

MAT U R E SO I L P RO F I L E

} clay
H u m u s-rich

C l a y with
l i mestone
fra g ments
Fres h
l i mestone

zone
serpentine

37

',

\\ rock f a l l

I
'

I
I

ROCK FALLS

forming talus s lopes ore o n

example of m o s s wa sting . T h e finer materi a l
tends t o b e concentrated nea r t h e bose o f
t h e slope. S u c h fa l l s m a y b e either small a n d
irregular or massive a n d sudden, causing a
rock ava lanche.

ion

MASS WAST I N G

i s the name given to all downslope move

ments of regol ith under the predominant i nfl uence of g rav
ity. Weathered materi a l is transported from its p lace of
origin by g ravity, streams, winds, g l aciers, and ocean
currents. Each of these agencies is a depositi ng , a s wel l as
a tra n sporting agent and, though they ra rely act i nde
pendently, each produces rather different results.
The prevention of mass wasting of soil is of g reat i m por
tance in a l l pa rts of the world . E n g i neering and m i n i ng
activities usua l ly req u i re geolog ica l advice on s l ide and
subsidence dangers . Several trag ic dam fa i l u res have
resu lted from slides. The Va iont reservo i r slide i n Ita ly in
1 963 clai med 2 , 600 l ives . Ca refu l geologica l site surveys
can prevent such d i sasters .

EARTH FLOWS

may be s l ow or
very rapid . Slow movement (soli
fl u c t i o n ) tokes p l a c e i n a r e a s
where port o f t h e ground i s per
manently frozen . These areas
cover about 20 percent of the
earth . On slopes, the thawed
upper Ioyer slides on the frozen
g round below it. On flat ground,
latera l movement g ives stone
polygons. Sudden flows may fol
low heavy rains.

SOIL CREEP

is the gentle, down

h i l l movement of the regolith that
occurs even o n rather moderate,
g r a s s - c o v e r e d s l o p e s . It c a n
often b e seen i n road cuts.

SLUMPS

are s l i des i n soft, uncon

s o l i d a ted s ed i m e n t . Some a r e
submarine i n o r ig i n . Fossil slumps
are recog nizable i n some strata .
Usua l ly, s l u m ps are on a rather
small sca le, a s when sod breaks
off o stream b a n k .

H i l l creep affects fences a n d trees,

a s wel l a s bend i n g of vertical
strata .

S U BSIDE N C E

is d o w n w a r d
movement o f the earth's surface
caused by natural means (che m i
cal w e a t h e r i n g in l i m e s t o n e
a r e a s ) o r a r t i fi c i a l m e t h o d s
(excessive m i n i ng or brine pump
ing). Heavy loading by buildings
o r e n g i n e e r i n g structures may
a l so cause subsidence .

LANDSLIDES

are mass move

ments of e a r t h or r o c k a l o n g a
d e fi n i t e p l a n e . T h e y o c c u r i n
areas o f h i g h relief where weak
planes-beddi n g , joints, or faults
( p . 1 1 0 - 1 1 1 )- a r e stee p l y
inclined; where weak rocks
u n d e r l i e m a s s i ve o n e s ; w h e r e
large rocks a r e undercut; and
where water has lubricated slide
planes .

Typical l a n d s l ide topogra phy i n

Wyo m i ng shows debris o f huge
bou l ders.

Rock g l a c i ers i n v o l v e s l o w
downs lope movement of "river" of
rock .

RUNNING WAT E R
Running water i s the most powerfu l agent of erosion .
Wind, g l aciers, and ocean waves are a l l confined to rela
tively l i m ited l a nd a rea s, but running water acts a l most
everywhere , even i n deserts . One fourth of the 35, 000
cubic mi les of water fa l l i ng on the conti nents each year runs
off into rivers, carrying away rock fragments with i t . I n the
U n i ted States, this erosion of the land surface takes p lace
at a n average rate of a bout one i nch i n 750 yea rs. Running
water breaks down the crust by the i m pact of rock debris it
carries .

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE is a

continuous change in the state of

water as it passes through a cycle
of eva pora t i o n , condensat i o n ,
a n d precipitati o n . O f t h e water
that fa l l s on the land, up to 90
percent i s evapo rated . Some is
absorbed by plants and subse
quently transpired to the atmo
sphere , some runs off i n streams
and rivers, and some soaks into
the g round . The relative amounts

of water fol lowing these paths

vary considera b l y and depend
upon the slope of the g round; the
character of the soil a nd rocks;
the amount, rate , and distribu
tion of rainfa l l ; the amount and
type of plant cover ; and the tem
p e r a t u r e . The h y d r o s p h e r e i s
esti mated t o i n c l ude over 300
m i l l i o n c u b i c m i l e s of w a t e r ,
about 97 percent o f which i s i n
the ocea n s .

moves to continent >

moist air mass

E<--..f

condensation
pr c i p i tation
eva poration i n fa l l i ng

eva poration from

runoff

-,

IJ.i,. JOO O.f: ,

I
./" <>,._. '> <>_.
..._/ /I
t::'

/. .,.o

11:..
........ ..ground water moves to
... ...
rivers, l a kes, ocea n s
---------------

...._.

OCEAN ...
....

... ... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

... ...

I
I

......-'. -"/II
...,.

loss by
stream
ru noff

water
table

,("--

A single shower may i nvolve the downpour of more than

a billion tons of water. Each ra i ndrop i n the shower
becomes im portant in erosion, espec i a l l y in a reas with
sparse vegetation and unconsolidated sed i ments . Runoff
water rarely trave l s far as a conti nuous sheet, for it is
broken u p i nto rivu lets a nd strea ms by surface i rreg u l a r i
t i e s i n r o c k type and re l i ef.
Running water carries its load of rock debris partly in
suspension, partly by rol l i ng and bouncing it a l ong the
botto m , and partly i n sol ution . The carrying power of a
strea m is proportional to the square of its velocity, and so
is enormously increased i n time of flood .

THE FORM OF RIVERS depends

upon mony facto r s . Water runs

down h i l l under the i nfluence of
gravity, the flow of the water
being cha racte r i s t i c a l l y turbu
lent, with swi r l s and eddies. The
overa l l long profi l e of a river val
ley i s concave upwards, however
much its g radient (its slope or f a l l
i n a g iven di stance) may v a r y . T h e
ve locity of the stream i ncreases
with the g radient, but a l so
depends on other factors, includ
ing the position within the river
channel, the deg ree of turbu
lence, the shape and course of the
channe l , and the stream load
(transported materia l s ) .

DENDRITIC DRAINAGE PAT

T E R N of D i a m a nt i n a R i ver,

Queensland, Austr a l i a , i s typical

of river development i n areas
where the underlying rocks are
relative l y uniform i n their resis
tance to erosio n . T h i s pattern
may be modified by continued
downcutting of the river.

Diagrammatic model of a river

syste m , showing cross sections of
channel at t hree points

Niagara F a l l s are formed by res i sta nt bed of dolom ite.

R I V E R P R O F I L E S reflect the varying devel opment of drain
age systems. During early development, changes a re
reflected by d i rection and shape of stream courses . U lti
mately, erosion produces an equi l ibrium between the slope
and vol u m e of the r iver and its erosional and depositional
power. T h i s resu lts i n a g raded profi le, or profi l e of equ i l i b
r i u m . F i n a l eq u i l ibrium is never reached because of sea
son a l and geologic changes . The downwa rd l i m it of erosion
by a river i s the base leve l , below which the river cannot
downcut a ppreciably beca use it has reached the level of
the body of water i nto which it flows . Sea level is the
ulti mate base level for a l l rivers . Larger rivers and l a kes
i nto which rivers flow constitute loca l base leve l s .
Stages i n t h e cycle of river erosion were once l a beled as
"youth, " "maturity, " a nd "old age . " Although these
stages describe certai n characteristics, they i m ply no par
ticu l a r age i n years, only chang i ng phases i n development.
Rivers often show a condition of old age near thei r mouths,
but a re mature or youthful i n their h i g her rea ches . For that
rea son , the terms are rather mislead i n g , and a re now
rarely used .

42

RIVER PROFILES ore influenced

by geology and structure of their
drainage area and tend to
assume a graded, concave profile
as they approach equilibrium.
IRREGULAR PROFILE-common
in upstream portions of rivers
shows high gradients, waterfalls,
rapids, steep-sided va l leys,
irregular courses, few tributar
ies, and erosion. The Gunnison
River in Colorado is an example.
longitud i n a l profi l e ....

SMOOTHER STEEP PROFILE is

steep, with high relief, but fewer
irregularities. Erosion and trans
portation of underlying rocks
gives wider valleys and smoother
topography. Tributaries are well
established. The White River of
southwestern Missouri shows
these features.
long itud i n a l profil e ....

GRADED PROFILE reflects dep

osition of transported load. The
river flows sluggishly over a wide,
flat flood plain, with meandering
pattern, ox-bow lakes, and sand
bars. This represents a baseline
equilibrium between erosion by
the river and deposition in the sea
or lake into which it flows. The
lower Mississippi and Amazon
ore examples.
lo ng itud i n a l profil e ....

43

REJUVENATION

or uplift may
i nterrupt the cycle of erosion at
any stage to provide new energy
for downcutting . The character of
the stream i s then often a combi
nation of recently cut , steep
gorges in a n older meander
course . Ancient flood-plains are
often left "stranded" as terraces.
U p l ift and warping may be rela
tively sudden or s low, frequent or
rare, local or reg ional i n extent.
Te rraces ar e cut a s river swings from one side of va l ley to oth e r .

WAT E R FALLS A N D RAPI DS

are loca l i ncreases in g radient

i n the long profi le of a river. Most are due to unequal
erosion of the stream bed .

THE FALLS

of the Yel l owstone

River (the lower of which i s twice
as high as N iagara F a l l s ) result
from resistant lava flows . N iag
ara Falls i s held u p by an SO-foot
thick bed of dolom ite, which is
more resistant to erosion than the
underlying shales and thin
l i mestones .
Other fa l l s resu lt from over
deepening of a m a i n va l l ey, often
by ice, as i n the Bridal Vei l F a l l s
i n Yosemite, so t h a t t h e tri butar
ies are left "hanging" (p. 34) .
Conti nued erosion by a stream
leads to upstream m i g ration and
ultimate smoothing out of
waterfa l l s .

U N E Q U A L E R O SIO N

has
a l ready cut N iagara F a l l s back
about 7 m i les from the N iagara
esca rpment, since it began cut
ting about 9 , 000 years ago. The
weaker shales below the Lockport
Dolomite are undercut by the tur
bulent water i n the plunge poo l ,
s o that t h e overlapping dolomite
i s u n d e r m i n e d , a n d eventu a l l y
c o l l a ps e s . The N i agara R i v e r
flows i nto Lake Ontario from Lake
E r i e , w h i c h w i l l u l t i m a t e l y be
drai ned by upstream m i g ration of
the fa l l s .

C l i nton
..;.
Li mestone
...__
and Sha l e ---.

Thoro l d
Sa ndstone
Whirl pool
Sa n d st one

. ..
.

STREAM PIRACY t a k e s p l a c e

when the t r i b u t a r i e s of o n e
strea m (A) e r o d e faster t h a n
those o f another (B) i n the same
area . The headwaters of the less
active stream a re u l t i mately
diverted or cut off . When such
" b e h e a d e d " strea m s a b a n d o n
their path through a ridge, a wind
gap res u l t s .

DELTAS

are masses of sed iment

deposi ted where rivers lose their
ve locity a s they enter lakes or
sea s . Thick, relatively uniform
layers of sediment accumulate on
the steep outward s l o pe . Deltas
of the Mississ i p p i , Ganges, and
Po are thousands of square m i les
i n area . Deltas have a character
i s t i c s t r a t i fi c a t i o n i n t h e i r
deposits .
T

POTHOLES are circular hol lows .

in a stream bed , d r i l led out by

swi r l i ng currents of water carry
ing gravel and pebbles. This
"hydra u l i c d r i l l i n g " i s a n i m por
tant m e t h o d of d o w n - c u t t i n g ,
even i n hard rock .

DRAI NAGE

CONSEQUENT STREAMS

flow
in directions determined l a rgely
by the orig i n a l s lope and shape
of the ground . When their
courses are modified by features
of the geology, such a s va l ley cut
ting i n soft strata , the adjusted
tributaries a re known as subse
quent stream s .

DENDRITIC

d r a i n a g e patter n s
are t h o s e that show tree l i ke
branching because the bedrock
has a u niform resistance to ero
sion and does not i nfluence the
d i rection of stream flow.

SUPERIMPOSED

dra i nage gen

era l l y has stream courses that are
i ndependent of rock structure . A
s t r e a m ' s e ro s i o n a l power m a y
have been strong enough t o main
tain its a ntecedent course during

TRELLIS patterns a r e character

i s t i c of u n i f o r m l y d i p p i n g o r
strongly fol ded rocks . I n this rec
tangular pattern , the tributaries
are nearly perpend i c u l a r to the
main strea m .

upl ift and deve l opment o f a new

geologica l structure . Or it may
keep its same course after it cuts
through younger, overlying , flat,
sedimentary rock to a n older,
irregular rock mass.

PAT TERNS

RADIAL

patterns deve l o p o n
young mounta i n s , such a s volcan
oes where stream s radiate from
the h i g h centra l area .

Piracy m a y c au s e river d i vers ion . Ancestra l Shenandoah River ca ptured

headwaters of Beaver D a m , leavi ng a n abandoned water g a p.

MODIFIED DRAINAGE may be

caused by p i racy ( p . 45) as wel l

as by glacial o r volcanic blocking
of stream courses. Glacial diver
sian results from overdeepening
of basins and river vo l leys by ice,

b l o c k i ng of d r a i nage by ice,
mora i n i c deposits, and meltwa
ter, which may produce g l a c i a l
l a k e s and n e w outlets . Changes
i n sea level may a l s o modify
drainage .

Great lakes basins were carved by ice from soft strata . Original
drainage was blocked by ice, producing local crustal depressi o n s .

E R O S I O N A L LA N D FO RMS are produced by running

water and other erosiona l agents . Mesas a re flat-topped
rock mounta i ns, which sta nd as remna nts of a once conti n
u o u s p latea u . Buttes are sma l ler exa m p l es of t h e sa me
thi n g . Monuments describe any iso lated rock pinnacle.

hogback escarpment

HOGBACKS

are l o n g r i d g e s
formed b y steeply dipping resis
tant strata ; cuestas are gently
sloping ridges formed i n gently
dipping strata .

NATURAL BRIDGES

are formed
of resistant strata , usua l l y sand
stone or l i mestone . U nderground
erosion has taken place below the
original stream bed .

PINNACLES

at B ryce Canyon,
Utah, show d i fferentia l weather
i n g . Erosion has removed the soft
er, more soluble rocks. Rocks
here are of Tertiary ( E ocene)
age.

G R O U N DWAT E R is found a l most everywhere below the

ea rth's surface . Most origi nates from ra i n and snow, but
sma l l quantities come from water trapped i n sed i ments
during their deposition (connate water) or from igneous
magmas ( j uve n i l e water) .

SEPTARIAN NODULE

is formed
from m i n e r a l s deposi ted by
groundwater i n c l a y l i ke rocks.
G r o u n d w a t e r is on i m p o r t a n t
agent i n both deposition o n d ero
sion of surface rock s . It can dis
solve original cementing
materi a l s and deposit new one s .
F o r example, it produces caves
and caverns by solution in car
bonate rocks.

POROSITY,

the percentage of
p o r e s p a c e to tota l v o l u m e of a
rock, depends upon the grain
size, shape, packi n g , and cement
of rock particles. The permea b i l
i t y of a r o c k , or its capacity t o
transmit or y i e l d water, depends
upon the size of pores, rather
than the i r tota l vol u m e . Pores
smaller than 1 /20 of a m i l l i meter
w i l l n o t a l l o w w a t e r t o fl o w
through them .

-c
c
0

.:00 ->"

E" 0

a.. a..

Gra i n d i a m eter

WELL-SORTED SAND

(enlarged
view) with high porosity due to
sorti n g , which has removed fine
grai ned particles

POO R LY SORTED SAND h a s

lower porosity than wel l - sorted

sand, because the pore spaces
are fi l l ed by fine particles.

LIMESTO N ES

genera l l y h o l d
water i n e n larged j o i nts formed
by solution; they lack the "pore
spoce11 of sandstones.

49

T H E WAT E R TA B L E depends on the d i stribution of ground

water. The open spaces i n the rocks of the upper part of
the cr ust a re fi l led m a i n l y with a i r. This is the zone of
aeration . Water moves downward through this zone i nto
the zone of saturation , where openings ar e fil led with
water. The upper surface of this saturated zone i s the water
ta ble. I n m ost a reas, the water table i s only a few tens of
feet below the sur face, but in arid reg ions, i t is much
deep er. Water-bea r i ng rocks are rarely found below
2 , 000 feet . Rock pores are c losed by pressure at depth ,
and this determi nes the lower l i m it for g roundwater. Most
rocks wi l l g ive off water whenever they i ntersect the water
ta ble. But the level of the water table fa l l s after a dry
seaso n , so rock formations must be deep enough to pene
trate the water ta ble a l l year round . Someti mes a per ched
water ta ble resu lts when a p ocket of water i s held a bove
the normal water table by a saucer of i m pervious roc k .
Any water-pr oducing rock formation is cal led a n aqu ifer.

ARTESIAN WELLS

are those
where water i s confi ned t o a
permeable aquifer by i m pervious
bed s , and where the catchment or
i ntake area (and thus the water

level i n the aquifer) is higher

than the wel l head . This a l l ows
the water to flow toward the
surface under its own i nternal
pressure.

t;'l 'l ra '/n fa ll

gran ite
(after H o l m e s )
S P R I N G S are sources of running water produced by the
water table intersecting the g round surface . A few of the
many ways they can be formed a re shown i n the d i a g ra m s
above . S o m e s p r i n g s a re dry at sea sons w h e n t h e water
table is depressed ; others flow without i nterruptio n .

HOT SPRINGS

a re g e n e r a l l y
confined t o oreos o f recent vu l
canism where groundwater is
heated at depth by contact with
igneous magmas. Such springs
ore wel l devel oped i n Yel l owstone
Notional Pork and North Island,
New Zea land. Terrace deposits
may be produced when hot spring
water deposits d i ssolve m i neral
matter. Mammoth Springs of Yel
lowstone Notional Pork ore
formed of c a l c i u m c a r bonate
(travertine) . Geysers, intermit
tent f o u n t o i n l i k e hot s p r i n g s ,
often b u i l d cones of s i l iceous
geyserite.

FUMAROLES

ore gentle geysers

located i n volcanic reg ions that
emit fumes, usua l l y i n the form of
stea m .

Hot Spri ngs, Thermopo l i s , Wyo m i n g

Norris Geyser B a s i n , Wyom i n g

GEYSERS

are thermal springs

that period i ca l ly d i scharge their
water with explosive violence. All
geysers have a long na rrow p i pe
extend ing down from their vents
into their reservo i r s . A build-up
and sudden release of steam bub
bles probably relieves the pres
sure on the heated water below
g round so that it bo i l s and surges
upward . T h e p e r i o d between
erupti ons varies from m i nutes to
m o n t h s i n d i ff e r e n t g e y s e r s ,
depending upon the structure of
the geyser, its water supply, and
its heat source.

OLD FAITHFUL

i n Yel l owstone
o col
umn of water and steam up to 1 70
feet high approximately every 65
m i nutes .

<1111 National Park d i scharges

Pudding B a s i n Geyser, New Zea

land shows typical eruption.
..

Typical geyser structure shows

c o m p l e x s y s t e m of fi s s u r e s
extend i n g down to reg ions where
g ro u n d w a t e r b e c o m e s s u p e r
heated and fi n a l l y erupts .

Geyser ite ( S i nter)

Tem perature
2 l 2F

Depth
0'
33 '

295'

CAV E S

r e fl e c t t h e w o r k o f
g roundwater. Li mestone i s dis
so lved by c i rculating water i n
s u b s u r f a c e j o i n t s a n d fi s s u r e s .
T h e enlargement gradu a l l y pro
duces a cove . Inside a cove, drip
p i n g w a t e r , r i c h in c a l c i u m
bicarbonate and CO,, often pro
duces precip itates that form sta
lagmites and sta lactites .
G E O LO G I CAL WO R K OF G R O U N DWAT E R

is i m portant
i n solution and deposition i n the rocks through which it
passes . It d i sso lves l i mestone and other carbonate rocks to
form caves and sink holes . Li mestone a reas are often
marked by a karst topog raphy of s i n k s , few surface
strea ms (they flow underground), and l a rge spri ngs. I n
caves, the deposition o f ca lcite d i ssolved i n d r i p p i n g
g rou ndwater produces sta lactites, icicle-shaped forma
tions hanging from the cave cei lings, and sta l a g m i tes,
formations that build up from the cave floor. The ca rryi ng
away of m i nera ls i n solution usu a l ly occurs a bove the water
ta b l e . Below that leve l , deposition, replacement, a n d
cementation a re i m porta n t . Ba l l - l i ke masses (concreti ons),
h o l l ow, globular bodies (geodes) , and the cement i n many
sed i mentary rocks a re the result of the action of ground
water at depth .
geode

concretion

KARST TOPOGRAPHY

Cotter Dam suppl ies water for Austra l i a n cap ita l c i ty of Can berra .

T H E E A R T H 'S WAT E R S U P PLY

is one of its m ost precious

natura l resources . Although nea rly three qua rters of the
g lobe is covered by water, over 97 percent of the 326
m i l l io n cubic mi les of earth's water is locked up i n the
ocea ns, too salty for drink ing water or for agriculture .
Another 2 percent is frozen in g laciers and ice sheets . The
tiny fraction that is ava i l a b l e for water supply is very
unevenly d istri buted . One third of the earth's l a nd surface
is desert or sem iarid . Even in humid a reas, water supply
and conservation present major problems. The location
and deve lopment of new industries depend upon adequate
water supplies. Wor l d demand for water i s expected to
double in the next twenty yea rs. It requ i res 600, 000 g a l
lons o f water t o produce o n e t o n o f synthetic rubber. The
d a i l y consu m ption of the average househo l d i n the U nited
States is 400 g a l lons.
54

About three quarters of the water used in m ost humid

i ndustr i a l a reas comes from surface waters (rivers, l a kes,
artificia l reservoirs, etc . ) . The rest comes from g roundwa
ter. P o l l ution and waste sti l l prevent m axim um use of sur
face waters, on which we depend .
Over one fourth of the earth's land surface is desert,
and dam construction can be vita l i n these a rea s . The
Aswa n Dam i n E gypt brought a l most 2 . 5 m i l l ion acres of
new land i nto cultivation and generates 1 0 billion k i l owatt
hours of electricity each year. Desa l i n i zation of sea water,
a lthough u sed i n some arid areas, is sti l l too expensive for
genera l use .
Water conservation is a pressing world need si nce sup
p l ies, a l though they a re never exhausted but are rep len
ished i n the water cycle, can never be increased . They can ,
however, b e more efficiently used and d i stributed . P o l l u
t i o n o f water supplies b y domestic and i ndustr i a l wastes
ca n upset the delicate ecologica l ba lance, a nd has very
serious biologic, econo m i c , and recreational effects .

Arid and sem iarid reg ions cover a bout 1 /3 of the earth's s urface. T h i s
water hole i n P a k i stan i s typical of l o c a l water s u p p l i e s .

Lake Sol itude, Wyom i n g , a typical area of recent g laciation

G LACIERS AND G LACIATION

We l ive today i n the twi l i g ht of a g reat epi sode of refrig
eration, when much of the Northern Hemisphere was cov
ered by conti nenta l ice sheets, l i ke those that sti l l cover
Antarctica and G reenland. Althoug h the ice itsel f has now
retreated from most of E u rope, Asi a , and N orth America ,
it has left traces of its i nfl uence across the who le face of
the landscape in jagged mounta i n pea ks, gouged-out
u p l a nd va l leys, swamps, changed river courses, and bou l
der-strewn , table-flat prai ries i n the lowlands.
G l aciers a re thick masses of s l ow-movi ng ice. I n the
higher l a nds a nd polar reg ions, the annual wi nter snowfa l l
usua l l y exceeds the summer loss b y melti n g . Permanent
snow fie l d s build u p , and thei r l owest boundary i s the snow
l i n e , the actu a l height of which va ries with latitude and
c l i mate. Buried snow recrysta l l izes to form ice, which
moves s l owly under its own weight. It moves most ra pidly
i n the m i d d l e of the g l acier.
56

G LAC I A L E R O S I O N

has a powerful effect upon l a nd that

has been buried by ice and has done much to shape the
mounta i n ranges of our present world . Both va l l ey and
conti nenta l g l aciers acq u i re many thousands of bou lders
and rock frag ments, which, frozen i nto the sole of the
g lacier, gouge a nd rasp the rocks over which the g l aciers
pass . The rocks are s l owly abraded down to a smooth ,
fl uted , g rooved surface . Glacial meltwater, from periods
of daylight or summer thaw, seeps i nto rock fissures and
joints. When it freezes a g a i n , it helps to shatter the rocks,
some of which may become frozen i nto the body of the
g lacier and be carried away as the g l acier moves down
slope. Ava la nches and undercutti ng of va l ley sides add to
the rock debr i s .

ROCK SURFACES

d i splay flut
ing, striation, and polishing
effects o f g l acial erosion . The
form and d i rection of these
g rooves c a n b e used t o show the
d i rection i n which the ice moved .

TYPICAL LONGITUDINAL SEC

TION of a v a l l e y g lacier shows i t s
structure and its profi le of bed
roc k . Surface ice i s brittle, but
underlying ice crysta l s bend ,
shear, and g l ide, causing ice to
flow by deformation .
'

Z O N E OF WASTAGE

Z O N E O f. ACC UMU (A'F I O N .

'

: :

.s fQ;t.<.'

THREE STAGES OF GLACIAL HORNS, ARETES, AND CIRQUES

EROSION are i l l u strated above, are a l l products of g l a c i a l ero

showing mountain country

before, during, and after glacia
t i o n . G laciers cut U -shaped va l
l e y s , modifying and deepening
the i nterlocking pattern of earlier
meandering river erosion . The
va l l eys a r e stra i g htened and
truncated b y ice flow. Tributary
hang ing va l leys develop where
the rate of erosion by tributary
g laciers i s l ower than that of the
g lacier i n the main vo l ley. As the
ice retreats, waterfa l l s flow out
of them i nto the main vol ley.

sion. Horns ore sharp, pyramidal

m o u n t a i n peaks f o r m e d w h e n
headword erosion o f several g la
ciers i ntersect . Aretes ore sharp
ridges formed by headword g la
c i a l ero s i o n . Continental g laciers
tend to produce a smoothed-out
effect o n the landscape, such as
that of the laurentian Shi.e ld in
C o n od o . C i rq u e s o r e b ow l
shaped vo l l eys formed a t heads
of g laciers and below oretes and
horned mounta i n s ; often contai n
a sma l l lake, cal led a tor n .

U -sho ped g laciated volley, C l i n

t o n Canyon, N e w Zea land

Horns a n d oretes i n glaciated

area, Switzerland

Retreating
ice s heet

I D EALIZE D G LAC I A L LA N DSCAPES show typical depo

sitional features . They are collectively ca l led till deposits .
Glacial deposits of rock frag ments a re carried by the
g lacier on its surface withi n the ice and at its base . This
materi a l is deposited either beneath or at the foot of the
ice fiel d , form ing unsorted and unbedded "ti l l . " Me ltwater
strea ms flowing from the g l acier form sorted , stratified
g l a ciofluvi a l or outwa sh deposits. These and other g lacial
deposits are often descri bed as "drift . " Deposits a l so occur
during retreat of ice.

MORAINES ore deposits of g l a DRUMLI NS ore l ow ,

c i a l t i l l formed either as arcuate

mounds at the snout of the g lacier
(terminal moraines) or a s sheets
of t i l l over considerable areas
(boulder c l o y ) . Successive term i
n a l moraines often mark retreat
stages of g l aciers (recessional
moraines). Moraines ore mode u p
of a variety of unsorted rock frag
ments i n unbedded cloy matri x .

ERRATICS ore boulders of "for

eign" rock carried by g laciers .

Some ore up to 1 00 feet across,
and most ore found many m i les

rounded
h i l l s , sometimes reaching a m i l e
i n length, found in g l aci ated
area s . Aligned i n the d i rection of
ice flow, the i r steeper, b l u nter
ends point toward the d i rection
from which the ice come. They are
f o r m ed by p l a st e r i n g of t i l l
around some resistant rock m o s s .
They p r o d u c e a c h a ra c t er i s t i c
"basket-of-eggs" topography.

from their points of orig i n . They

often hove b l unted edges and
rather smooth faces, but most
lock glacial striations .

59

KAMES

a re isolated h i l l s af strat
ified materi a l farmed from debris
that fe l l i nto openings i n retreat
ing or stag nant ice. Kame ter-

races are benches of stratified

mater i a l deposited between the
edge of o val ley g lacier and the
wa l l of the val ley.

GLAC I O F LU V I A L D E PO S I T S

a re a l l sorted and bed ded

strea m deposits. Outwash depos its, formed by meltwater
strea m s , a re flat, i nterlocking a l l uvia l fa n s .

ESKERS a r e l o n g ,

narrow, and
often branching sinuous ridges of
poorly sorted g ravel and sand
formed by deposition from for
mer g l a c i a l stream s .

KETTLE HOLES

are depressions
(sometimes fi l led by lakes) due to
melting of large blocks of stag
nant ice, found in any typica l g la
c i a l depos i t .

G LAC I A L LAKE D E PO S I TS are formed ei ther by meltwater

or the b l ocking of river cou rses . Deltas and beaches mark
the levels of many such lakes.

VARVE CLAYS are lake deposits

of fi ne-grai ned silt, showing reg

u l a r s e a s o n a l a l t e r n a t i o n s of
l i g ht-colored, thicker bands
deposi ted during wet, summer
months and thinner, dark bands
r e p r e s e n t i n g the fi n e r , o f t e n
orga n i c , mate r i a l of wi nter
deposits that settle below t h e fro
zen lake surface.

Max i m u m extent of P l e i stocene ice sheets and g l a c iers

A N C I E N T P E R I O D S O F G LACIAT I O N produced l a nd fea

tures sti l l i n evidence today. The features a l ready descri bed
can be seen in connection with existing g l aciers, but older
g lacial deposits and erosiona l features prove the occur
rence of earlier g l acial episodes . The most recent of these
i s the Pleistocene g l aciation which began a bout two m i l l io n
yea rs ago . It i nvolved four m a j o r episodes o f g laciati o n ,
when continenta l i c e sheets covered a b o u t o n e qua rter of
the earth's surface, including parts of North America ,
northern E u rope, and northern Asi a . G l a c i a l adva nces
were sepa rated by warmer, i nterg lacia l period s . I n the
areas outside those covered by g laciers, espec i a l l y i n the
Southern Hemisphere, corresponding p l uvia l periods of
abnorma l l y heavy rainfa l l marked Pleistocene times, prob
ably ca used by changes i n the genera l pattern of wind
circulation produced by conti nenta l g laciers.
Pleistocene g l aciation molded such fa m i l i a r featu res of
our present la ndsca pes as the jagged pea ks of the Rockies
and the Alps, the rich fa rm soi l s of the northern midwestern
states, and the Great Lakes .

61

G LAC I AT I O N

is i m portant because it has m o lded the

topography of much of the N o rthern Hem isphere . It a lso
poses a number of basic geologic problems.

CHANGES IN SEA LEVEL of up CAUSES OF ICE AGES are sti l l

to 300 feet occu rred when much

of the ocean's water was l ocked
in c o n t i n e n t a l g l a c i e r s . E v e n
today, if present g laci ers a n d ice
sheets that cover 1 0 percent of
the earth's surface were to melt,
sea level would r i se by some 300
f e e t . The c o n t i n e n t a l m a r g i n s
wou ld b e flooded, and many of
the world's major ports would be
submerged . T h i s may happen
agai n . If it does not, a n d w e are
i nstead living i n an i nterg lacial
rather than postg lacial episode,
then c o n t i n e n t a l g l a c i e r s m a y
a g a i n spread across m u c h of the
earth .

unknown . Possible causes m a y be

changes i n the broad pattern of
the circulation of the oceans,
changes i n the relative position of
the earth and s u n , changes i n
solar radiation, a nd the presence
of some blanket such a s volcanic
dust to reduce solar radiation
reaching the earth . I t has also
been suggested that the P leisto
cene g laciation of the N orthern
Hemi sphere could have been the
result of surges i n the Antarctic
ice sheet prod u c i n g wide ice
shelves around the Southern
Ocea n , which cooled the North
ern Hemisphere.

LOADING THE CRUST

PRE-PLEISTOCENE GLACIA
TIONS are much less easy to

by ice
caused sags to develop which
reached about 1 , 500 ft. under
the thickest ice. With the melting
of the g laciers, the crust began to
rise a g a i n , and the h i story of this
rise can be traced i n Scand ina
via, N orth America, and Europe .
The crust rises a bout 9 i nches per
century.
U PU ",
IN METERS

'

Since 6800 B .

detect than the very recent Pleis

tocene. One major epi sode of
g l a c i a t i o n t o o k p l a c e in t h e
Southern Hemisphere i n Permo
Carboniferous times, about 230
million years a g o . T i l l i tes (indur
ated g l a c i a l t i l ls) and striated
rock pavements show large areas
of Austra l i a , South A m e r i c a ,
India, a n d South Africa t o have
been g l a c iated . The cha racter of
these g l a c i a l deposits suggests
that these areas, now remote,
formed a s i n g l e massive continent
(Gondwanaland) at that t i m e .
There i s a l so evidence of a n
Ordovician (about 4 5 0 m i l l i o n
years a g o ) and a late Pre-Cam
brian g laciation (about 600 m i l
l i o n yea rs ago).

T H E OCEANS

Oceans play a major role in the earth's natura l processes

beca use of their production a nd control of c l imate, supply
ing moisture to the atmosphere and provid i ng a vast c l i
matic regu l a tor. They form the u l ti mate site o f deposition
of a l most all sedi ment a n d are the home of m a ny living
species of a n i m a l s and p l a nts . The ocea n s cover over 70
percent of the earth's surface . The continents a re sur
rounded by sha l l ow, gently sloping conti nenta l shelves .
The average ocean depth is a l most three m i les, but
trenches, u p to 36, 000 feet deep, a re found i n places .
Although much of the deep ocean floor is a flat p l a i n , some
parts a re more mounta i nous than the mounta i n regions of
dry land . A worldwide system of midocea n i c ridges
includes submarine mounta i n cha i ns , marked by i ntense
vulcanism and earthquake a ctivity, a nd offset by transform
fa ults . They a re the sites of the formation of new crusta l
rocks ( p . 1 4 1 ) . There are a lso many volcanic islands,
including many submerged below sea level .

C a l i forn ia Coast s hows force of brea k i n g waves erod i n g s hore l i ne .

OCEANIC CURRENTS AND DRIFTS

warm

...

cool

1 . N . Equatorial
2 . S . Equatorial
3 . E q . countercurrent
4. N. Atlantic drift
5. N. Pacific

CURRENTS

1 0.

have a major influ

ence on world weather patterns .
Differences in the density of sea
water of varying sa l i nity a nd dif
ferences i n temperature produce
water c i rculation i n the ocea n s .
T h e colder, m o r e saline, denser
water sinks downward to produce
deep ocean currents. Nearer the
surface of the sea, the combi ned
influence of wi nds and the rota
tion of the earth produce the
more fam i liar surface currents,
including the Gulf Strea m . These
s u r f a c e c u r re n t s f a l l o w g r e a t ,
swi r l i ng routes around t h e ocean
bas i n s and the equator. Some
currents move at speeds of aver
1 00 m i l e s a day.

64

6.
7.
8.
9.

Humboldt
Kuroshio
A l a ska
Labrador
Canaries

11.
1 2.
1 3.
1 4.
15.

Falkland
Benguela
West W i n d Drift
F l orida
C a l ifornia

SEA WATER i n c l udes about 3 . 5

percent o f d i ssolved chemica l s by

wei g h t . Salt ( N aC 1 ) i s the most
common solute, with smaller
quantities o f magnesium chlo
ride, magnesium a n d calcium sul
fates, and traces of about 40
other e lements . Salinity i s the
number of grams of these dis
so lved salts i n 1 , 000 grams of sea
water. Although the proportions
of these salts to one another are
very s i m i l a r throughout the
oceans o f the worl d , the tota l sa
linity of the oceans varies from
place to place and with depth . It
i s l ow near river mouths, for
example, and h i g h i n areas of
h i g h evaporati o n .

TIDES are twice-dai l y movements

of b i l l ions of tons of oceon woter

i nfluenced by mony factors o n the
surfoce of the eorth as wel l as
from spoce . Moinly, the g ravita
tiona l pull of the moon upon the
earth causes the waters to bulge
toward it twice a day, creating
what we ca l l h i g h tides . The
correspond i n g bulge or h i g h

WAVES

are produced chiefly b y

t h e drag of winds on the surface
of water. The water i s driven into
a c i rcular motion, but only the
wave form, not the water itself,
moves across the ocean surface .
Waves genera l l y affect o n l y the
uppermost part of the ocea n s .
Wave b a s e i s h a l f t h e wave length
of any particular wave syste m .
When they run into shal low
water, waves d rag botto m , and
the topmost water particles
break against the shore. Waves
play an i m portant part in the
shaping of coastlines, both in
sed i ment transport and in ero
sion . Some large waves (tsuna m i )
a r e caused by earthquakes .

tide on the d i stant side of the

earth from the moon i s caused
by the cor respo n d i n g lower
attroction o f the moon at t h i s
g reater d istance, a l lowing t h e
o c e a n s to " swi n g " outwa r d .
Tides r i s e o n l y two o r three
feet o n open coast l i nes, but i n
restricted channels can reach
fifty feet .

T H E E D G E S OF T H E C O N T I N E NTS

are commonly marked

by margins of broa d , flat shelves which slope gently (at
a bout 1 : 1 000) to a depth of a bout 450 feet. At this depth ,
they merge i nto the steeper continenta l slope. The width of
shelves varies from a few m i les to 200 or m o re m i l es.
Commonly, shelves a re a bout 30 m i les wide. The shelves
seem to be formed by the deposition a nd erosion of fa irly
young sedi ments, many of them of Pleistocene age.
Changes in sea level of some 500 feet have ben i nvolved
during this period .

T H E C ON TI N E N TAL S H E LF
AND SLOPE r i m the conti nents,

t h e w i d e s h e l f d r o p p i n g off
steeply at t h e slope t o t h e depths
of the seafloor. At the base of
the continental slope , there is
often a convex rise, formed from
s l u m pe d s e d i m e n t s . T h i s a rea

G;
.!

0
..
-c
c:

:;:

::>
0
..c:
....

littora l : l Sha l low l

Zone T : Water :
1
Neritic Zone 1

4
8
12

CONTI N E N TAL
PLATFORM

ranges from a few m i les to about

1 00 m i les i n width.
The g reat vertical exaggera
tion of the diagram suggests a
much steeper profi le than rea l l y
e x i s t s . Even so, the s l o p e i s
a l most a hundred ti mes steeper
than the shelf.

Deep water

/ Effective Sun l ight- P l a n kton Zone

Twi l i g ht Zon e
Com p letely clark
Aloyua l Zane
OCEANIC PLATFORM BASIN

SUBMA R I N E CANYO N S

cut
through the continental shelves
ond slopes and are widely dis
tri buted a long the edges of con
t i n e n t s . S o m e s e e m to b e
continuations o f rivers o n the
land, but others show no such
relation to drainage and do not
extend across the conti nental
she lves . A l l canyons tend t o have
a V-shaped profi l e and to have
tri butary systems much l i ke those
of terrestrial rivers . Their deeper
mouths are marked by g reat del
tal ike fa ns of sed i ment, which
g radua l l y build u p to form the
continenta l rise.

Submarine canyons are thought

to be formed by the erosion of
turbidity currents, which some
times attain considerable ve loc
ity. Heavy with s i l t , they have a
s t r o n g sco u r i n g a n d e r o s i ve
power.

Experimenta l turbid ity current i n a la boratory ta n k

T U R BIDITY C U R R E N TS

are
dense, flowing masses o f sed i
ment-ca rrying water flowing at
speeds of up to 50 m i les per
hour. Many are probably trig
g e red by e a r t h q u a k e d i st u r
bances o f unconsol idated sed i
ment on the continental shelves
and slopes. The coincidence of
some submarine canyons with

river courses, such as those of

the Hudson and Congo, has
been thought t o b e the resu lt of
river erosion at earlier periods
o f l o w e r sea l e v e l . P r o b a b l y
i t i s the resu lt o f e ither the pres
ence of thicker, unstable masses
of sedi ment near river mouths
or t u r b i d i t y fl o w f r o m r i v e r
mouths i n times o f flood .
8000
6000
4000
2000

O feet

Coa sta l view of H a rgrove's lookout, New South Wa les, A u stra l ia

COASTLI N E S mark the boundaries of l a nd and sea .
Although the g reat variety of rock types, structu res , cur
rents, tides, c l i mate, and fluctuating sea l eve l s produce
many different types of coast l i nes, each can be understood
as the product of three simple processes: erosi o n , deposi
tio n , and changing sea level .
Coasta l erosion is the resu lt of the twice-daily pound ing
by the sea , wea ring down the marg i ns of the l a n d , creating
coasta l features, and cutting back the shore l i n e at a rate
of severa l feet a yea r.

CLIFFS AND WAVE-CUT PLAT CAVES are formed b y erosion

FORMS a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a long a conspicuous l i ne of wea k

shore l i nes u n d e r g o i n g eros i o n .

Waves undercut the rocks near
sea leve l .

ness i n a c l i ff, such a s along joints

and fa u l t s . Conti n u i ng erosion
may form an arch .

BAYS AND H EADLANDS

are
produced b y relative differences
i n the resistance to erosion of
coasta l rocks. The more resistant
standout as head lands, but u l t i
m a t e l y, the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of
wave erosion on the headlands
and deposition i n the bays have a
tendency to produce a straight
coast l i n e .

Drowned Va l l ey, v iew from MI. Wel l i ngto n , Ta s m a n i a

A C H A N G I N G S E A L E V E L is represented by many fea
tures a round coast l i nes. With i n historic times, esta b l i shed
towns have been submerged. Ra i sed beaches a nd wave
cut platforms are common in many a reas, rising many feet
above present sea leve l . Far i n land a nd high on the sl opes
of mounta i n s , foss i l s of marine a n i m a l s g ive further proof
of older and more profound changes in sea leve l , reflecti ng
major changes i n the geog raphy of the past. Submergence
and emergence of coastli nes mod ify the genera l features
of erosion and depositi o n .

EMERGENT COASTLINES

are
less common thon the sub
merged . They ore marked by

rai sed beaches and c l i ffs, and

often by an a l most flat coasta l
p l a i n , sloping gently seaward.

S U BMERGED COASTLI NES,

d u e to postg l a c i a l r i s i n g sea
leve l , a r e i n d e n ted c o a st l i n e s
w i t h deep i n lets a n d su bmerged
glacial va l leys. The "grain" of
the coastl i ne depends upon the
character and structure of the
roc k s . In At l a n t i c - type c o a s t
l i nes, t h e structural trends are
more or less perpend i c u l a r to the
coast . I n Pacific type, they are
para l l e l to the coast.

69

MAR I N E D E PO S I T I O N

may be recogn i zed as the domi

nant process where shoreli nes ore ma rked by a number of
fa m i l ia r features . U ltimately, the ba lance of coasta l ero
sion and deposition tends to produce a coastline i n tem
pora ry equi l i b ri u m . Although this is more quickly formed
i n soft strata , it req u i res thousa nds of yea rs in resistant
rocks .

BEACHES

c o n s i s t of sed i m e n t
sorted o n d transported b y waves
and currents . Most of the sed i
m e n t i s the s i z e of s a n d or o f
g rave l , but l o c a l c o b b l e a n d
boulder deposits are a l s o com
m o n . Beaches vary g reatly, de
pend ing upon the sed iment
supply, the form of the coast
line, wave and current cond i -

l i o n s , and seasonal c h a n g e s . O n
i rregular coast l i nes, t h e y t e n d t o
b e confined to t h e bays . Oblique
waves a n d l o n g s h o r e c u r re n t s
often produce constant latera I
m o ve m e n t of b e a c h m a t e r i a l .
Beaches thus exist i n a state of
dynamic eq u i l ibrium, a s a moving
body of wave-washed and sorted
sediment.

I nteraction of river a n d marine deposition a n d ero s i o n , Wa l e s

OFFSHOR E BARS

formed of
sand a n d pebbles a r e genera l l y
separated f r o m the m a i n shore
line by narrow lagoons . They are
ancient beach deposits that are
characte r i s t i c of submerged
coasts . I n N orth America, off
shore bars are common a l ong the
Atlantic and G u l f coasts. They
are genera l l y para l l e l to exist i ng
coast l i n e s .

SANDBARS

a re formed o n
indented coast l i nes by longshore
drift of sed i ments para l l e l with
the coast. When sedi ment i s car
ried i nto deeper water, as i n a
bay, the energy of the waves or
currents i s reduced , and the sed
iment i s deposited a s a bar. The
s l ower the current, the more rap
idly the sed iment i s deposited .
The bar is an e l o ngation of the
adjacent bea c h , partly or com
pletely cutting off the bay. Spits
are bars that extend i nto open
water rather than i nto a bay. The
free ends of many spits are curved
l a n d w a r d by wave refra c t i o n .
Spit growth may lead to blocking
of harbors and d i version of rivers
that flow i nto the sea , sometimes
req u i r i ng d redg i n g .

Typical c l iff a n d beac h scenery

s h o w s ba l a n c e of e r o s i o n a n d
deposition . ( Dorset, E n g l a n d )

DELTAS ( p .

45) are formed b y

ra pid deposition of material car
ried by a river when i t enters the
deep water of a lake or the sea
and loses its velocity. All deltas
have a s i m i l a r pattern of deposi
t i o n a n d sed iment d i stributio n .
Shape a n d size vary, depending
upon local cond i t i o n s .

STORM BEACHES

(or b e r m s ) a r e
formed by sto r m s that throw
g ravel and boulders u p a bove the
normal high-tide leve l .

Wide, sandy beach with storm beach near c l iffs at Lavernock, Wa les

Globigerina Calca reou s - Rad i o l a r i a n S i l iceou !

Terr igenous
}
}
ooze
ooze
- Red Clay - Pteropod
d i atom

MAR I N E S E D I M E N T S

a re classified in three broad cate

gories: l ittora l , neritic, a nd deep-sea sedi mentation . lit
tora l sed i ments form between high- and l ow-tide leve l s ;
neritic sed i ments accum u late on t h e conti nenta l s h e l f . These
two g roups of sha l l ow-water sed iments cover only a bout 8
percent of the ocean floor. They are made up of a var iable
mixture of terrigenous or land-derived debris, chemica l
prec i p i tates, a n d org a n i c deposits . They d i ffer from p l a ce

to p lace due to va riations in coastli nes, rivers, and changes

i'n sea level .
I n genera l , in sha l l ow-water sed i ments , there is a d i rect
re lationshi p between the size of a sed iment pa rticle and
the d i stance to which a given current wi l l carry it, the l a rger
particles bei ng deposited nea rer the source . This pattern
is modified by the action of waves, currents , and turbidity
currents .
Deep-sea sed i ments deposited outside the conti nenta l
shelf form a layer genera l l y less than 2 , 000 feet thick over
the deeper parts of the ocean floor. They are much thinner
and younger i n age than we shou ld pred ict from knowledge
of present rates of sed imentatio n . The a byssa l parts of the
72

ocean show much more un iform sed i ments than the conti
nenta l margins, where most terrestrial debris is deposited .
Those of the bathya l zone, deposited on the conti nenta l
sl opes to a depth of a bout 1 2 , 000 feet, i n c l ude muds of
va rious k i n d s . The sed i ments of g reater a byssa l depths are
red clays a nd va rious oozes which cover 30 percent and 47
percent of the ocea n floor respectively.

CALCAREOUS OOZES are fine

med i u m -grai ned sed i ments that

c o v e r a l m o s t h a l f the o c e a n
floors. They occur down t o a
depth of a l most 1 5 , 000 feet .
Below t h a t depth, t h e calcareous
tests of the planktonic fora m i n i
fer G / o b i g e r i n a a n d pteropod
molluscs, which form most of the
sediments, are disso lved .

SILICEOUS OOZES

are derived
from the rem a i n s of surface-living
o r g a n i s m s ( d i a t o m s and r a d i
o/aria) for m i n g very slowly a t
g reat depth i n t h e ocea n s . Dia
tom oozes a re found chiefly in
polar seas where predatory crea
tures are less c o m m o n . Rad iolar
ian ooze i s most commonly found
i n the warm, tropica l waters.

DARK RED CLAY

i s formed from
meteoric dust and from very fi ne
terrigenous o r volcanic particles
carried by the wind or i n suspen
sion i n sea water. It may form as
s l owly a s one inch every 250, 000
yea r s . It may i n c lude volcanic ash
laye r s . Other sed i ments, such a s
manganese nodules (shown
here), are present i n some parts
of the ocean floor.

73

WIND is most effective i n trans

port and deposition i n deserts,

n e a r s h o re l i n e s , and in o t h e r
places where there is a supply of
dry, fine-grained, l oose sed i ment
with little vegetation to hold it
tog ether. Great S a n d D u n e s
National Monument, shown here,
is formed by deposition of wind
borne sand a g a i nst mounta i n
range.
W I N DS

Winds a re movements of the atmosphere brought a bout

not only by the rotation of the earth but by unequal
tem peratures o n the earth . The heat of the sun, the c hief
source of this c i rcu lation, i s more concentrated i n the
tropics than i n high latitudes. This prod uces vast atmo
spheric convection currents , having a broa d , consta nt
overa l l d i stribution that reflects the earth's rotation . It a l so
shows wide local va riations in speed and d i rectio n due to
d i ff e r e n c e s i n t o p o g r a p h y a n d o t h e r a t m o s p h e r i c
conditions.
A major role is played by the wind in the d istribution of
water from the oceans to the land . Water vapor, i n turn,
has a b l a n keting effect that keeps the earth's surface tem
perature higher than it would otherwise be . Wind is an
agent of transport and, to a lesser extent, of erosion . In
this, it resembles flowing water, but because of its much
lower density (only a bout 1 /800 that of water), it i s fa r less
effective a nd genera l l y tra nsports only the fi ner d ust par
ticles. Dust from volcanic explosions wi l l often g ive bri l l iant
sunsets i n d istant l a nds for many months after the explo
sion . Winds transport through the atmosphere compara
tive ly large q uantities of salt crysta ls gathered from the
ocea n's surface .
74

WI N D E R O S I O N is very l i m i ted in extent a nd effect . It is

largely confined to desert a reas, but even there it i s l i m i ted
to a height of a bout 1 8 inches above g round leve l .

DESERT PLATFORMS

are clean,
wi ndswept areas where pebbles
may have been rol led and
bounced a long by the force of
strong winds . larger cobbles and
boulders are left behind .

VENTIFACTS, found

in deserts,
are pebbles or cobbles that have
devel o ped polished surfaces and
sharp edges under wind
abrasion .

DESERT EROSION

tends to
expose bare rock surfaces, which
may stand up without a cover of
vegetation, as i n Paki stan .
Semiarid landscape has di sti nctive erosiona l character.

W I N D D E PO S I T S

consist of transported particles that a re

effectively sorted accord i ng to size because of the l i m ited
carrying capacity of the wind . Sand dunes, for exa m p l e ,
genera l ly consist o f s a n d g r a i n s o f more or l ess u niform
size, which a re rounded and pitted or frosted by abrasi o n .
Sand dunes a re found i n a reas where there is a large
supply of d ry, l oose, fi ne-grai ned materia l . Like snow
drifts, they form a round loca l obstructio n s . They a l so
m i g rate downwi nd . Their particu l a r size and form depend
upon the sand supply, the presence of vegetation, and the
vel ocity and con stancy of d i rection of the preva i l i n g wi nd .
Dunes may be tra nsverse or long itud i n a l to the wind
di recti o n .

BARCHANS

a r e crescentic dunes
that often build up to 400 yards
long and 1 00 feet h i g h , and are
formed mostly i n deserts with
more or less constant wind di rec
tions. They are not static and may
mig rate up to 60 feet per yea r.

The crescent points show down

wind di recti o n . Winds a l so pro
duce giant ripple marks on sand
surfaces. Barchons usua l l y ore
found in g roups, or swarms, and
moy form long l i nes, or chains,
across a p l a i n .

SAND-DUNE SHAPE

typica l l y
h a s gentle wi ndward slope and
steep leeward s l ope, dawn which
sand grains slide o r ro l l . Dotted
line shows haw continuous move
ment of sand g r a i n s produces
migration of whole sand dunes .
Dunes take many for m s . It wou l d
n o t b e e a s y t o compile a complete
list of all the varieties. Va riations
in form include sca l l oped sides
and i rreg u l a r i ties i n plan of the
crest .

Cros s-bedd i n g i n stationary d u n e

Cross-bed d i n g i n m i g ratory d u n e

AN CI ENT D U N E DEPOSITS,

preserved i n such sed imentary

rocks as those of the Nava j o
Sandstone i n Zion Canyon
National Park, display aeo l i a n
bedd i n g , sorti n g , and s a n d grain
round ing similar to those of pres
ent-day dunes . Ca reful mapping
of b e d d i n g d i r e c t i o n s revea l s
ancient wind d i rections. I n this
way, i t has been possi b l e to make
a map of the Permian winds of
southwestern U n i ted States 225
m i l l ion years a g o .
..

LOESS DEPOSITS,

formed of
fi ne-grai ned s i l t , lack ony bed
d i n g b u t o f t e n h a v e ve r t i c a l
joints . Transpo rted b y wind from
d e s e r t s , f r o m d r i e d - u p fl o o d
plains, from river courses, o r
from g l acial deposits, they are
c o m m o n in m i d w e s t e r n U n i ted
States, C h i n a , E u rope, and in
many areas surrounding the
wor ld's deserts a n d g l a c i a l out
wash areas. Loess produces fer
tile s o i l s , partly beause of its very
high porosity. loess i s ye l l ow or
buff i n color and often forms ver
tical c l iffs . Artifi c i a l caves i n eas
ily worked loess may provide
homes.

JJ:

Cross-beddi n g , in wind -depos

i ted sandstone, reflects its for
motion i n ancient sand dunes,
east of Echo C l iffs, Arizona .

77

PRODUCTS OF D E PO S I T I O N

Sed i mentary rocks a re genera lly formed from the brea k

down of older rocks by weathering and the agents of
erosion descri bed on p p . 34-76 . A few are chemical pre
cipitates, or orga nic debri s . Sed i menta ry rocks cover
about 75 percent of the earth's surface.
C LAST I C O R D E T R I TAL S E D I M E N TARY R O C KS a re
formed from the debris of preexisting rocks or org a n i s m s .
T h e weathered r o c k material is genera l l y transported
before it is deposited . This movement often g ives round
grains. The debris i s eventually laid down in horizonta l
layers, usua l l y a s marine deposits but sometimes as depos
its from rivers, lakes, g laciers, or wind . C lastic rocks a re
solidified sed i ments .

CONGLOMERATE c o n s i s t s o f SANDSTONE

rounded pebbles or boulders held

tightly i n o finer-grai ned matrix .
The pebbles ore usua l l y of quartz
at l e a s t '/ i n c h or m o r e i n
dia meter.

consists of sand
size particles, usua l l y of quartz.
It may show considerable varia
tion i n cementing minerals, i n
rounding and s o r t i n g of parti
cles, and i n forms of bedding .

ARKOSE

CALCARENITE

is a q u a r t z - fe l d s p a r
sandstone u s u a l l y formed in
desert a reas by rapid erosion and
d e p o s i t i o n of f e l d s p a r - r i c h
igneous rocks .

consi sts of bro

ken shel l s or other organ i c mate
rial and fragments from older
li mestones . It i s deposited as sed
i mentary debri s .

GRAYWACKE i s a poorly sorted SHALE c o n s i s t s o f v e r y fi n e

m i x t u r e of r o c k f r a g m e n t s ,
quartz, and feldspar fragments
i n a clay matrix. Often formed by
turbidite flows {p. 67), g ray
wacke a lways i n d i cates rapid
e r o s i o n a n d d e po s i t i o n u n d e r
unstable conditions.

grai ned particles o f quartz and

clay m i nera l s . I t i s consol idated
mud that has been depo s i ted in
lakes, seas, and s i m i l a r environ
ments. About 45 percent of a l l
exposed sed i mentary rocks are
sha les.

O R GA N I C S E D I M E N TARY R O C KS a re formed from

orga nic debri s - the deposits or rema ins of once - l iving
organisms (she l l s , cora l s , calcareous a lgae, wood , p l a nts,
bones , etc . ) . Although they a re a form of c l a stic rock,
orga nic rocks may conta i n more and better-preserved
foss i l s , as they a re laid down near the place where the
a n i m a l or plant once l ived .
C H EM I CALLY F O R M E D S E D I M E N TARY R O C KS

consist
of i nterlocking crysta l s precipitated from soluti o n . They,
therefore, lack the debri s-cement compositio n of other
sed i mentary rocks . A decrease i n pressure, a n i n crease in
temperature, or contact with new mater i a l s may cause
m i nera l s to precipitate from solution .

LIMESTONE

consists chiefly of
calcite from concentrated shel l ,
cora l , algae, a n d other debr i s . I t
may g rade i nto dolomite, char
acteri zed by the presence of cal
cium and magnesi u m carbonate
(p. 28). Chalk i s a fi ne-grai ned
l imestone of m i nute cocco l i t h s .
Travertine i s l i mestone prec i p i
tated by spring s .

r-

bitu m inou:
oa l

EVAPORITES

are chem ical pre

cipitates, farmed by evaporation
i n s h a l l ow, land-locked basins of
water. They vary g reatly i n tex
ture and composition . Rock salt,
gypsum, anhydrite, and potas
sium salts are the most common.
I m portant i ndustria l m i nera l s .
S E D I M E N TA R Y ROCKS

COAL

i s c o n s o l i d a te d p e a t ,
formed b y the decomposition of
woody plant debris (p. 9 8 ) . I t is
an organ i c rock, and plant struc
tures may sti l l be preserved i n i t .
C o a l s g rade from l i g n ite to
anthracite, which h a s a bout 95
percent carbon in i t .

a r e i m portant natural resources .

Shales and l i mestones a re used for cement, clays for
ceramics; other rocks are used for road meta l . Sed imen
tary iron ores, bauxite, and coa l form the ba sis of much
heavy industry; soil i s the ulti mate basis of most of our food
supplies.

T H E S I Z E , S H A P E , A N D S O RT I N G of sed i mentary struc

tures with i n rocks may provide c l ues to the depositional
environment that exi sted during their formati o n . Rounded ,
frosted , we l l -sorted grains, for example, i nd icate wind
deposited sand .

CROSS-BEDDING

is a term
applied t a sweeping, a r c l i ke beds
that lie at a n acute angle ta the
genera l harizantal stratification .
It is camman in stream and deltaic
depo s i t s , i n deeper marine
waters, a nd i n sand dunes . Crass
bedd ing reflects the d i rection af
current flaw.

scour-andfi l l
g raded bedd i n g

GRADED BEDDING

i s due ta dif
f e r e n t i a l s e t t l i n g af m i n e r a l
grains, a n d i s useful far determin
i n g the c o r r e c t "way u p " i n
folded strata . T h e layers af
coarse rack have a sharp base
and gradua l l y g rade upward into
finer-g rai ned materia l s .

VARVED BEDDING i s a type af

thin, g raded bedding that has
a lternate l a m i nations af coarse
and fi ne-grai ned materia l . E spe
c i a l l y camman i n g l a c i a l lake
deposits, i t i s characteristic of
seasonal deposition, each pair af
varves representing a yea r. (See
page 60 . )

MUD CRACKS

farm where lake

and mud deposits are dried by the
sun and are preserved by burial
under mud.

SCOUR-AND-FILL

structures are
farmed by erasion and subse
quent fi l l i n g af val leys and chan
nels i n a river bed .

RIPPLE MARKS

are produced by
wind in desert sand deposits and
by waves or currents i n various
aqueous envi ronments.

81

THE CRUST: SUBSURFACE CHANGES

R u n n i ng water, ice, wind, and other agents of erosion
slowly wea r down the surface of the continents. Over the
earth as a who l e , some 8 b i l l ion tons of sed i ment is ca rried
by rivers i nto the sea every yea r, equ iva lent to some 200
tons per sq uare mile of land surface . This represents an
average lowering of the rivers' drai nage areas by approx
i mately one foot every 9, 000 years.
The u lti mate effect of this erosion wou ld be to reduce the
conti nents to a flat surface, but there a re two earth pro
cesses that tend to interrupt this conti n u i n g erosion and
restore the balance: the tectonic upl ift of a reas of both the
existing conti nenta l and offshore a reas of sed i mentation
(diastrophism), and the broadly related process of igneous
activity (p. 83). Most of these forces act slowly, over long
periods of time, and the earth's crust is a lways in a state of
dyna mic eq u i l i br i u m , though conti nuously chang i ng , as a
result of thei r va rying i nteraction .
T H E ROCK CYCLE

Volcanic cones stand out as h i l l s near Springv i l l e , Arizona .

Ig neous rocks form the foundations of the continents,

but most of the surface of the continents is made u p of
sed i mentary rocks of various ages . These layers have been
deposited on and a round a ncient continenta l cores or
shields, which a re made c hiefly of granitic igneous a n d
meta morphic rocks. T h e cores o f mounta i n chains genera l l y
revea l t h e s a m e rocks. These ig neous rocks were genera l l y
formed at great depths a nd later upl ifted , eroded , and
covered with a relatively thin veneer of sed i ments .
VOLCANOES

Volca noes are mounta i ns or h i l l s , ra nging from sma l l coni

ca l h i l l s t o peaks with 1 4 , 000-foot relief, formed b y lava
and rock debris ejected from within the earth's crust. Of
the more than 500 active volcanoes, some extrude m olten
lava , others erupt ash and solid (pyroclastic) fragments.
Sti l l others eject both , and all emit large quantities of
stea m and va rious gases . Some eruptions a re relatively
"quiet , " others expl osive .

83

VOLCA N I C ACT I O N results in the formation of five basic

types of vol ca noes, but no two a re ever quite a l i k e . The
kinds of materi a l s that erupt from a vo lcano l a rgely deter
mine the shape of its cone . F l uid streams of lava travel fa r
and usua l l y produce wide-based mounta i ns; ash, viscous
lava s , a nd c i nders usua l l y build up steep cones .

CIN DER CONES

are steep
sided, symmetrica l cones, such a s
Vesuvius, formed b y the eruption
of ci nders, ash, and ather pyro
clastic products.

SHIELD VOLCANOES, l i ke those

i n H a wa i i , a r e broad d o m e s
formed b y lava flows from a cen
tra l vent o r from fissures a nd par
asitic vents.

COMPOSITE CONES

are formed
from interbedded lava flows and
pyroclastic debr i s . They a re
i ntermed iate i n form between cin
der and shield vo lcanoes .

CALDERAS

are formed by the

c o l lapse of the top of a volcano
f o l l o w i n g an e x p l o s i o n . N ew
cones may be born in the ca ldera .
Crater Lake i n Oregon i s an
exa m p l e o f this type o f volcano.

84

PLATEAU BASALTS cover g reat

areas i n the Columbia R iver Va l

ley, Iceland, and I nd i a , and a re
apparently extruded , to spread
i n thin sheets, not from central
vents but from cracks or fissures .

VOLCA N I C P R O D U CTS i n c l ude bombs, cinders, ash, and

dust, as we l l a s lava and gases . Most l ava has a basa ltic
composition (p. 93) consisting of plag ioclase feldspars,
p y r o x e n e , a n d o l i v i n e . E r u p t e d a t t e m p e r a t u r e s of
between 900 a n d 1 , 200C , it can flow for g reat d i stances
at considera b l e speed s .

THE TYPES OF LAVA

differ i n
form a n d texture . P i l low l ava
( l eft) is formed by submarine vol
canoes . B l ocky lava h a s a jogged

surface and i s produced by s u d

d e n gas escape . R o p y l a v a (right)
forms at a higher temperature
than blocky lava .

VOLCANIC BOMB

VOLCANIC T U F F

d le-sha ped form .

shows spin

DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES

in na r r o w b e l t s r e fl e c t s e a r t h ' s
major plates ( p p . 1 44- 1 47) a n d is
related to deep interior processes.
Many lie around the Pacific Ocea n .

i s a fi n e
grained, pyroc lastic roc k .

Others o r e formed i n such areas of

r e c e n t t e c t o n i c a c t i v i t y as t h e
Mediterranean o r the African Rift
Vol leys . Most oceanic islands ore
volcanic.

I NT R U S I V E I G N E O U S R O C K S a re formed from magma

rising within the earth's crust. U n l i ke the extrusive vo lcanic
rocks, i ntrusive rocks crysta l l i ze below the earth's surface,
and the i r presence becomes obvious only after the country
rock i nto which they were intruded has been removed by
erosio n .
I ntrusions show g reat va riation i n for m . Some c u t across
bedding pla nes (discorda nt), while others run pa ra l l e l with
them (concordant) . They range i n size from d i kes measur
ing a few i nches wide to bathol iths hundreds of miles
across .
I ntrusive rocks a re often associated with i m portant
meta l l i c m i nera l deposits, such as copper or nickel .

FORMS OF IGNEOUS INTRUSIONS

PLUTONIC, INTRUSIVE ROCKS, DIKES are usua l l y vertical intru

similar to granite, are identified

by having a coarser crystal tex
ture, produced by s lower coo l i ng
than that in extrusive rocks. In
genera l , rocks formed ot sha llow
depths i n the crust hove o n i nter
mediate texture.

s i ve sheets , often d i sc o r d a n t .
They may occur in vast d i k e
swarms, asso_c i a ted with a centra l
volcanic neck or intrusive centers.
Dikes and sills frequently have
fi n e - g r a i n e d , c h i l l e d c o n t a c t
marg i n s .

Dikes, such as those on left, s h o w c h i l led marg i n s o f li ne-gra i ned texture,

where i n contact with the country rock, as on r i g ht.

Old volca n i c neck at S h i prock, New Mexico, is c i r c u l a r in outl ine and fed
a rad iating series of once molten d i kes.

VOLCANIC PLUGS,

or necks,
ore more or less cylindrica l , ver
tica l -wa l l ed intrusions, genera l l y
of porphyritic roc k . Whether o r
n o t they p a s s u pward i nto Iovas,
or breccias, depends to o g reat
extent upon the depth of local
weathering .

SILLS

o r e h o r i z o n t a l i n t r u s i ve
sheets, either concordant or dis
cordant. Such s i l l s os the 900-

foot-thick P a l i sades on the Hud

son River show vertical differen
tiation because of g ravitational
c r y s ta l l i za t i o n . Some s i l l s a n d
dikes o r e o n l y o few feet i n thick
n e s s ; some d e v e l o p c o l u m n a r
jointing s i m i l a r t o that o f lovo
flows . S i l l s (A) ore d i stingui shed
from lovo flows (B) by the baking
of ove r l y i n g a d j a c e n t c o u n t r y
rock b y s i l l s and erosional con
tocts i n buried lovo flows .

fine-gra i ned
c h i l led zone
1 % olivine
PALI SADES
SILL
25 % o l i v i n e
fi ne-gra i ned
c h i l led zone
1 % olivine

LACCOLITHS

ore dome-shaped
intrusions having o flat bose but
on a r c h e d c o n c o r d a n t r o o f ,

compact
basalt

col u m na r

formed b y intrusive pressure, and

o rather flat floor. They may show
differentiatio n .

country rock
sate l l ite
stock '-.....,.
roof

roof
pendant

BATHOLITH

BATHOLITHS,

or pl utons, ore major, com

plex, intrusive masses, genera l l y g ranitic
and often several hundred m i les in exten t .
They o r e t h e largest i ntrusions and a r e
found in a reas of major tectonic deforma
tion, as i n the Idaho Batho l i th and in the
conti nenta l shields. Although many plu
tonic granites show sharp contacts with
older rocks, and ore, therefore, intrusive
in a strict sense, others show complete
transition with surrounding country rocks
and seem to resu lt from the metamorphism
or granitizotion of older sedi
m e n t a r y and m e t a m o r p h i c
Stock a n d a s soc iated laccol ith,
structures.
Henry Mou nta i n s , Utah

LOPOLITH S A N D LAY E R E D
INTR USIONS o r e s a u c e r l i k e

STOCKS

ore discordant, intru

sive masses, a few m i les in diam
e t e r . S o m e ore p l u t o n i c , b u t
others pass upward into ancient
volcanic plugs. They ore smaller
than batho liths.

ba s i c lopolith

i ntrusions, u p to 200 mi les

across, with complex geologic
histories. D i sti nct m i nera l og i c a l
l a y e r i n g is present, the more
basic minerals genera l l y being i n
t h e l ower layers, as i n t h e Bush
veld complex i n South Africa and
the Sudbury, Onta r i o , lopolith .
Gravity settling and convection
currents seem responsible for this
layering .

roof rocks

gran ite

M I N ERAL COMPOS I T I ON

K-feldspar

i5
iiii

...
>
;;;
j
..
....
X
...
...
>
;;;
j
..
....

:!:

Texture

,,1o->o

B i otite

Plagioclase
Olivine
Pyroxene
Am hibole

Pyroclastic

Tuff and breccia

Glassy

Obsidian (massive)
Pumice (frothy)

Apha nitic
(very fineg r a i n e d)

Rhyo l ite

Andes ite

Basalt

Phaneritic
(coarsegrai ned

Gran ite

Diorite

Gabbro

LIGHTER

INTERMED IATE

DARKER

COLOR

C LASS I F I CATI O N O F I G N EO U S ROCKS

We have a l ready seen that ig neous rocks va ry i n their

occurrence, which tends to produce differences in texture
(crysta l size, shape, and a rrangement) . They a l so vary
g reatly i n m i nera l content, a nd thus i n chemical composi
tion. Acid rocks (those conta i n i ng qua rtz) m a ke u p the b u l k
o f plutonic i ntrusions b u t seem t o b e confi ned to t h e conti
nents , whereas basa ltic rocks account for most of the
volcanic rock of both the conti nents a nd the ocea n s .
Ig neous rocks a re commonly classified by t h e i r texture
(the size, shape, and variation i n the i r crysta l l i n e form)
and their chemica l composition (represented by thei r con
stituent m i nera l s ) . These two factors reflect their rate of
cooling and o r i g i n a l magma compositio n .
89

1 1 00

TEMPERATU R E (Centigrade)

Mu scovite
mica

zeol ite
Qua rtz (Sti l bite)

Reaction series of common s i l icate

B i otite m i n e r a l s f r o m i g n e o u s r o c k s . H i g h
m i ca te mperature m i n e ra l s are shown on left of
diagram.
Ol ivine
MAGMA

is the molten s i l icate source materi a l from which

i g neous rocks are derived . Although lava provides a sur
face sample of magma, the increased pressures and tem
peratures of deeper magmas permit a hig her gas and water
content than at the surface .
Ig neous rocks show g reat variation i n chemical compo
siti o n , but thi s does not mean that each of the many types
has crysta l l i zed from a different kind of magma . It seems
probable that a single kind of basa ltic magma i s the parent
of a l l va rieties of igneous rocks, and that different chemical
compositions resu lt from crysta l l i zation differentiation .
Field and l a boratory studies o f igneous rocks show that
igneous m i nera ls have a defi nite sequence of crysta l l i za
tion : Iron, magnesi u m , and calc-sil icate m i nera l s (such as
o l i v i n e , p y r ox e n e , and c a l c i u m - p l a g i o c l a se fe l d s p a r s )
form before sod i u m and potassium feldspars and quartz .
This sequence is seen in differentiated i ntrusions.
Although crysta l l i zation of a basa ltic magma wou ld
norma l l y g ive a basa lt (if the early-formed m i nera l s a re
sepa rated from the bulk of the magma by g ravity settling
or tectonic pressure) , the rema ining magma wou ld be
90

C R YSTAL S ETTLI N G

acid and relatively rich in si lica and

potassium and i n sod i u m a l u m i nosi l i
cates. Conti n ued crysta l l i zation a n d
sepa ration wou ld then produce a
rhyo l itic magma . About 90 percent
of the orig i n a l magma wou l d rem a i n
as c r y s t a l l i n e r o c k s of b a s i c
composition .
The hypothesis of a single parent
basa ltic magma exp l a i ns many oth
erwise puzz l i ng features of igneous
rocks , i n c l u d i n g the preponderance
of basa lt lavas and the freq uent sma l l
a n d late rhyo l itic flows i n basa ltic
vo l c a n i c e r u p t i o n s . U n d i s t u r b e d
c o o l i n g w o u l d p r o d u ce g r a n i t e s ,
which wou ld overlie basic rocks .
Other facts, however, suggest that
such a n expla nation cannot account
for a l l granitic rock s . The abundance
of granites i n mounta i n ranges, and
their apparent conti nuity with meta
morphic rocks, i m p l ies that many
gran ites are formed by the "graniti
zation" of deeply buried sed i men
tary rocks i n the roots of mounta i n
cha i n s . T h i s metamorphic o r i g i n of
granitic, p l utonic rocks m i g ht then
prov i d e " i n t r u s ive m a g m a s " a t
higher leve l s i n the crust. I t seems
u n l i kely that such huge masses of
granite could have formed by differ
entiation of basic lava s .

Evolution o f granitic
magma from basaltic
magma
A . BASALTIC MAGMA
50% S i 02
1 0% Fe0 + Mg 0
40% ather

B. O l i v i ne, p l a g i o c l a s e
fe l d s pa r, a n d pyroxene
qysttl l s form atd settre

magnesium
s u btracted

D. G RANITIC MAGMA
70% S i 02
2% FeO + MgO
melt
28% other

91

Gran ite la ndscape in S i erra Nevada shows sheet l i ke weathe r i n g .

TH E F O R M A N D TEXTU R E

of ig neous rocks differ g reatly

in deta i l s of a p pearance and in the g ross forms of the entire
rock bod ies. In contrast to vo lcanic lava s , which a re extru
sive ig neous rocks, those formed at great depth a re known
as i ntrusive or pl utonic (p. 89). These tend to crysta l l ize
more s l owly and, therefore, have la rger crysta l s than
extrusive rocks . The texture of a n igneous rock depends
upon its rate of coo l i n g , and thus on its geo logic mode of
formation ( p . 89) . The chemica l and m i nera l content of
igneous rocks depends upon the composition of the mag
mas from which they were formed . Mag m a s (or melts) rich
in s i l i ca produce granitic (acid) type rocks . Those rich in
i ro n and magnesium tend to be more mobile, and these
produce basa ltic (basic) type rocks. Because of their dura
bil ity, many igneous rocks a re used as road materia l .
La rge, speci a l l y cut b locks are used a s orna menta l building
stones.
The color of a n ig neous rock is related to its composi
tion . Acid rocks genera l ly tend to be l i g hter i n color than
basic ones.
92

GRANITE,

COMMON INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

G R A N IT E P O R P H Y R Y

usua l l y l i g ht-colored
and c o a r s e - g r a i n e d , c o n t a i n s
about 30 percent quartz a n d 60
percent potash feldspar. It may
be pinkish red o r black-spotted .
Granite is common in many large
intrusions and often associated
with m i neral deposits.

has
ground mass with longer crysta l s
(phenocrysts) of feldspar,
quartz, o r mica . Very coarse
grained acidic rocks (pegmatites)
have crysta l s over 40 feet long .
S m a l l p o r p h y r i t i c c r y s t a l s a re
also found in lava s .

GABBRO

i s dark-colored and
has a coarse, granitic-type tex
t u r e c o n s i s t i n g of p l a g i o c l a s e
feldspar and pyroxene with
traces o f other m i nera l s , but i t
conta i n s n o quartz .

RHYOLITE

COMMON EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

is a light, fine
grai ned volcanic rock of gra
nitic compositio n , often porphy
ritic, with phenocrysts of quartz
and orthoc lase .

OBSIDIAN AND PUMICE have BASALT, t h e m o s t common lava ,

s i m i l a r composition to rhyo l i te .
Both ore rapi d l y cooled . Obsid
ian i s a translucent g lass. Pumice
is a r h yo l i t i c f r o t h c h a r a c t e r
i zed b y cavities left by t h e release
of g a s .

is dark, fi ne-grai ned , and rather

heavy. It consi sts of pyroxene and
a plagioclase feldspar. C i ndery
basa lt (scoria) may have second
ary m i nera ls within the cavities
formed by gas .

93

METAMO RPH I SM

Metamorphism i s the process of change that rocks with i n

t h e earth undergo when exposed t o i ncreasing tem pera
tures and pressures at which their m i nera l components are
no longer sta b l e . Metamorphism may be local - contact
meta morphism is d ue to ig neous intrusion ( p p . 86-99) - or
regional - a s takes place i n mounta i n b u i l d i n g , when slate,
schist, and gneiss a re formed . Metamorphism may take
place i n a sol id state, without melting .
Effects of meta morphism depend upon the composition,
texture, and strength of the orig inal rock, and on the
temperature, pressure, and amount of water under which
meta morphism ta kes place. Meta morphosed rocks may
differ i n texture, m i neral content, and tota l chem ica l com
position from the parent roc k .

TEXT U R A L C H A N G E S

are
shown by m a s t m e ta m o r p h i c
racks. C leavage i n slates (their
fissi l ity a l ong defi n i te pla nes) i s
produced b y para l lel rea l i g nment
of such flaky m i nera ls a s mica,
and is often i n c l i ned sharply Ia
original beddi ng i n the rack s .
Cleavage is m a i n l y t h e resu lt o f
the increased pressure of
dyna mic metamorph i s m .

FOLIATION

i s t h e development
of wavy or contorted layers under
more intense metamorphism . It
invo lves structura l and m i nera l
o g i c a l c h a n g e s . S c h i s t s h a ve
closely spaced foliation .

PHYLLITES

have a rather g lossy,

s l a t y a p p e a r a n c e c a u s e d by
r e c r y s ta l l i za t i o n o f fl a k y m i n
era l s a l o ng c l eavage planes.
Characteristics a r e i n between
schi sts and slates .

GROWTH OF NEW MINERALS

resu lts from i ntens ive meta

morphi s m , such a s reg ional meta
morphism i nvo lved in mounta i n
bui lding . l o s s of s o m e chemical
components and add ition of oth
ers may produce changes i n tota l
chemical composition of the orig
inal roc k . Such flaky m i nera l s as
mica are unsta ble under these
conditions and high-grade meta
morphic rocks often have a gran
u l a r a p p e a r a n c e , d e ve l o p i n g
whole new suites o f meta morphic
m i nera l s . The particular assem
blage depends upon the compo
sition of the parent rock and the
metamorphic environment. This
has led to a concept of metamor
phic facies.

MARBLE, fine to coarsely granu

lar, i s composed chiefly of calcite

or dolomite . It derives from meta
morphosed l i mestone.

meta morphosed sed imentary rock

a u reole, zone of
contact

(granitic i nt rusion )

RECRYSTALLIZATION

of some
m i nerals and the conversion of
others i s a feature common to
many metamorphic rocks, espe
c i a l l y those formed at high tem
peratures, such a s those around
intrusions (thermal metamor
phism). Rocks around intrusions
often display this as a resu lt of
contact metamorph i s m .

Black Marble

QUARTZITE

i s a tough rock of
metamorphosed quartz sand
stone with a sugary texture . Its
color i s white to pink-brown .

GA R N ET I F E R O U S S C H I ST

shows fo liation i n para l l e l

arrangement of platy m i cas, and
g r o w t h of g a r n e t as a n e w
m i nera l .

ECLOGITES

conta i n garnet and

pyroxene, formed from basic
rocks at h i g h pressure .

Eclog ite

Garnetiferous s c h i st

Offshore d ri l l i ng rig symbol i zes man's search for petro l e u m .

M I N E RALS AN D CIVILIZATI O N

The foundation of 20th-century civi l i zation is i ndustri a l ,

a n d the basis for i ndustry i s fuel s a n d meta l ores . T h e thi ngs
that form the basis of l ife i n the developed wor l d - clean
water supply, bu i l d i ngs, hig hways, automobi les, hard
wa re, tool s , ferti l i zers, plastics, fuel s , chemica l s , and
more - u ltimately come from the crust of the tiny p l a net on
which we l ive .
E c o n o m i c m i n e r a l s a re v e r y u n eve n l y d i s t r i b u ted .
Although most m i nera ls themselves are widely scattered ,
deposits sufficiently rich to mine de'p end upon ra re combi
nations of geologic processes. They a re often found in
isolated a reas, and long geo l ogic study may be needed to
l ocate a nd exploit them . Al most 90 percent of the world's
nickel supply, for exa mple, comes from a s i n g l e i ntrusion
nea r Sudbury, Ontario .
N ew i ndustrial processes and i nventions bring demands
for new m i nera l s and fue l s . The need for radioactive m i n
era l s spurred development o f new techniques and d i men96

Iran

58.0
(9. 0 % )

Mexico

Kuwait

68.5
( 1 0. 7 % )

I raq

3 1 .0 (4 . 8 % )

U .A . E m i rates

29.4 ( 4 . 6 % )

U n ited States
26.5 (4. 1 % )

Li bya

23.5 (3.7% )

People's Repu b l i c
of China
20.0 (3. 1 % )

WORLD C R U D E O I L proved reserves tota l a bout 640 b i l l io n barre l s ;

d i stribution i s concentrated i n M i d d l e East. (After U . S . Dept. o f Energy)

sions i n geo logic surveys after World Wa r I I . The d iscovery

of new m i neral deposits ca n ra pidly revo l utionize the civi
l i zation of whole nations, as it has i n the Middle East,
where some of the world's l a rgest petroleum resources have
brought g reat wea lth to Arab countries .
A l l m i neral deposits are exhausti b l e . Once we have
mi ned a vei n of si lver or a bed of coa l , there is no way of
replenishing it. This demands carefu l conservation of m i n
era l deposits as wel l as long -term exploration and p l a n n i n g
for new supplies.
Depletion of some essential m i nera l s now poses seri ous
long-term problems. It i s estimated by some that 80 per
cent of the world's economica l l y recovera b l e supplies of
petroleum wi l l be exhausted withi n a century. Some meta l s ,
i n c l u d i n g l e a d and copper, have compara b l y l i m i ted
reserves. These estimates are based upon present rates of
consumpti o n , but a n explod i ng world population could
quadruple our m i nera l needs .
97

COAL F I E L D S O F

T H E U N I T E D STAT E S

Anthracite
Bitu m i n o u s
Sub-bitu m i n o u s
a n d l i g n ite
M I N E RA L F U E LS

are basic to an i ndustri a l economy not

only for heating, lighting, a nd transport but a l so for the
i ndustrial power needed i n m i neral processi n g , m i n i n g ,
and in manufacturing . Hyd roelectricity, though of g reat
importance in some a reas, provides only a sma l l fraction
(less tha n 2 percent) of the world's power. Mineral fuel s
(oi l , coa l , and g a s ) provide a bout 9 8 percent. Coa l a n d
petroleum a re fossil fue l s .

COAL

B i t u m i n o u s coal

is a s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k
formed from the rema i n s of fossi l
plants. Buried peat, under pres
sure, loses water and volatiles
and achieves a relative l y high
carbon content . Peat has about
80 percent moisture; i i g n i te (on
i ntermed iate step between peat
a n d c oo l ) , a b o u t 40 p e r c e n t ;
bitumi nous coo l , o n l y a bout 5
percent. Anthracite, formed
under cond itions o f extreme pres
sure, conta i n s 95 percent carbon
compared with bitu m i nous coo l ,
which has o n l y a bout 8 0 percent.
Most of the world's g reat coo l
deposits ore in rocks of Pennsyl
vanian or Perm ian age.

ATOMIC FUELS

Carnotite, a u ra n i u m mi neral

98

at present supply
only a fraction of the world's
resources, but they wi l l become
more importa n t . Mineral fuel s
used a re o r e s of urani u m .

Cross section of o i l fie l d shows s u b s u rface structure; petroleum i s

trapped i n crest o f a n a ntic l i ne sealed b y i m pervious c a p rock.

PETROLEUM

i s a general term
far a m i xture of gaseous, liquid,
and solid hydrocarbons. When
burned , this foss i l fuel releases
solar energy stared m i l l i ons of
years a g o . Petroleum m i g rates
from the source rock, where it
f o r m s , to o t h e r r o c k s . M o s t
petroleum remains d i spersed i n
r o c k pores and much escapes at
the surface of the earth . But in
commercia l fields, i t is trapped
b e t w e e n an i m pe r m e a b l e c a p
rock and a permeable reservoi r
rock, often floating on water, as
i l l u strated .

OIL SHALE

is carbonaceous shale
that yields hydrocarbons when
distilled . At present, the cost of
oil and gas production from i t is
too high to make oil sha le eco
nomically i m portant, but it may
be used i n the future.

FAU LT O I L TRAP

STRATIGRAPHIC OIL TRAP

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION

i nv o l v e s b o t h g e o l o g i c a l a n d
geophysical studies. S i nce most
of the more obvious surface traps
have now been d i scovered ,
seismic and other surveys are
i ncreasingly used to d iscover sub
surface and s u b m a r i ne struc
tures, such a s those beneath the
North Sea .

SALT DOME O I L TRAP

99

O R E D E PO S ITS a re natura l concentrations of meta l l i c m i n

era l s i n sufficient quantity t o make their exploitation com
mercially worthwh i l e . Most i ndustrial meta ls, other than
iron, a l u m i n u m , and magnes i u m , a re present a s o n l y a
fraction of 1 percent i n the average igneous rocks of the
earth's crust . P lati n u m , for exa m p l e , has a n a bunda nce of
. 0 0 0 , 000 , 5 p e r c e n t by we i g h t ; s i l v e r a n d m e r c u r y ,
. 000 , 0 1 percent. An o r e with 1 percent a nti mony conta i n s
1 0 , 000 ti mes a s much as t h e average ig neous roc k . There
a re several geolog ica l processes by which ore-bea ring
m i nera l s a re concentrated i n the crust.
MAGMAT I C O R E S are concentrated from molten rock
where crysta l s settle during coo l i ng . Some of the world's
g reatest ore bod ies were formed in this way.

Pretoria Series

gran ite

c h rom ite layers

THE BUSHVELD

_6.
mag netite
and chram ite deposits of South
Africa occur i n layered lopoliths
of norite (gabbro with hyper
sthene pyroxene). See p . 8 8 .

..... THE SUDBURY nickel depos

its of Ontario occur as stringers

in a norite intrusive complex.

DIAMONDS

are formed deep i n

volcanic p i pes, crysta l l i z i ng from
a disti nctive u ltrabasic rock, k i m
berlite. Exposure by weathering
may subsequently concentrate
diamonds in river placer
deposits .

M E TAMO R P H I C O R E S

are formed a round some i ntrusions

by contact metamorphism of the country rocks . Asbestos ,
once used f o r insulation a n d fireproofi n g , is a common
nonmeta l l i c metamorphic m i nera l .

H Y D R OT H E RMAL O R E S

include many o f the largest

deposits of lead, zinc, cap
p e r , and s i l v e r . D e p o s i t ed
from hot, aqueous solutions,
their distribution is usua l l y
contro l led by joints, faults,
bedd i n g , and l i thology of the
country roc k s . The m i nera l i z
ing solutions a r i s e f r o m mag
matic sources, a l though the
parent ig neous rock may not
a lways be ex posed . The cop
per deposits of Butte, Mon
tana , and Utah, si lver of
C o m st o c k Lode, N evad a ,
and gold o f Cripple C reek,
Colorado, are all hydrother
mal deposits. A large portion
of the wor l d 's gold is m i ned
from deposits that origi nated
from hydrotherma l solutions.

Gray
porphyry

Tucson
fa u l t
Parting/
quartzite
White
Cambri a n
q ua rtzite
Diagrammatic cross section of
structu ral ore control i n l e a d a n d
z i n c m i n e , L e a d v i l l e , C o l o ra d o
(After Arga l l )

1 01

Dri l l i ng i n tacon ite i ro n ore rocks

req u i res s pec i a l eq u i pment.

METALLIC ORES,

such a s the i ran

around B i r m i ng h a m , Alabama,
and Northamptonshire, England,
are sedi mentary rocks rich i n
original hematite. Carnotite, a
sed i mentary u r a n i u m o r e , i s
found i n sandstones of the Colo
rado Plateau .
S E D I M E N TARY O R E S form in a variety of different ways .
Some a re formed as d i rect sed i mentary deposits or by
eva poration ; others have an ig neous orig i n a nd a re con
centrated by sed imentary processes .

EVAPORITES

are m i neral salts

( h a l i te , g y p s u m , pota s h , etc . )
formed by evaporation of
restricted bodies o f water. The
great salt deposits of Germany,
Utah, and N ew Mexico are exa m
ples . Evaporites may be i m pure,
conta ining clay, sand, or
carbonate s .

RESIDUAL MINERAL DEPOSITS

are formed by
leaching, with
e n r i c h ment of
deposits, many

weathering and
c o r re s p o n d i n g
l ow-g rade ore
o f sed i mentary

PLACER DEPOSITS

are formed
by concentration of fragments in
stream deposits. Such heavy m i n
era l s as gold, diamonds, magne
t i t e , a n d t i n o x i d e a r e o f fe n
concentrated i n this way. Exam
p l e s a r e t h e t i n d e p o s i t s of
Ma laysia and the gol dfields of
Cal iforn i a and Austra l i a .
origi n . T h e g reat i ron deposits of
the Great Lakes and the a l u m i
num (bauxite) deposits of Arkan
sas have been concentrated i n
s i t u b y this process.

Iron ore pit, V i rg i n ia, Minn.; rocks a re Preca m bria n .

C O N S TR U CT I O NAL A N D I N D U ST R I A L M I N E RALS,

a lthough more a bundant than o r e m i nera l s , a re used i n

much g reater quantities . They a re genera l l y quarried
rather than m i ned .

BUILDIN G MATE RIALS

are
extracted from the earth,
whether brick, stone, steel g i rd
e r s , or g l a s s . B u i l d i n g stones m u s t
be d u r a b l e , easily quarried, and
eas i l y w o r k e d . T h e p a r t i c u l a r
stones selected often depend
upon t h e local weathering condi
tions (determ i ned by amounts o f
industria l gases) a n d local ava i l
a b i l i ty of stone s .
Other industri a l m i nera l s , such
as sul phur, salt, potash, gypsum,
and asbestos, are not so widely
d i stri buted , but are used i n many
industrial processes . They occur
i n very d i fferent geo l o g i c
setti n g s .

CLAYS are u s e d f o r b r i c k m a k

ing, i n chem i c a l industries, in

cera m i c s , and i n the manufacture
of many other products . Each use
demands slightly d i fferent q u a l i
ties. M a n y varieties of clay a r e
known and mined.

SAND AND GRAVEL

are widely
used in c o n c r e t e c o n s t r u c t i o n .
Most supplies come from g l a c i a l
and river deposits. Reserves are
plentifu l , but d i stribution is
patchy.

STONE AGGREGATE

for high
way, a i rfield, and dam construc
tion is a lso used in great
quantities. I t is resistant and
cheaply quarried . I n some tropi
cal areas, it has to be i m ported .

LIMESTONE

is used in the manu

facture of cement, as a meta l
lurgical flux , a s a n agg regate,
and i n agriculture. Limestones
are widely di stri buted, and over
500 m i l l ion tons are quarried
annua l l y in North America a l one.

T H E C H ANGING E A R T H
If the processes o f erosion a n d deposition were counter
acted only by igneous activi ty, we should expect the conti
nents to be featureless plains , broken only by active
volca noes or p lateaus of lava . But there are considera b l e
move ments o f t h e earth's crust.

EARTHQUAKES

provide dra
matic evidence of crustal move
ments . Sma l l relative movements
of the crust, both vertica l and
horizonta l , can very often be
measu red after earthqua kes have
taken place (p. 1 26 ) .

RAISED BEACHES

and buried
forests often i nv o l v e reg i o n a l
warpi ng rather than simple uplift.
Raised beaches show a rise i n the
C a l ifornia coast line over the past
years, but on the other hand ,
ports af Denmark are sinking (see
p. 62).

OTHER COASTAL FEATURES

Ancient caves, high a bove present

beach, i n d icate former position of
sea level, N. Ireland.

such a s wavecut platforms indi

cate relative upl ift of the land;
drowned va l l eys indicate relative
sinking (p. 69) . Raised coral reefs
often show upl ift, t i l t i n g , and
even reversal of movement .

FOSSILS

af marine a n i m a l s i n
land areas indicate relative upl ift
of the land. The presence of coal
seams with land plants thousands
of feet b e l ow p r e s e n t g r o u n d
level shows that s i n k i ng h a s a l so
taken place. lake sediments are
often interbedded with sediments
that were deposited i n the sea .

Crusta l movement is a common feature of the earth . It i s

found throughout t h e wor l d , i n rocks ra n g i n g i n age from
the o ldest to the youngest. It i nvolves va rious kinds of
movement: gentle, slow u p l ift or s i n k i n g , reg ional wa rp
ing, rapid earthquake movements, and reg ional stresses
that are strong enough to buckle and break g reat masses
of rock { p p . 1 07- 1 25).

INCISED MEANDERS

of rivers
ore thought to result from relative
uplift of the land surface ( p . 44).
The Grand Canyon, which mea
sures more than a m i l e deep, is a n
exa m p l e .

RECENT MOVEMENT

of the
crust i s indi cated b y famous tem
ple ruins near Naples. The p i l
l a r s , erected o n land, were bored
by marine m o l l uscs, indicating
submergence by the seo and the
subsequent upl ift of the land.

UNCONFO RMITIES

(p. 1 1 4)
represent breaks i n the deposi
tion of sed i ments, sometimes
indicating periods of sign ifica nt
crustal disturbance.

FOLDS

i n a ncient strata range

from sma l l warps, o n l y one or two
feet in height, to g reat domes,
m i les across. I n areas where rocks
have responded i n a brittle man
ner, brea ks (faults) have
deve loped .

FAULTS

i nvolve fracture and rel

ative movert]ent of rock units (p.
1 1 1 ). I n near l y all cases, the
rocks i nvolved were origina l l y in
a horizontal position .

Roman tem p l e , b u i l t on dry land,

i s now floode d .
Devon i a n sandstone
U N C O N FO RMITY

Typical unconformity showing

effects of u p l ift i n pre-Devo n i a n
Fol d i n g i n l i mestone, Victoria1
Austra l ia T

ROC K DEFORMAT ION

Although sed i menta ry rocks a re genera l l y deposited in
a l most horizonta l beds, we genera lly find them d i storted
and tilted if we fol l ow them over a ny considera b l e d i stance.
Such structures are the resu lt of l a rge-sca le crusta l defor
mation, which produces corresponding changes i n volume,
shape, and sometimes chemica l composition of the rocks
themselves . The i ntensity of the changes is proportiona l to
the i ntensity of deformation and the depth of buri a l (see
Metamorphism, p. 94) . U nder some stress cond itions,
rocks behave a s though they were elastic, but a s stress
increases, they undergo permanent (plastic) deformation
and may u lti mately fracture . The most i ntense zones of
deformation are associated with mounta i n cha i n s .

DIP

o f o bed i s a measure of its

slope or tilt i n relation to the hor
izonta l . The direction of dip i s the
di rection of maximum slope, or
the d i rection a ball would run
over the bed i f its surface were
perfectly fla t . The angle of dip is
the acute angle this di rection
makes with a horizonta l plane.
The strike of a rock bed i s the
d i rection of the i n tersection of its
d i p d i rection with o horizontal
plane. It is expressed as a com-

D i pslrike
map symbo l :

.,_
35

bedd i n g plane
l i ne of stri ke

a n g l e of d i p

pass bearing a n d lies at right

ang l es to the d i rection of d i p .
Di p-strike symbo l s a r e used o n
most geologic maps.
C l i n o m e t e r s are e l a b o r a te
i nstruments used by geologists to
measure d i p . A s i m p l e instru
ment, however, may be made
from a plastic protractor fixed to
a flat base with a weig hted thread
to measure the maximum d i p . The
strike of the d i p is then measured
with a compass .

Sheep Mou nta i n , Wyo m i n g , is a fine exa m p l e of pitc h i n g anti c l i n e .

FOLDS

are wrin k l es or flexu res i n stratified rock s . They

range from m icroscopic s i zes in meta morphic rocks to
great structures hundreds of m i les across. They sometimes
occur i n isolation, but more often they a re packed
together, espec i a l l y i n mounta i n ranges . U pfolds a re cal led
anticlines, a nd downfolds a re ca l l ed s ynclines . Fol d s with
one limb more or less horizonta l a re ca l l ed monoclines . A l l
folds tend t o die o u t as they a r e traced a long t h e i r lengths.

FORMATION OF FOLDS shown

i n stage s . I n Stage 1 , the rocks

are deposited . In Stage 2 , they
are folded . I n Stage 3, they are
uplifted and their tops eroded ,
with only their dipping limbs
rema i n i n g . The o ldest beds ( 1 )
are a lways i n the core of a n anti
cli ne, but on the flanks of a
sync l i n e .

STAGE 2

a n g l e af
p l unge

Bed 7
"'

... ...

... ..

-a -x i-s - -!"
5
6

10

10
8

9
_,_

J.-

Bed 6

t
14
-.J....

-1

Re l i ef d iagram and geolog ic map of a p l u n g i ng anti c l i ne

THE STRUCTURE O F FOLDS SYNC LINES o c c u r w h e r e t h e

(above). The axial plane i s drawn
sa that it bisects the angle of the
fold . The axis i s its trace on a
beddi ng plane. If the axis is not
horizonta l , the fo ld i s said to
pitch or plunge.

beds d i p toward the axi s . They

can pitch a nd be either symme
trical or asymmetrica l . A struc
t u r a l b a s i n is a b a s i n - s h a pe d
sync l i ne where dips converge on
a central point or area .

geologic maps by the d i p ar

rows p o i n t i n g away f r o m t h e
a x i s . A p i t c h i n g f o l d g i ves a

"closing" outcrop patter n . A

dome is an anti c l i ne that has dips
poi nting i n a l l d i rections from a
central point or a rea .

ANTICLINES can be spotted on

K I N DS OF F O L D S

SYMMETRICAL FOLDS (a) have OVERTURNED FOLDS

limbs dipping in opposite direc

tions at the same incli nations. The
axial plane (ap) is vertica l .

(c) have
an i n c l i ned axial plane and l i mbs
dipping i n the same di recti o n .
O n e l i m b i s inverted .

ASYMMETRICAL FOLDS (b) are ISOCLINAL FOLDS

those having an i n c l i ned axial
plane and, l i ke symmetrica l
fo l d s , have l i m b s d i p p i n g i n
opposite d i rections, but a t differ
ent i n c l inations.

(d) have
equa l d i p s o f two limbs; axial
plane dips i n same d i rect i o n .

RECUMBENT FOLDS

horizontal axial planes .

(e) have

'<I

Folded roc k s form cl iffs 1 , 500 feet a bove San J u a n River, Uta h .
F O L D PAT T E R N S a re rarely as simple as idea l i zed ones
shown on these pages . They often pass i nto fa ults. Some
beds yield to stra in more readily than others . Such i ncom
petent rocks as sha l e and rock sa lt, for exa m p l e , often
yield by flowing a nd s l i pping i n fo l d s . F l owage of salt may
prod uce structura l domes, leading to petro leum reservo i r s .
S u c h incompetent r o c k movements a re sometimes so strong
that, as in some Midd le East oilfields, major fo lds at depth
a re not reflected at the surface . Folds that do reach the
surface a re best exposed i n arid and sem iarid a reas and in
rock faces and cl iffs, but reg ional mapping of other vege
tation-covered a reas, such as the Appa lachians, often
shows fol d i n g over g reat a reas . Anticl i n a l fold structures
sometimes provide petroleum reservoirs.

Section across southern Appa lachian Mounta i n s

Cumberland
Pl ateau
NW

'

.
P1edmont
Plateau
R .1 d ge
h,,

Atlantic
coa sta l
p 1 01 n

Carol i n a
s 1 a 1 e b e It

.l9).,'V ':;r,...

SE
,,

1 09

ROC K FRACTUR E S
J O I NTS

a n d fractures a re a nother way that .rocks yield to

stres s . J o i nts a re fractures or cracks in which the rocks on
either side of the fracture have not undergone relative
movement. Common in sed i mentary rocks, they are usua lly
caused by release of buria l pressure or by d i a strophism .
They play a n i m portant part in rock weathering as zones
of weak ness a nd water movement.

;:\:::.c;;: JOI NTS IN S E D I M E N TARY

ROCKS occur i n para l lel sets at
right ang les to the bedd i n g . Ten
siona l , com pressiona l , and tor
sional stresses a l l produce
d i stinctive j o i n t s .

JOINTS IN IGNEOUS ROCKS

may result from shrinkage during

coo l i ng . I n fi ne-grai ned rocks,
there i s a characteristic polygo
nal arrangemen t . Granite masses
may show sheet jointi n g .
Giant's Causeway, Northern Ireland, shows hexagonal col u m n s
formed b y coo l i n g of basalt lavas.

FA U LTS are fractures where once-continuous rocks have

suffered relative d i splacement. The amount of movement
may va ry from less than a n inch to many thousands of feet
vertica l l y and to more than 1 00 mi les horizonta l ly. Some ,
such as the San Andreas Fault, are major earth features .
Different types of faults are produced by d i fferent com
pressional a nd tensiona l stresses, a nd they a l so depend
upon the rock type and geo l ogical setti ng .
Fau l ts are the cause of ea rthquakes, which suggests that
repeated sma l l movements rather than one "catastrophic"
brea k cha racterize many fa ults. Distinctive, l a rge-sca l e
fracture zones (transform fau l ts) d i sp lace t h e m i d -ocean i c
ridges i n severa l a reas ( p p . 1 36 and 1 40) .

KINDS OF FAULTS
NORMAL, GRAVITY, OR TEN throw of t h e fault is the vertica l
SIONAL FAULTS are n a t neces displacement of the bed (ac); the

sarily the mast cam man fau l t type

i n a g iven area . They are faults in
which relative downward move
ment has taken place down the
upper face or hanging wa l l of the
fault plane. (We cannot gener
ally prove whether both beds
have moved, or o n l y one . ) The

heave is the horizontal displace

ment (be). The angle abc i s the
dip of the fau l t plane, and the
complement of this i s the hade.
The dip is usua l l y stee p . Some
times there may be more than ane
episode of movement a long the
same fault plane or zone.

B l o c k d i a g r a m of n o r m a l fa u l t
before weathe r i n g

B l ock d ia g r a m of n o r m a l fa u l t
after weath e r i n g

thrust
plane

B l ock d i a g ra m of h i g h - a n g l e
reverse fa u lt

REVERSE OR THRUST FAULTS

have relative upward movement

of the hanging wa l l of the fa ult
plane . They occur in a reas of
compression and fo lding such as
mounta i n belts. lateral di splace
ment may be many miles. They

kl i ppe of
overt h r u st

w i ndow o f

D i a g r a m m a t i c c r o s s s e ct i o n o f
eroded low-a n g l e t h r u s t fa u lt

often have a low d i p and resu lt i n

repetition and apparent reversal
of stratigraphic order i n a verti
cal sequence. C h i ef Mounta i n in
Montana i s a n eroded remnant of
a large thrust fa u l t .

A GRABEN is a block t h a t h a s

Topogra p h i c depression marking

San A n d reas Fa u l t i s occupied by
lagoon, Bolinas Bay.

been dropped d o w n between two

normal faults. An u p l ifted fau l t
block is a hors t . R ift valleys are
g ra ben s t r u c t u r e s h u n d reds of
miles in length . The most spectac
ular is that a long the Red Sea,
but they a re a l so found in East
Africa, the Rhine, and Califor
nia, and they a l so occur beneath
the ocean s along the crests of the
mid-ocea nic ridges.

TEAR FAULTS, OR STRIKE-SLIP

FAULTS, AND RELATED TRANS
FORM FAULTS are those where

shearing stress has produced hor

i z o n t a l move m e n t . The S a n
Andreas Fault i n C a l ifornia i s 600
m i l es long and has a d i splace
ment of over 350 m i les. The 1 906
and 1 989 San Francisc o earth
quakes were caused by the move
ment of the San Andreas Fault,
which is sti l l active .

FA U LTS I N T H E F I E L D are genera l ly more complex than

those shown in these diagra m s . Rotational movements
often com p l i cate the simple vertica l and hori zonta l move
ments , a nd the throw and hade of a fau l t may change
a long its length . The fa u l t plane is often poorly defi ned ,
and is represented by a fa u l t zone made u p of broken and
distorted rocks . Fau lts often occur in groups (fa u l t zones)
made up of many indivi dua l fau lts . Except i n desert a reas,
cl iff faces , a nd quarries, fa ults a re rarely seen at the
surface, but their presence is i ndicated by one or more of
the fol l owing features:

FAULT BRECCIA

occurs where
the rocks of the foult zone are
shattered i n to angular, i rregu
larly si zed frag ments. Some may
be reduced to a g ritty clay.

SLICKENSIDES,

po l ished stria
tions or fl utings, are often found
i n the fau l t p l a ne or zone. They
may indicate the d i rection of re l
ative movemen t .

TOPOGRAPHIC EFFECTS

occur
when faults bring together rocks
of d iffering hardness. Denuda
tion may indicate the faulting by
showi ng sharp, "unnatura l " top
o g r a p h i c c o n t a c t . T h e Te t o n
range i n Wyo m i n g is a n example,
where resistant Precambrian
igneous rocks are faul ted agai nst
s o f t e r Te r t i a r y sed i m e n t s ( p .
1 1 8) . Other topographic
effec t s - b a y s o r v a l l e y s , f o r
example - may resu lt from the
weakness of a fault zone,which
itself may undergo strong differ
ential weat hering .

SPRINGS

may be produced by
faults when pervious and i m per
vious strata are brought into con
tact with one a n other (p. 5 1 ) .
Li nes of springs often indicate the
existence of a fau l t .

DISPLACEMENT OF OUTCROP

i s another i n d i cation of a fau l t .

A s we l l as displacing rocks verti
cal ly, f a u l t s i n dipping b e d s w i l l
displace the i r outcrop patterns .
In geologic mappi ng, faults are
often i nferred from outcrops that
"won't match .
11

Smal l-scale fa u l t i n g i n l i mestone

U N C O N FO R M I T I E S a re ancient erosion surfaces in which

a n older group of rocks has been upl ifted , eroded , and
subsequentl y buried by a group of younger rocks. U ncon
form ities can be used to date periods of crustal movement
i n the reconstruction of earth h i story. The time spa n repre
sented by the erosion surface (a bsence of deposits) may
va ry from very long to very short period s . A "break" in
foss i l sequence, often a characteristic feature of uncon
formities, can be measured by compa ring the fossi l s with
those of uni nterrupted rock sequences . U nconformities
va ry in form , and in the erosiona l interva ls they represent.

DISCONFORMITIES

occur where
the beds obove ond below the
erosion surfoce ore para l le l . If
the o lder g roup of rocks has been
folded and eroded before the
deposition of the younger group,
the i r beds will not be para l l e l ,
a n d they represent an angular
unconformity.

T h e eroded upper surface o f

t h e underlying g r o u p of rocks
may be flat or it may have consid
erable relief. O l d soils are some
t i m e s p r e s e r v e d . T h e l ow e s t
overlying beds a r e often con
g lom erates made u p of eroded
f r a g m e n t s of t h e u n d e r l y i n g
group o f rock s .

STAG E 2
U p l ift a n d
fold i n g

STAGE 3 S u rface eros ion

S u bmergence and
renewed deposition
Plane of u n conformity
STAGE 4

1 14

The Matterhorn, Switzerland, s h ows s harp outl i n e formed by g l a c i a l

ero s i o n t y p i c a l of many mounta i n s .

MOU NTA I N B U I L D I N G

Mounta i n s a re among the most conspicuous features of the

earth's surface. Although they a re formed i n va rious ways
and a re of various ages, most a re concentrated in g reat
folded belts that run a long the continenta l marg i n s . Not
all are confined to the l a nd . The Mid-Atlantic Ridge
stretches thousands of m i les, rising a l most 1 0, 000 feet
a bove the ocean floor. S i m i l a r ridges a re found in other
ocean s (p. 1 36 ) .
A n y isolated , upstanding m a s s m a y be cal l ed a m o u n
ta i n . There is no m i n i m u m h e i g h t or particu l a r shape
i nvolved . Some of the ways i n which mounta ins may be
produced are shown on the fol l owing pages .
1 15

VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS i n c l ude some of the world's

most beautiful and fa mous mounta i n s . Mt. Fuj iyomo i n
J a pa n , Mt. Vesuvi us i n Ita l y, Mt . Hood i n Oreg o n , and Mt.
St. Helens and Mt . Rainier i n Washington o re a l l examples
of characteristica l ly steep and symmetrical volca n i c moun
ta i n s . Other volcanic mounta i n s , such as Mauna loa in
Hawa i i , ore formed by shield volcanoes ( p . 84) . They tend
to be rounded and flattened , but may sti l l be high and
Iorge. Mauna loa rises a l most 1 4 , 000 feet a bove sea leve l
and a bout 3 2 , 000 feet above the seafloor. With its d i a m
eter o f 60 m i l es , it is t h e world's la rgest mounta i n i n terms
of volume.
Volcanic mounta i n s may form very rapid ly. Mt . Poracu
tin i n Mexico beg a n to g row in Februa ry, 1 943 . Within a
wee k , its cone was 500 feet h i g h , and with i n two years i t
h o d reached 1 , 500 feet.
Some volcanic mounta i n s occur as isolated structures ,
but others form ports of extensive volca n i c cha i n s . Volcanic
islands may form g reat island orcs, of which the 1 , 000m i le Aleutian cha i n is on exa m p l e .
M t . F u j iyama, Japan's sacred mounta i n , i s a volca n o .

B l u e Mounta i n s , New South Wa les, A ustra l i a , ore eros i o n a l i n orig i n ,

con s isting c h i efly o f horizonta l Perm ian and Tri a s s i c strata .

E R O S I O N A L M O U N TA I N S are found in reg ions of crusta l

upl ift. These a re wide a reas where crusta l upl ift (epeir
ogeny) has prod uced el evated plateaus and thereby pro
vided new erosiona l energy to rivers . The steep gorges
with preci pitous edges of Grand Canyon-type topography,
for exa m p l e , are genera lly thought of as a dissected pla
tea u rather than a mounta i n . Some we l l - known mounta i ns,
such a s the B l ue Mou nta ins of New South Wa les, Austra l i a ,
a re formed i n this way. If erosion continues long enough ,
hug h i so l ated , resi sta nt remna nts a r e left. A n exa m p l e i s
Mt . Monadnock i n N e w H a m pshire, which ri ses 1 , 800 feet
above a "penepla ne" and g ives its name to such isolated
structures (monadnocks) . These structures a re thus outl iers
of younger rock , resti ng on an exposed basement of older
rock s .

1 17

DOME MOU NTA I N S

are the
sim plest kind o f structural moun
ta i n s . They tend ta be relatively
sma l l , isolated, structural
domes, uplifted without intense
faulting . They may be associated
with such igneous intrusions as
lacco l i t h s . The Black H i l l s of
South Dakota a r e a n exa m p l e .
S T R U CT U RAL M O U N TA I N R A N G E S

are by fa r the m ost

n umerous a n d extensive mounta i n ranges and differ from
volcanic and erosional mounta i n s in the structura l defor
mation and upl ift they have undergone. Some of the o l der
mounta i n ranges, such as the Appa lachians, a re less
i m pressive than the younger, such a s the A l ps, but they
share certa i n common characteristics, six of which a re
d i scussed below. It is these, more than just height, that are
a clue to a n understa nding of the nature of structura l
mounta i n s .

FAU LT BLOCK MOU NTAINS

may be formed i n any type of

rock . They are often, though not
a lways, structura l l y undeformed
where differentia l vertical dis
placement or tilting by steep nor
mal faults g ives relatively up
l i fted and downsunk blocks. Rift
val leys are often associated with
the mounta i n scarps, which tend

to run para l lel with the faulting .

S u c h m o u n t a i n s m a y be v e r y
large. T h e S ierra N evada repre
sents the uptilted edge of a b l ock
of granite 400 m i l es long and 1 00
m i les wide, with an eastern scarp
1 3 , 00 0 feet a b ove sea l e ve l .
There are several such ranges
from Oregon to Arizona, which
produces spectacular scenery.

,
,
S m l s
,

1 18

'

MOUNTA I N C H A I N S

)C O N T I N E NTAL S H I E LDS

Cenozoic
Mesozoic
P a l eozo ic

F O LD E D MO U N TA I N RANGES all have s i m i l a r character

istics . Most of the world's g reat mounta i n cha i n s , such as
the "young" H i ma layas, Al ps, Rockies, and Andes, a nd
the older U ra l s and Appa l achians, belong to none of the
g roups d iscussed on pp. 1 1 6- 1 1 7 . I n spite of many i ndivid
ual d ifferences, all a re funda menta l l y folded ranges and
share these six i m portant characteristics:

1 . Linear d i st r i b u t i o n of mounta i n ranges ind icates they

a re not haphazardly scattered across the earth's surface;
they are found i n long, na rrow belts . The Appa l achians,
for exa m p l e , stretch 1 , 500 m i l es from N ewfoun d l a nd to
Alabama and a re up to 350 m i les wide . The Rockies are
3 , 000 m i les long and continue southwa rd for another
5 , 000 m i les i n the Andes of South America a nd then i nto
Antarctica . Their location near the marg i n s , or former
margins, of continents is a major c l ue to thei r orig i n .

1 19

Precambrian

Cambrian

Ordovician Devon i a n

Carboniferous

Perm ian Triassic

Cretaceous

Tertiary

Genera l ized section across the Rockies from eastern Idaho to western
Wyom i n g (see p. 1 52 for mea n i ng of geo l og i c ages)
2 . T h i c k, sed i m enta ry rocks that are found i n a l l the
world's major mounta i n chains are genera l l y 30, 000 to
40, 000 feet (6-8 mi les) i n thickness . Fossi l s and structures
show most are marine rocks, formed in elongated crusta l
downwa rps. They incl ude ch iefly clastic sed i ments and vo l
canic rocks. Strata o f eq uiva l ent a g e on t h e bordering
continents are often only a tenth of this thickness and
genera l l y have a higher proportion of carbonates and
coarse clastic rocks.
3 . D i st i n ct i v e i g n e o u s a n d m e ta m o r p h i c r o c k s are
found i n mounta i n cha i n s . Clastic sed i ments a re often
i nterbedded with g reat thicknesses of volcanic lavas, and
eroded cores of mounta in chains include vast g r a n i tic bath
o l iths, as wel l as m igmatites . The bathol iths a nd migmatites
were proba bly formed from the effect of depth and heat
on deeply bu ried sedi ments .
In you nger mounta i n ranges - those formed during the
l a st 1 20 m i l l ion years (see p p . 1 1 9 a nd 1 52 ) - active
vulcanism continues . The vo lcanoes of the Cascades,
Andes, a nd Antarctica are exa mples. I n o l der mounta i n
ranges, a l though the elevation seen in more recent moun
ta ins is reduced by erosion, the disti nctive rock types and
deformation patterns can sti l l be recog n i zed .

1 20

4. I n te n se fo l d i n g a n d fa u l t i n g i n major mounta i n
c h a i n s often involve thrusting on t h e neighboring continen
ta l marg i n , with displacements of many mi les a nd conse
quent shortening of the crust. Active earthqua kes and u p lift
mark "younger" mounta i n ra nges .
5 . R e p e a ted u p l i ft a n d e ros i o n have ta ken place i n
folded mounta i n s . O l d e r ranges m a y b e eroded down
a l most to a flat surface (a penep l a i n ) and then be u p l ifted
aga i n . The Appa lachians, formed in the Late Pa leozoic,
were eroded to a penepl a i n i n the Triassic and a g a i n i n the
Cretaceou s . Their present 6, 000-feet-high rel i ef res u l ts
from Tertiary upl ift and recent erosion . Conti nenta l shield
a reas, now rather flat, represent a ncient eroded mounta i n
cha i n s .
6 . Mou nta i n s h a v e roots .

They a re n o t s i m p l y l u m ps of
rock resting on a uniform surface. They have roots of light
material extend ing far down below their norma l depth s .
This is suggested b y t h e gravity a nomaly o f mounta i n s , by
the paths of earthquake waves through them , and by high
heat fl ow associated with mounta i n s . Si nce mounta ins
deflect a p l u m b l i ne less than the mere attraction of the i r
su rface m a s s resting on "norma l " basement, they m ust be
under l a i n by a l a rger amount of light materia l .

actua l
mea s u red ---
gravity

- 50

fo lded
sed i mentary
rock

C R U STAL ROCK
MANTLE RQ4if

, ..

continent
g uyot

I
abyssal p l a i n

Ma i n features of t h e ocea n floor

THE A R CHIT E CTUR E OF THE EA RTH

S E E N FROM S PAC E , earth i s a b l ue pla net, vei l ed i n a
swi r l i n g , changing tracery of clouds. It is blue beca use it i s
a watery p l a net, two-thi rds o f i t s surface covered by
ocea ns; it is vei l ed because its enveloping atmosphere is i n
constant motion, i nteracting everywhere w i t h land and
water. The fi rst part of this book has described this i nter
actio n , showing the changing pattern of rock formati o n ,
eros i o n , and depos i t i o n . But beneath these su rface
changes, there a re a l so changes within t h e earth, which
have created its major a rchitectural features . The second
part of this book describes these major earth features a nd
the processes that produced them .
The continents consist of l a rge shields of ancient Preca m
brian rocks, a round which younger rocks have been
formed .
Mountain ranges of severa l different ages are found i n
l i near belts around the marg i ns o f the conti nents . They a re

1 22

(
'

abyssal p l a i n

"'

(After

The S tory of the Earth,

H.M.S.O.)

i ntensely folded a nd fau l ted and conta i n a variety o f sed i

menta ry, igneous, and meta morphic rocks ( p . 1 1 9) .
Volcanoes a nd earthquakes a r e not randomly d i strib
uted , but are concentrated i n narrow belts, especia l ly i n a
"ring of fire" a round the Pacific Ocean , in a reas of recent
mounta i n b u i l d i n g , and a long the mid-ocean ridges and
rift va l l eys ( p . 85) .
M id-ocean ridges form a g lobal network of submarine
mounta i n chains, 25, 000 m i les long and reaching 1 8 , 000
feet in height a bove the seafl oor. Rift va l l eys, tra nsform
fa ults, sha l l ow-focus earthq uakes, and volcanoes mark the
crest of the m id-ocean ridge (p. 1 36).
Island arcs and submarine trenches, some over 6 m i les
deep, found in the Pacific and el sewhere, are marked by
vulcanism a n d i ntense earthquake activity (pp. 1 3 8- 1 39) .
The ocean floor i s made up of volca n i c a n d sed i mentary
rocks, all of relatively young age. I n contrast to the a ncient
rocks of the conti nents (some 3 . 6 billion years old), the
o ldest ocea n i c rocks are "only" 1 75 m i l l ion years o l d .
1 23

T H E M E C H A N I SM OF M O U NTA I N B U I L D I N G ( O R O
G E N Y)

is o n e of t h e great d i scoveries o f recent geological

science s . Although surface processes play a sign ificant role
in supplying the sed iments that make up mounta i n ranges
and i n erod ing and accentuating them after they a re
u p l ifted , the chief processes operate with i n the earth's
interior. The fo l lowi ng pages trace the way in which recent
d i scoveries have led, step-by-step, to a new theory of
mounta i n b u i l d i ng - plate tectonics - that accounts for the
features just descri bed . To understand this theory, we need
information on the structure of the earth and its physical
properties . The fo l l owing pages describe these features.

EART H Q U A KES
Ea rthquakes a re rapid movements of the earth's crust
ca used by fa u l t movements . Al most a m i l l i o n occur each
year, but most a re so weak they may be detected only by
very sensitive recording i nstruments (seismographs). About
90 percent of a l l earthqua kes seem to origi nate at a focus,
the point of maximum intensity of the earthquake, in the
outer 40 m i les of the crust. A few deep-focus earthquakes
origi nate at depths as g reat as 400 m i les. The location and
pattern of earthqua kes a re major cl ues to earth's structure .

TYPICAL EARTHQUAKE
EFFECTS are shown an black dia

1 24

gra m . Earthquake waves radiate

o u twa r d s . T h o s e t h a t t r a v el
d i rectly t o the surface a r e shown .
lsoseismal l i nes j o i n a l l places
where the earthquake i s recorded
with the same intensity. These
genera l l y form approxi mate cir
cles or ova l s of decreasing i nten
sity around the epicenter, which
is di rectly above the focus.

Destruction cau sed by the C a l ifornia earthq uake of October, 1 989

E ARTH Q U A K E D E S T R U C T I O N occurs when shock waves
a re absorbed by b u i l d i n g s . Those on thick soil or rock
debris a re most affected . Steel -fra me b u i l d i ng s on solid
rock are more l i kely to su rvive . Violent earth movements
may be accompanied by earth fl ows and s l u m p s , cracks,
sma l l fa ults (with hori zonta l or vertica l movement u p to
a bout 30 feet) , and temporary founta i n s . F i res often resu lt
from broken gas l i nes .
Tsuna m i s are g i a nt waves in the ocea ns that result from
earthq uakes . Movement of a part of the ocean floor d i s
turbs t h e water and l e a d s t o h u g e osc i l l atory waves, often
over 1 00 m i les long . Moving at speeds of up to 500 m p h ,
they p i l e u p a l ong shores, often causing g reat destructio n .

EARTHQUAKE BELTS

encircle the ea rth . About 415 o f o i l earthquakes

and a l most all deep-focus ones occur i n a belt around the Pacifi c . A
less active belt runs through the H ima layas and A l p s . (Compare with
p . 1 45)

EART H Q U AKE R E C O R D S , or seismogram s , show that

va rious types of earthquake waves travel through the earth
by d i fferent paths . There a re two types of waves that trave l
through the ea rth: P {push-pu l l ) waves that are compres
siona l and travel by moving the particles backward and
forward through a ny materi a l , and S (shake) waves that
pass only through sol i d s . S-waves shake the particles per
pendicularly to the di rection of their movement, l i ke waves
made in a rope by holding one end sti l l a n d shaking the
other u p and down . l (surface) waves travel a round the

A S E I SMOGRAPH

is u s e d to
record earthquake waves . The
suspended weight, because of its
inertia, i s unaffected by earth
quake movements, which a re re
corded o n the rotating dru m .
Seismographs d iffer i n size and
sensitivity.

surface of the earth and can pass through a ny materia l .

From many observations, i t has been s hown that when
record ing stations a re more than 7, 000 m i les away from
an earthquake epicenter, the otherwise very reg u l a r travel
ti mes of P-waves a re reduced . They arrive later than ca l
culated , a nd S-waves a re e l i m i nated completely. T h i s
occurs because changes of composition with i n t h e earth's
i nterior infl uence the paths and speeds of the various
waves .
By using a worldwide seismograph network and studying
the paths and travel times of these waves, it is poss i b l e not
only to l ocate a n earthquake at its source but a l so to build
up a model or picture of the nature of the ea rth's i nterior.

EARTHQUAKE WAVES

passing
through the earth are i l lustrated
b e l ow, s h o w i n g t h e effect af
refraction o n P -woves. S-woves

ore complete l y e l i m i nated by the

core . P -woves ore indicated by
red l i nes, S-woves by the blue
lines.

1 27

THE EARTH'S INTER I OR

The behavior of earthquake waves indicates that the
earth's i nterior is not homogeneous but is made up of a
s e r i e s o f c o n c e n t r i c , l a ye r e d s h e l l s o f d i f f e r e n t
compositio n .
U s i n g data from seismographs, a hypothetical model of
the i nterior she l l s can be constructed . We have no d i rect
method of testing its accuracy, but there a re severa l l i nes
of i n d i rect evidence that seem to support it (p. 1 29) . The
three m a i n layers a re cal led crust, mantle, a nd core. The
crust is sepa rated from the mantle by the Mohorovicic, or
M-d isconti nuity, where earthquake waves speed u p by 1 5
percent.
CONTI N E N T

ALTERNATIVE CLASSI FICA THE CONTINENTAL CRUST i s

TION recognizes the rigid litho thicker t h a n t h e oceanic (20 3 8
-

s p h e re ( t h e o u t e r 62 m i l e s ) .

consisting o f the crust ond the

upper port of the mont l e . This
overlies the hot, soft astheno
s p h e re ( 6 2 - 1 5 5 m i l e s d o w n ) ,
c h o r o c t e r i z e d b y l ow s e i s m i c
wave velocities and high seismic
attenuation, which i s thought to
be capable of flowi ng . This over
lies the stronger mesosphere, the
lower mantle. It appears that the
major plates of the earth rest on
and move across the astheno
sphere (see p . 1 44 ) .

1 28

m i les, as opposed to 5 m i les),

older (up to 4 b i l l ion years, as
opposed to a maximum of 1 75200 m i l l i o n yea rs), l ighter (2. 7
g m s per cc, as opposed to 3 . 0
gm/cc), and more structura l l y
complex. The continental crust
has a granitic composition, with
thick sed imentary and metamor
p h i c r o c k s , w h i l e the o c e a n i c
crust i s basa ltic, with only a t h i n
veneer of sed i ments. These d i ffer
ences are explai ned by the theory
of plate tecto n i c s .

THE MANTLE,

bounded by the
Mohorovicic discontinuity, is
marked b y 1 5-percent increases
i n P- and S-wave velocities, sug
gesting a change i n compositio n .
It seems to consist of d a r k , heavy
rocks, rich i n iron-magnesium s i l
icates (ol ivine and pyroxene, p p .

THE CORE

i s recog n i zed as a
m a j o r d i s c o n t i n u i ty w i t h i n t h e
e a r t h where t h e S - waves a r e
e l i m i nated and P-wave velocity i s
sl owed down . T h i s indicates that
the outer core i s probably a " l i q
uid , " b u t t h e fact t h a t P-waves
speed up again at a depth of
3, 1 60 m i les suggests that the
inner core i s s o l i d . C i rculation
movements i n the liquid outer
core proba b l y generate the

30 and 89). A few surface out

crops of supposed mantle rocks
fit this general compositi o n . S l ow
conve c t i o n m o v e m e n t s i n t h e
upper mantle i nfluence the struc
ture of the crust, a l lowing the
m o v e m e n t s i n v o l v e d in p l a t e
tectonics.

earth's magnetic field ( p . 1 35 ) . I t

probably has a n i r o n - i r o n s u l
p h i d e composition because of i t s
h i g h density ( 1 5 f o r t h e i nner
core), and by analogy with
meteorites, w h i c h proba b l y
formed a t the same t i m e . I t may,
however, be a s i m i l a r composi
tion to the mantle, its differences
arising from variations created
under very high pressure .

1 29

provide additional
i nformation a bout the earth's interior a n d mounta in-build
ing processes . Artificial shock waves, used i n seismic stud
i e s of s u b s u rface structure, revea l t h e n a t u re a n d
boundaries of sha l l ow layering with i n the earth's i nterior.
Measurements of g ravity and mag netic va riations are use
ful in subsurface studies, both "deep , " a s i n those beneath
mounta i n roots, a nd "sha l l ow, " as in the location of petro
leum tra ps or m i nera l deposits . Heat-flow studies a re used
to ana lyze deep structures. Radar mapping is also of
i m porta nce. Continuous, rapid geophysical survey mea
surements are now being made from a i rcraft and ships .

G E O P H Y S I CA L MEAS U R E M E NTS

Heat flow rel ated

0
5
to d i stance from
3: )(
0
MidAtlantic Ridge.
u 4
;:;:: "
Note h i g h heat
0 NVI 3
flow at a x i s .
" E
:I: 2
a
u

0 1 00 200 300 400 500 600 Km

HEAT-FLOW STUDIES

BAS INS

i n mines
and boreholes show that the tem
perature of t h e e a r t h 's c r u s t
increases b y an average of 30C
per k i l ometer of depth, a lthough
there are wide loca l variations
caused by the geological setting
and local conductivi ty. Over the
conti nents , most of the back
ground heat seems to originate
from radioactivity in the crust.
Where the crust is thick, as in
mounta i n ranges, values tend to
be high.
Seismic s hot explosion produces a
p l u m e of soi l . S e i s m i c stud ies a l so
u s e "t h u m p e r " t e c h n i q u e s ,
without explosives.

s hot

Record i n g truck

geophones

Seismic
record

V
-JJjj jjj

GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION

studies provide a structural pro

fi le of layered rocks. Geophones
p l a c e d a t m e a s u r e d i n t e r va l s
record the trace and time of
P-waves.

is w i d e l y used i n t h e location o f
m i neral deposits and petro leum
traps, and i n geologic mappi ng .
The diagram shows how seism i c

ELECTRIC LOGG I N G

measured and p lotted . E lectric

logging i s a n a i d i n subsurface
correlation of ail wel l s . ( Landes)

o f the
resistivity and self-potential o f
r o c k penetrated by boreholes is
RADIOACTIVITY LOG

Garno ray cu rve

Neutron c u rve

rad ioactivity

rad ioactivity

GEOLOGICAL
LOG

ELECTRICAL LOG

Natural potenti a l
shale
l i me
stone
po s s i b l e
poro u s
zone
shale
sand
stone

shale
n hydrite
shale
sand stone

Res i st i vity

THE FORCE OF GRAVITY is present in every part of the

u niverse, from the sma l l est particle to the la rgest star. The
earth attracts everything a round it with a pu l l towards its
center. The sun holds its pla nets in their orbits by g ravita
tional attraction. The force (F) i nvolved i s not constant but
va ries i nversely with the square of the distance between the
two bod ies i nvolved ( D ) , and di rectly with their masses (M 1
and M2 ) . We can ca lculate it by using the equation devel
oped by Newton , F
GM 1 M 2 , where G is the earth's
02
g ravity constant (6 . 67 X 1 0 1 1 cubic meters per k i l ogram
second 2 ) .
The force o f g ravity is not the same at every place o n
the earth . It i s lower on high mounta i n tops, a n d shows a
genera l decrease of about one-ha l f of one percent from
the poles towa rd the equator.
G ravity i nfluences a l most a l l geological p rocesses.
Weathering a nd erosion, patterns of sed i ment d i stribution,
the form of mountains, and even the coo l i ng of igneous
rock, a l l reflect the influence of g ravity.
=

P r i n c i p l e of g ravity is s hown by
s p r i n g bala nce; relative extens i o n
of s p r i n g i s proportional t o dens ity
of u n d e r l y i n g rock.

A GRAVIMETER is used to make

rapid and accurate determina

tions of relative differences i n the
earth's gravity fie l d . It i s a very
sensitive spring balance, an
increase in gravity being
recorded by the stretching of the
spring . Gravimeters employ opti
c a l a n d e l e c t r i c a l m e t h o d s to
"magnify" the m i nute increase in
s p r i n g l e n g t h t h a t h a s t o be
measured .

GRAVITY PROFILE m a y a l s o

s h ow l o w g r a v i t y ( n e g a t i ve
a n o m a l y ) d u e to p r e s e n c e o f
lig htweight s a l t in a sa l t plug,
invisible from the su rface (see p.
99).

Bouger Anomaly
Free-a i r Anomaly
meters

m. gals.

+ 50
0

2000
1 00 0
0
1 000
200 0

THE RED SEA AND GULF OF MOUNTAIN CHAINS often hove

ADEN, u n l i k e other r i f t volleys, a major negative g ravity anom

hove positive g ravity anoma l i e s .

T h e y ore underla i n by b a s i c rocks
a n d o r e b o u n d e d by p a r a l l e l
fau lts. This suggests they were
formed by the crustal separation
of Arabia and Africa, the "gop"
between them being fi l l ed by ris
ing basic materia l from the
mantle.

aly caused by a root of l i g h t

weight granitic material .
Negative anomalies across rift
vol leys ore portly explicable by
thick sed iments within the vol leys
themselves, and may result from
the concentration of l i g htweight
a l k a l i ne magmas and volcanoes
in rift area s .

is the state of equ i l i b

rium t h a t exi sts in t h e earth's
crust. Because mountains hove
roots (p. 1 2 1 ) and a l so stand
above the overage level of the
genera l l y s i m i l a r rocks of sur
rounding areas, a balance must
exist between them and the den
s e r m a t e r i a l on w h i c h t h e y

'"float . " As erosion reduces the

moss of the mounta i n , uplift tokes
place below i t as plastic material
flows under i t - just as unloading
cargo from a s h i p causes i t to r i se
i n the water. The postg lacial
uplift o f Scandinavia i s o n exam
ple of i sostatic adjustment ( p .
62).

ISOSTASY

Ai ry's i sostatic hypothe s i s

{ 1) suggested eq u i l i b r i u m
results i f cru sta l blocks of
s i m i l a r dens ity have
d i fferent h e i g hts; P ratt's
hypothes i s {2): b locks of
d i fferent d e n s ity have o
of
un iform
level
c o m pe n sa t i on . Modern
hypotheses suggest
variation i n d e n s ity i n a n d
betwee n col u m n s .

G E OMAG N ET I SM

reflects the earth's behavior as though

it were a giant bar magnet surrounded by a magnetic field .
The force causes a compass to rotate so that it p o ints
towa rds the mag netic north po le. The earth's magnetic
field i s probably caused by convection currents i n the outer
core .
Geog ra p h i c North

D i rection
of the tota l
field

MAGNETIC STORMS

are sudden
fluctuations in the earth's mag
netic field caused by charged
particles from the sun (the solar
w i n d ) . Magnetic storms often
precede aurora d isplays.
Airborne magnetometer

MAGNETIC DECLINATION

is
t h e angle between geographic
("true") north and magnetic
north . The vertical angle between
the horizontal and a freely d i p
ping magnetic need le is the incli
n a t i o n . The dec l i n a t i o n s h ows
d a i l y c h a n g e s a n d a l s o s l ow,
measurable changes over long
periods of time. The magnetic
poles change position relative to
the geographic poles at a present
rate of about four m i les every
year, a lthough the devi ation is
never large.

MAGNETOMETERS measure the

local intensity of the earth's mag

netic fie l d . Variations ( anoma
l i es) are caused by rocks of
d ifferi n g magnetic properties.
Magnetic traverses can be made
on the ground or by a i rborne or
seaborne magnetometers .
Reg ional surveys are used i n m i n
eral exploration and i n study o f
t h e ocean floor.

PALEOMAGNETISM

i s the rem
nant magnetism found i n rocks
espec i a l l y l avas and some sedi
m e n t a r y r o c k s - refl e c t i n g the
ancient magnetic fields at the
time of their formation . Magnetic
particles i n the rocks orient them
s e l ve s l i k e c o m p a s s n e e d l e s ,
reflecting the field i n which they
formed .

North

THE MAGNETIC FIELD

of the
earth has been measured and
m a pped . The l i nes of force,
m a rked by a rrows, show its
d i rection a t various places. It
a lso varies i n intensity (being
twice a s great at the poles as a t
t h e equator), and t h e inclination
ranges from 0 at the magnetic
equator to 90 at the magnetic
poles. local anomal ies are often
produced by d i stinctive magnetic
properties of some rock bod ies.

North
Geog ra p h i c
!
Pole
I

REVERSALS

i n earth's magnetic
field have occurred every few
hundred thousand years during
the last 70 m i l l ion years . A time
sca le of reversals has been recon
structed from sequences of lavas
and deep-sea sed iments.

show a d i stinc
tive para l l e l pattern of mag netic reversa l "anom a l ies"
across the m i d-ocean ridges, and provide a c l ue to the
h i story of the ocea n (p. 1 40) .
MAG N ET I C S U RVEYS OF OCEAN FLOOR

POSITIONS OF ANCIENT CON

TINENTS are reconstructed b y
measurements of remnant m a g
n e t i s m in r o c k s o f successive
ages . For E urope and North
America, the traces o f ancient
polar positions are simi lar, but

are di splaced para l lel to one

another, suggesting either that
the poles have wandered or that
the conti nents have m oved apart.
Other i ndependent evidence sup
ports the i nterpretation of major
continental movements.

TRIASSIC EQUATOR

i n North
America based on paleomagnetic
data (after Irving ) . Zero paleo
m e r i d i a n is a r b i t r a r i l y t a k e n
through N e w Yor k . P a l eomag
netic data show North America
was o n c e j o i n e d t o E u r o p e ,
Africa, a n d South America within
a single continent, Pangea, which
began to s p l i t apart about 200
m i l l ion years ago.
Pa l eoeq uator

Ty pica l profi l e (3,000 m i les lo n g ) across Atl a ntic floor

Crest of M i d
Atl a ntic R i d g e
world avera !!!..---"'""---North American
Heat flow profo. le across Atlantoc
plate
N. America sed i ments
Mid-Atla ntic Ridge
.

1-

0
10

20
g 30

Africa

Basaltic
Continental crust
vol ca n i cs
General ized cru sta l structure across North Atlantic

;2

STRUCTURE OF THE OCEAN F LOOR

M I D - O C E A N R I DG E S

form a g loba l network of mounta in

cha ins, 25, 000 mi les long, up to 1 , 500 mi les wide, and up
to 1 8 , 000 feet high (p. 66) , formed of young vo lcanic
rocks. They a re repeated ly offset by tra nsform fa u l ts and
have crests marked by rift va l leys , up to 1 2 , 000 feet deep
and 30 m i les wide . In some places (e . g . , Iceland and East
Africa) ridges emerge above sea level .

MI D-OCEAN RIDGES

are
marked by abnormally high heat
flow, shal low earthquakes, vol
canic activity, rift va l l eys, and
transform fau lts. All these imply
that the ridges are places of
strong crusta l tension. Geophys
ica l studies, d redg ing, and d r i l l
ing s h o w t h e ridges have a t h i n
Mid-Ocea n
Ridges
Tra n s
form
Fau lts

1 36

veneer of deep-sea sed iments,

but consist chiefly of basa ltic p i l
low lava s , ove r l y i n g v e r t i c a l
feeders, and deep gabbroic crys
ta l l ine racks . All these features
imply that the ridges are sites for
the submarine extrusion of new
crusta l mater i a l (see pp. 1 401 4 1 ).

ABYSSAL PLA I N S

cover over 60 percent of the ocean

floor. They a re flat basins, hundreds of m i les across, gen
era l ly broken only by ocea n ridges, canyon system s ,
trenches, vo lca n i c i s l a n d s , or sea mounts . They lie at depths
below 1 5 , 000 feet . Geophysical stud ies show that they
have a thin cover of young sed i ments .

ROCKS OF THE OCEAN FLOOR

are younger than the continents,

none being o lder than 1 75 m i l lion
years; some continental racks are
over 20 times that age . Ocean
sed i m e n t s t h i c k e n and i n c l u d e
successively older layers i n par-

a l l e l bands away from t h e m i d

ocean ridge. U nderlying subma
rine lavas show the same feature
( p . 1 40 ) . These observations are
i m portant i n the development of
a model to expla i n the h i story of
the earth .

VOLCANIC SEAMOUNTS

r i se
up to 1 2 , 000 feet above the
abyssa l p l a i n s . Guyots are s i m i
l a r , b u t have f l a t tops, presum
a b l y having been eroded b y wave
action and later submerged .
M o s t l i e a t 3 , 0 0 0 - 5 , 00 0 f e e t
below present s e a leve l .
N Ma i n e

Bermuda I s .

Puerto
Trench

VO LCA N I C I S LA N D A R C S ,

common a round the Pacific

Basi n , a re major earth features, genera lly bordered on
the i r convex ocea nic side by na rrow trenches, up to 36, 000
feet deep . They a re sites of vulca n i s m , earthq uakes, neg
ative g ravity anomal ies, a nd crusta l i nsta b i l ity. Their
andesitic lavas, i ntermed iate in composition between those
of the conti nents and ocea ns, suggest a m i xture of the two .
Nearly a l l deep-focus earthquakes occur below these a rcs .
Geophysica l studies ( p . 1 39) ind icate that i s l a nd a rcs
reflect the col l i sion of two p lates of the earth's crust. The
trace of earthquake foci marks the buckling under (subd uc
tion) of one plate . The islands seem to be formed from
melted material from the subducted plate r i s i ng through
the overrid i ng plate, for m i ng volcanoes and i ntrusions.
J a pa n and the Aleutian and Ma rianas islands are exa m
ples. Destruction of "old" ocean crust by subduction (p.
1 39) ba la nces new crust formed at the ridges .
1.
2.
3.
4.

Aleutian
Kurile
Japan
N a n s e i S hoto
S. Mariana
6 . Pa l a u
7 . P h i l i pp i n e
8 . Weber
9 . Java
1 0. New Brita i n
1 1 . N e w Hebrides
1 2 . Tonga -Kermadec
1 3 . PeruCh i l e
1 4. Aca p u lco
Guatemala
1 5 . Cedros

land

volcanoes

.A,

EARTHQUAKE EPICENTE R S :

s h a l l ow focus

0 0
0

i ntermed i ate focu s

deep foc u s

Diagram of a typ ical i s l a n d a rc a n d trench structure, showing relative

p o s i t i o n o f v o l c a n o e s ; s h a l l o w - , i n t e r m e d i a t e - , a n d d e e p -f o c u s
earthquakes; a n d ocea n i c trench. A B represents l i n e o f sections below;
length a bout 1 ,200 ki lometers.
A

B
sea levei O
crust

TOPOGRAPHIC PROFILE

shows
very steep sides of typical i sland
arc trench .
B

GRAVITY PROFILE

shows i sland
arc trench areas a s belts of strong
negative anoma l i e s .
B
A
34 ' V .r
okm

-2
A)O /
58 ' . r9'
1

0 700km Al :l
in volcanic
d i pping toward the conti
areas but low across trenches
r e fl e c t s " c o a l " o c e a n i c p l a te nents at 30-60, reflects subduc
tion af ocean i c plate.
being melted and uprising .

HIGH HEAT FLOW

EART H Q U A K E E P I C E N T E R
PLOT,

MODEL OF ISLAND ARC shows

trench, earthquakes, vo lcanoes,

and heat and gravity features.
how subduction of plate creates
i s l a n d a rc
ocea n i c crust
(After The Story
layer 1 ---- ----
of t h e Eor t h H . M . S . O . )
layer 2
layer 3
active volcano
l ithosphere
ocea n i c tre n c h
mantle
s u b d u ction zone
Benioff Zone
ea rth q u a ke foci
to depths of
600-700 km
1 39
,

-lt----i;;;;!'Ji!;;;iif

Tra n sform fau lts

.. .

Plei stocen e
2
P l iocene
7
Miocene
26
01 igocene
38
Eocen e
54
Pa l eocen e
65
C retaceou s
1 36
gest seafl oor spread i ng . N ote
concentra t i o n of e a r t h q u a k e s ;
deeper f o c u s ones ore confi ned t o
t r e n c h o r e o s show n .

Mid-ocean ridges
Tra n sform fault zones
Deep ocea n trenches -
Earthquake epicenters ;
_
_
_
_

AGES OF ROCKS,

shown by
magnetic anomalies, existing as
m i rror images a cross the Pacific
mid-ocea n i c ridge, strong l y sug-

S EA F L O O R S P R EA D I N G i s a mechanism that accounts for

the major features of the continents and ocea n s . New
ocea n floor i s created a long the length of the mid-ocea n
ridges, from which it then moves away i n both d i rections at
rates of between 1 12 i nch and 3 i nches a yea r. This seems
to be part of a l a rger movement i n which the outer shell of
the earth (the l ithosphere) g l ides s l owly across the molten
upper layers of the mantle (the asthenosphere, p. 1 28 ) ,
w h i c h a c t s as a conveyor b e l t f o r t h e rigid plates that
i nc l ude both ocea ns and conti nents . Both the basa ltic rocks
of the ocea n crust and the overlying sed i ments become
successive ly older away from the ridges, but a l l are less
than 1 75 m i l l ion yea rs o l d .

1 40

0
"'
a

a
"
>0

c
.!!

P R E S E N T O C E A N BAS I N S are young features of the

earth, ea rlier ocea n basins having been destroyed by plate
tectonic movements in subduction and col l i sion .
TRAN S F O R M FA U LTS

( p . 1 40) offset the m i d-ocea n

ridges. They are probably caused by d i fferent sprea d i n g
rates a l ong t h e ridge . Ea rthquakes occur only a long parts
of fa u l ts between the two ridge seg ments , because spread
ing movement across other parts of fau l t i s i n same d i rec
tion . The San Andreas Fault is a tra nsform fault that
outcrops on l a n d , with the Pacific P late s l i d i ng at a rate of
4-6 em . a yea r past the American Plate. Sudden move
ments a long this fa u l t produce destructive earthqua kes .

RAT E OF S P R EA D I N G from mid -ocean ridge is measured

from sym metrical pattern of magnetic reve rsa l s observed
in rocks of equal age. These reversa l s a re dated by studies
of s i m i l a r reversa l s i n lava seq uences . The d i stance of
bands of equ a l age from the ridges shows d i fferences in
rate of sprea d i ng . The East Pacific i s opening u p at a bout
1 2 em. (% i n . ) a yea r, the N orth Atlantic by only a bout 2
e m . a year.
Age ( m i l l ions of yea r s ) 4 3 2 1 0 1 2

ANOMALIES

i n the remnant
magnetism o f the oceanic crust
s h o w r e v e r s a l s , r e fl e c t i n g
changes i n the magnetic field at
the various times of crust forma
tion. Studies of lava flows on land
g ive a t i m e scale of magnetic
reversa l s for the past 4 m i l l ion
years, and this i s confirmed in
deep-sea cores . S i m i l a r anoma
lies exist i n symmetrical bands,
para l l e l to the m i d -ocea n i c
ridges. This suggests that new
crust is being formed and spread
ing at rates up to 1 2 centi meters
per year.

MID-

Model shows rise of new seafloor,

" i m pri nted" with reversa l s of suc
cessive magnetic periods and
reversa l s .

141

3 4

S U BM E R G E D VO LCA N O E S a re scattered a c ross the

ocea n floor, either singly or in c l u sters, with more than
1 0 , 000 in the Pacifi c . Ma ny formed a bove sea leve l , but
have since been submerged by plate movements (p. 1 44 ) .

THE PRATT-WELKER

c h a i n of
guyots runs from the Gulf of
A l a s k a t o w a r d the A l e u t i a n
Trenc h ( p . 1 37 ) . Guyot GA- l has
a surface lying a lmost 6, 000 feet

below the genera l level of all the

other guyots .
It has been carried downwards
by the subsidence that produced
the Aleutian Trench .

0
1 000
2000
3000

SOUTH EASTWARD MIGRA

TION o f volcanic activity in sev

eral i s land chains is explai ned by

a stationary plume or hot spot,

rising from the mantle through a
northwest movi ng plate.

SEAMOUNT

<1] 5 0
Hawa i i a n Em peror
Bend
..,
0
e0 "'\, 4 "' G; 30
0 .....
20

'
(.
\l<!' """'0 'C> 1 0
")i
Hawa i ia n
Ridge
Hawa i i
<"!

.SO

Pacific Ocean

chain has active vul

canism l i m i ted to the i s land of
Hawa i i at the extreme southeast
tip. Extinct vo lcanic i s lands a re
progressively alder towards the
n o r t hwest . H a wa i i a n E m pe r o r
B e n d shows c h a n g e i n d i rection of
plate movement 40 m i l l i o n years
ago . Neighboring i s land chains
(Tuamotu line and G i l bert Aus
tra l ) show similar trend s . (After
various authors)

C O R A L R E E F S develop a round islands, espec i a l l y the vol

ca nic islands of t h e Pacific, where they m a y form fringing
reefs (g rowing on the fringe of the island), barrier reefs
(sepa rated from the i s l a nd by a lagoon), or ato l l s (ring l i ke
ram pa rts of lagoons, with no main island core) . One
hundred and fifty yea rs ago, Charles Darwi n suggested
these three types of reefs represented th ree stages in the
sinking of the ocea n floor a round a volca n i c i s l a n d , the
cora l g rowth at sea l eve l keeping pace with the sinking of
the floor.
Geophysical surveys and borings on Pacific ato l l s con
firm this theory. O n E n iwetok , 4, 000 feet of cora l sed i
ments overlie o l ivine basa lt. It m a y n o t b e a complete
explanation, however, because of the genera l l y u niform
depth of lagoons (from 1 50 feet for the sma l l e r ones to
270 feet for the l a rger ones), which may be the result of
Pleistocene erosion d u r i ng periods of lower sea l evel . Sea
floor sprea d i n g (p. 1 40) accounts for the subsidence and
latera l movement of the ocean floor i nvolved i n the forma
tion of reefs a nd volcanoes .

PLAT E T E C TO N I C S theory offers a unified expla nation for

most features of the earth . The earth's surface consists of
seven r i g i d , movi n g , i nteracti ng plates and several m i nor
ones, each a bout 1 00 kilometers (60 m i l es) thick, carrying
both conti nents and ocea ns. New crust is created at
spreading ridges (constructive or divergent margins, p.
1 45); it moves away from these at s peeds of up to 1 8
centi meters a yea r, and is destroyed by subduction into the
mantle at destructive or convergent margins, such as
trenches, where one plate typica l l y overrides a nother ( p .
1 45 ) . P l ates m a y a lso s l i d e latera l ly past one a nother at
transform faults (p. 1 4 1 ) . The process seems to be cont i n
u o u s and broadly ba l a nced , so t h e earth does n o t change
i n size.
- S h a l low,

e
=

intermediate,

a n d deep e a r t h q u a k e s
M i d -ocean r i d g e s

... R. e l o t i v
o

0
0
oO

lote movement

ocea n trench
(convergence)

Association of Earthquakes

r i s i n g magma

OCEAN RIDGE topography, vu l ISLAND ARC TRENCHES reflect

c a n i s m , s h a l l ow e a r t h q u a k e s ,
a n d symmetrica l magnetic anom
alies reflect lateral spreading of
new crustal material from ridge
a rea s . (After Press and Siever)

the subduction of ocea nic plate;

melting and rising material con
t r i butes to v o l c a n o es; f r i c t i o n
from downward plate movement
produces earthquakes .

MAJ O R E A R T H FEAT U R E S

a re exp lai ned by plate tecton

ics . For exa m p l e , young ocea nic rocks (less than 1 75 m i l
l i o n years o l d ) reflect subduction o f older ones . Older
continents ( u p to 3. 8 b i l lion yea rs) a re genera l l y too " l i g ht"
to be subducted . Other exa m ples are i l l ustrated here .
MOU N TA I N B U I L D I N G

takes pl ace at convergent bound

of p l ates, where collision produces intense com pres
sion . There a re severa l va rieties of co l l ision .

aries

ANDES a r i se from subduction of HIMALAYAS formed from colli

the oceanic N a zca plate below

the continental South American
plate . Mounta i n b u i l d i n g , vulcan
i s m , earthquakes, u p l ift, and the
deep C h i l e trench result, as i n fig
ure above .

PERMIAN GLACIAL DEPOSITS,

n o w scattered across southern

continents, were formed within a
supercontinent, Gondwana land .
This drifted apart, and the indi
vidual continents are now iso
lated by plate movement.

sion 40-60 m i l l i o n yea rs ago of

Indian and Eurasian plates; over
t h r u s t i n g p r o d u c e s m o u n ta i n s .
The Alps reflect c o l l i sion o f Afr i
can a n d Eurasian p l a t e s , 60-80
m i l lion years a g o .

H OW T H E EARTH WO R KS
I F S E AFLO O R S P R E A D I N G

and the interaction of the rigid

p lates of the earth's crust (plate tectonics) can account for
a l l the major features of the earth , we have to ask what
can account for the va rious phenomena of plate tectonics .
What is the d riving force that moves the huge, rigid slabs
that make up the surface of the earth? How can any such
force be powerfu l enough to cause ea rthqua kes and ra i se
up mounta i ns? What is the earth engine that dr ives pl ate
tecton ics?
Most earth scientists now concl ude that the mantle ( p .
1 29) - the dense layer underlying t h e crust - is a sol i d , s o
h o t that it can flow very slowly. " F loating" on t h a t foun
datio n , the l i g hter crusta l plates a re d ragged a long by
these slow movements in the mantle.
How cou ld that work? There i s no agreement on this, but
three possible ways a re descri bed on p. 1 47 . Whatever
movement is proposed must be capa ble of exp l a i n i ng lat
eral movement of plates away from spreading ridges and
downward movement of plates at trenches .

SIMPLIFIED MODEL

of how plates of crust may be driven by convection

currents in the mantle. (After several authors)
m i d ocea n ridge
spread i n g

FO R C E S T H AT MOVE PLAT E S are sti l l not clear. I l l ustrated

below a re three possible mode l s .
p u shed

pl ate

PUSH-PULL FORCES

m a y pro
duce plate movement. The height
and weight of spreading ocean
ridges moy push the plate lat
erally, while the coo l , heavier
subducted plate may pull i n the
same d i rect i o n .

CONVECTION CURRENTS

in
t h e m a n t l e m a y f a r m s e ve r a l
s l o w l y c o n ve c t i n g c e l l s , r i s i n g
below t h e ridges, sinking below
the trenches, dragging the crust
with them .

PLATES

may be cooled portion of

upper mantle formed by convec
tion currents rising at ridges and
coo l i ng as they spread . ( I l l ustra
tions after Press and Siever)

E AR L I E S T H I STO RY OF T H E EARTH is sti l l obscure, but it

proba bly i nvolved the accretion about 4 . 7 b i l l i o n yea rs
ago of cold m ateri a l s . The i m pact of this material gradu
a l l y heated u p the growing earth, as d i d compression a n d
radi oactivity. T h e temperature slowly increased unti l , per
haps 1 b i l l i o n or so yea rs after its formatio n , the earth was
hot enough to melt the iron present, which sa nk towards
the center, o r core, creating more heat and causing d i ffer
entiation of l i g hter materia l i nto crust a nd i ntermed iate
mantl e . As the temperature rose , slow convection m ove
ment bega n to take place, and the differentiation i nto a
layered earth conti nued , with lig hter material form i n g the
conti nents . The atmosphere a nd oceans proba bly accum u
lated b y outgassing from withi n t h e earth . P late tectonics
is part of this later history of the earth .
1 47

THE EARTH'S HISTORY

The age of the earth has been a subject of speculation si nce
early days of humankind, but only in the last century have
attempts been made to measure it. Geologists studying
ea rth processes a re concerned with the seq uence of rocks
and structures i n time, and thus with the h i story of the earth
itself.

RATE OF COOLING w a s once SALT C O N T E N T O F T H E

thought to show the earth was
OCEANS i s presumed to have

only 20-40 m i l l ion yea rs o l d . D i s

covery o f h e a t produced by
radioactivity provides n e w data
that inva l idate this conc l u s i o n .

TOTAL AVERAGE THICKNESS

of sed i ment over the earth , if reg

u l a r l y deposited , was thought to
provide the earth's age, if
divided b y the average annual
addition to new sed iments. While
this method may be acceptable
for a few local deposits, there are
f a r too m a n y v a r i a b l e s a n d
unknowns (such as redeposition
of sedi ment) to a l low its use for
determining the age of the earth.

come from weathering of rocks

and was d ivided by the annual
i ncrement to give on age for the
oceans of a bout 90 m i l l ion yea r s .
T h e s a m e l i m itations apply to t h i s
factor as to sedi ment-th ickness
calculations. Both fig u res i nvolve
corrections that would g reatly
increase their value.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY

provides
the best present method of mea
suring the age of rocks. Radio
active elements undergo sponta
neous breakdown by loss of a l pha
and beta particles into stable ele
ment s . The rate of breakdown,
which con be accurately mea
sured, is i ndependent of any envi
r o n m e nta I c o n d i t i o n s , such as
t e m p e r a t u r e or p r e s s u r e . T h e
ratio o f decayed t o parent ele
ments thus provides o n indication
of the age of the m i neral i n which
it i s fou n d . D i fferent elements
have very different decay rates.
<111111 Succes sion of sedimentary rocks

in Grand Canyon, Arizona, s hows

thei r relative geolog ic ages, but
r e p r e s e n t s o n l y p a r t of t o t a l
geologic time ( p . 1 5 1 ) .

newly-formed m i neral

URANIUM {U238)

is a commanly used element, going

through 5 d i s i nteg rations before
it becomes the stable e l ement
lead { Pb206 ) . D i fferent elements
have different rates of disintegration . U 2 3 8 has a half-l ife (the
time taken for h a l f its atoms to
d i s i n t e g r a t e ) of 4 , 500 m i l l i o n
(4 . 5 b i l l ion) years. Some other
radioactive e l ements commonly
used in age studies ore thorium,
potassium, a n d rubid i u m .

THE OLDEST ROCKS measured

by radi oactive methods have a n

a g e o f about 3 , 800 m i l l ion ( 3 . 8
b i l l ion) yea r s . This i s younger
than the earth itself, which is
probably about 4 . 5-5 . 0 b i l l i o n
years o l d . Stud ies of meteorites,
which are probably samples of
the planetary mater i a l s from
which the earth origi nated, a l l
indicate a n a g e o f about 4 . 5 b i l
lion yea rs. The o ldest known los-

1 00

u ra n i u m

23 8

lead
206

75

"

E
.!:

50

7/o gone

25

1 2 112
0
Increasing t i m e ( i n billions of years)

s i l s ore about 3 . 4 b i l l i o n year s

old, but common foss i l s are found
only i n rocks younger than 6,00
m i l lion years o l d .
Radiocarbon dating i s usefu l
for rocks that conta i n wood frag
ments a n d a re younger t h a n
a bout 70, 000 year s . C 1 4 from
the atmosphere i s i ncorporated in
plant tissues a n d disi ntegrates to
N 1 4 with a h a l f - l ife of 5 , 570
Rate at which C" decays
and becomes N1" is known

Neutro n s bombard

N1" + neutron C 1 ..
(rad iocarbon + proto n )
=

Tree absorbs C "O,

( 1"02 a n d ( 1 2 Q2
rema i n con sta nt
i n l i v i n g tree
Section of l i v i n g
tree conta i n s
x amount of ( 1"

U N D E RSTA N D I N G EARTH H I STORY a l so i nvolves the

study of the deve lopment of a n i m a l s and p l ants and of the
conti nuously chang i ng ancient geog raphies. Particu l a r
sedi mentary rocks, dated b y va rious methods, c a n then be
related to a general geologic time sca l e . Most radi oactive
m i nera l s used for age determinations occur i n i gneous
rocks, a lthough g lauconite is a m i neral used for age studies
of sed i mentary rocks.

SUPERPOSITION

o f s ed i m e n
tary rocks i nd icates their relative
a g e s . In u n d i s t u r bed s e ct i o n s ,
younger rocks overlie older.

STRATIGRAPHIC CORRELA
TION of strata i n one p l a c e with

those of the same age, deposited

at the same period of time i n
another p l a c e , i s fundamenta l i n
the i n t e r preta t i o n o f g e o l o g i c
history.

FOSSILS a re i m portant i n corre

lation of sed i mentary roc k s . Fos

sils are the remains of, or direct
indication of, prehi storic a n i m a l s
and plants. A l t h o u g h i n fluenced
by envi ronment, s i m i l a r assem
blages of foss i l s genera l l y indi
cate s i m i larity of age i n the rocks
that conta i n them .

ROCK FACIES, the sum tota l of

the characteristics of a rock's

d e p os i t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t , a r e
independent of geological t i m e .
A n awareness of t h e m , however,
i s i m portant in correlati o n . F i g
u r e shows h o w a sha l l ow sea
transgressed over a deltaic and
near-shore environment in west
ern U . S . in Cambrian times,
about 500 m i l l i o n years ago.

LITHOLOGICAL CORRELATION GEOPHYSICAL CORRELATION

u s e s the s i m i larity of m i neralogy,

sort i n g , structure, bedd i n g ,
sequence, and other features a s
i n d i ca t i o n s o f s i m i l a r ages of
rocks. I t i s of l i m i ted value, since
rocks of d i fferent l ithology often
ore deposited a t the some time in
adjacent area s .

makes u s e of s i m i larity of physi

col r o c k p r o p e r t i e s ( e l e c t r i c a l
resistivity a n d self-potenti a l , for
example) as o n i ndication of s i m
i l o r age . W i d e l y u s e d i n bore
holes, this method i s l i mited by
the some factors a s lithological
method s .

STANDARD GEOLOGIC COL ROCK SYSTEMS i n t h e geologic

UMN, which h a s been bui lt up by column o re m a j o r d ivisions of

rocks deposited during a partic

ular period of geologic t i m e .
Names of systems ore t a k e n from
a r e a s w h e r e r o c k s w e r e fi r s t
descri bed , such as Devonian from
Devonshire, o r from the i r char
acteristics, as Cretaceous from
the chalk, which i s found i n many
strata of this age.
Egypt i a n
Roman
Assyrian
Middle
E m p i re
E m p i re
Kingdom

combining rock sequences from

different areas , con be matched
with a time scale based on mea
sured absolute ages of roc k s . This
i s like a master motion picture
fi l m i n which local rock sequences
e a c h r e p r e s e n t a few s i n g l e
frames. T h i s geologic time sca l e
is shown on p . 1 52 .
Wor l d Rena isWa rs sa nee

1 000

Li mestone
Shale
Li meston e a n d s a n d stone
Sandstone a n d s h o l e
T h e Earth's tota l h i story i s pieced
together by comparison of rocks
from m a n y area s .

ZION
CANYON

1 35
1 66
181

230
280

300

345

600

PERIODS

0
N

0
z

t:l

QUATERNARY
Recent
Plei stocene
TERTIARY
P l i ocene
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Pa leocene

dura- yea rs
tion ago
m i l l ions

CRETAC EOUS

2
5

1 1

16
2

65

70

1 35

0
i

J U RASSIC

"'

55
1 90

TRIASSIC

35

PERMIAN

55

P E N NSYLVANIAN

40

MISSISSIPPIAN

25

DEVON IAN
S I LURIAN
ORDOVICIAN

34 5

50
35

395
430

70
500

CAMBRIAN

70
570

1 52

E = Evaporite
Deposits
Equat o r

1 000
K i l ometers

PALEOGEOGRAPHY OF U.S.,

i n Middle Permian times, a bout 250

m i l l i o n yea rs ago. (After Dott and Batten)
PA LEOG E O G RAPH I C MAPS a re reconstructions of the
geography of past geologic periods. Past continenta l geog
raphies can be pieced together by using paleomag netic
data and by plotting the d i stribution of different rock
types, foss i l s , and geologic structures, using the methods
i l l u strated on pp. 1 50- 1 5 1 .

WORLD PALEOGEOGRAPHY about 200 m i l l i o n yea rs a g o . Shading

represents deposits of former ice cap (see p . 1 45 ) . (After Press and

S iever)
80

40

LAU RASIA

PANTHALASSA

fl 0o

1 20

80

400
0"?' ,.. oo .t,_.
""- t
20
\
<I..'?'
,
40

(
(

60
-aoo

so

1 20

1 60

TETHYS S E A
GONDWANALAND
'

l-

1 53

GEOLOG IC MAP OF

Rocks and unconsolidated

deposits of P l e i stocene
a n d Recen t age

TERTIARY
Rocks of Paleocene, Eocene,
Oligocene, Miocene, a n d
P l i ocene age

MESOZOIC

Rocks o f C a m b r i a n ,

J u r a s s i c , and

Ordov i c i a n , a n d

C retaceous age

Si l u r i a n age

LATE PALEOZOIC
Rocks of Devo n i a n ,

1 54

EARLY PALEOZO I C

Rocks of Tr i a s s i c ,

PRECAMBRIAN

A variety o f i g n e o u s , meta m o r p h i c ,

M i s s i s s i p p i a n , Pennsylva n i a n ,

and s e d i m e n t a r y rocks ( i n c l udes

a n d Per m i a n a g e

some metamorphosed Paleozoic loco II)

THE U N ITED STATES

0

1 00

200

300 Statute m i les

---

1 00 200 300 K i l ometers

EXTRU S IVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

C h i efly lava flows o f
Tertiary a n d Quaternary
age

I NTRUS IVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

( i n c l udes some meta m o r p h i c
r o c k s ) G r a n i t o i d r o c k s of
various ages

1 55

FOR MORE INFORMATION

M U S E U MS AND EXH I B ITS provide exce l l e n t d i splays of general geologic topics
and of reg ional geology. Many universities and most l a rge c i ties have museums
with geologic exhibits.

STATE GEOLOGICAL S U RVEYS

publish maps, guide books, and elem entary

introductions to geology. The U . S . Geological Su rvey, Wa shi ngton, D . C .
20242, a n d the Geo l o g i c S u rvey o f Canada a l so publish many u seful reports
and mops.

NATIONAL PARKS AND MONUMENTS are genera l l y areas of great geologic

interest. They provide gu ided tours, talks, museums, and pamphlets.

F U RT H E R READING
BOOKS w i l l h e l p y o u develop your i n terest i n earth science.

Here are a f e w useful

titles:
Cattermole, Peter, and Patrick Moore. T h e S t o ry o f t h e Earth . New Yor k :
C a m bridge U n i versity P r e s s , 1 98 5 . A s i m p l y written , u s e f u l overview.
larso n , Edwin E . , and Peter W. Birkeland . Putnam's Geology, 4th e d . New Yor k ,
Oxford U n iversity P r e s s , 1 98 2 . We l l - i l l u strated, readable, college-level text.
Press, Fra n k , and Raymond S iever. Earth, 4th e d . New York, W. H . Freeman and
C o m pany, 1 98 6 . Com prehensive, college-level text.
Rhodes, Frank H . T. , Herbert S . Z i m , and P a u l R . Shaffer. Fossils . New Yor k ,
G o l d e n P r e s s , 1 96 2 .
S m i t h , D a v i d A . , ed . Cambridge Encyclopedia of E a rth S c iences . New Yor k ,
C a m bridge U n iversity P r e s s , 1 98 1 .
Sta n l ey, Steven M. Earth and life Through Time . New Yor k , W. H . Freeman and
Com pany, 1 98 5 . C o l l ege-level review of h i storical geology.
Zim, Herbert S., and P a u l R . Shaffer. R o cks a nd M inerals. New Yor k , Golden
Press, 1 95 7 .

PHOTO CRE DITS : U n less otherwise credited, photographs a r e by the author.

p . 4 R. Wen k a m . p . 15 A m . Museum of Natural H i story. p . 31 E . Moench/ Photo
Researchers . p . 3 3 R . Wenka m . p . 34 top, Kai Curry-lindahl, bot . , Douglass
Hubbard. p . 52 bot . , New Zea land Geological S u rvey. p . 5 3 luray Cave s . p . 5 8
M . Rosal sky. p . 60 t o p , J . Wyckoff. p . 63 C . Tra utwe i n . p . 68 t o p , M . Rosalsky.
p . 69 top, E. Druce. p . 75 J. Wyckoff. p . 76 J. Wyckoff. p . 80 H. Sch lenker/
Photo- Resea rchers. p . 8 3 M . Rosalsky. p . 85 J. Muen c h . p . 96 E. Druce. p . 1 02
l. Carlson. p. 1 03 top, J . J . Witkind. p. 1 05 M . Rosal sky. p. 1 1 2 C a l ifornia
Geology. p . 1 1 5 M . Rosalsky. p . 1 1 6 H . Bristo l . p . 1 25 Matthew J. lee/Oakland
Tr ibune. p . 1 34 Airborne Geophys ics Division, Lockwood, Kessler & Barlett, Inc.

1 56

I N D EX

Abyssal plains, 1 37
Ai ry's hypothesis, 1 33
Amphiboles, 30
Anticlines, 1 07, 1 08
Arcs, i s l a n d , 1 23 , 1 381 39
Aretes, 58
Arkose, 78
Artesian wel l s , 50
Asteroids, 1 1
Atmosphere,
composition of, 1 8- 1 9
definition of, 1 8
At

7u.

Barchans, 76
Bars,
off- shore, 71
sand, 71
Boso l t , 93
Batholiths, 88
Bovs, and erosion, 68
Be0ches, 70
rai sed , 1 04
sto r m , 7 1
Beddi n g ,
cross, 81
graded, 81
varved , 8 1
Big-bang theory, 1 6
Blocky lava, B5
Brecc i a , and fau l t s , 1 1 3
Bridges, natura l , 4 8
B u i l d i n g mate r i a l s , 1 03
Bushveld deposits, 1 00
Calcarenite, 78
C a l careous ooze, 73
Calcite, 28
Calderas, 84
Carbonates, 28
Caves,
and erosion, 68
and groundwater, 53
Chemical elements, 1 6
Chemical sed iments, 7273
Chemical weather i n g , 36
Cinder cones, 84
Cirques, 58
C l a y,
in industry, 1 03
sediments, 73
varve, 60
C l eavage,
i n m i nerals, 27
C l iffs,
and erosion, 68

C l i nometers, 1 06
Coal, 80, 98
Coastal features,
and crustal movement,
1 04
Coastl i n e s ,
emergent, 69
and erosion, 68
and marine deposition,
70
and sea l eve l s , 69
submerged, 69
Co lor, of minerals, 27
Comets, 1 0
Composite cones, 84
Composi t i o n ,
of atmosphere, 1 8- 1 9
of crust, 1 28
of sun, 1 3
Cones,
ci nder, 84
composite, 84
Cong lomerates, 78, 1 1 4
Consequent streams, 46
Continental shelf and
slope, 66, 67
Continents, 66, 1 22
Convection currents,
i n mantle, 1 46 , 1 47
Coral reefs, 1 43
Core, of earth, 1 29
C revasse fi l l i n g s , 60
Cross-bed d i n g , 8 1
Crust,
build-up of, 82- 1 03
composition of, 1 28
erosion of, 34-45
form of, 3 2-8 1
materia l s of, 2 1 -3 1
Crustal movements,
1 04- 1 47
and coastal features,
1 04
and foss i l s , 1 04
and incised meanders,
1 05
C r ystal form, of minera l s ,
25
C u b i c cryst a l s , 25
Cuestos, 48
Currents,
i n ocean s , 64
turbidi ty, 67
Dating,
methods used for,
1 48- 1 5 1
Dec l ination, magnetic,
1 34

Deep-sea sed i ments,

72-73
Deformation,
rock, 1 06- 1 1 4
Deltas, 4 5 , 60, 7 1
Dendritic drainage
patterns, 46
Deposition,
product of, 78-8 1
Deposits,
Bushve l d , 1 00
d u n e , 77
g l a c i a l , 59, 60
loess, 77
marine, 70
ore, 1 00
outwas h , 60
placer, 1 02
residual minera l , 1 02
Sudbury, 1 00
w i n d , 76-77
Desert platforms, 75
Diamonds, 24, 1 00
Diastrophism, 3 2
Dikes, 86
Dip, of rock bed , 1 06
Disconformities, 1 1 4
Dome mounta i n s , 1 1 8
Drainage patterns,
46-55
dendritic, 4 1 , 47
modification of, 47
superimposed, 46
rad i a l , 47
trellis, 46
D r u m l i n s , 59
Dunes, 76-77
ancient deposits i n ,
77
shape o f , 7 7
Dust-cloud theory, 1 6 , 1 7
Earth,
age af, 1 48
crust of, 9, 2 1 -3 1
h i story of, 1 47 , 1 481 55
insta b i l i t y of, 1 04- 1 47
i nterior of, 1 2 8- 1 35
materi a l s in crust of,
2 1 -3 1
motions of, 1 2
a s planet, 1 0-20
size and shape of, 6-7
surface of, 8-9 , 1 221 23
Earth flows, 38
E orthquake(s), 1 04 ,
1 24- 1 2 7

1 57

Earthquake(s) (coni . ) ,
destruction b y , 1 25
distribution of, 1 23 ,
1 25 , 1 45
epicenter plot, 1 39
records, 1 26- 1 27
waves , 1 26- 1 27
Eclogites, 95
Economic geology, 5
E lectric logging, 1 3 1
Emergent coastl ines, 69
Eratosthene s , 6 , 7
Erosion,
bays a n d , 68
caves and, 68
c l iffs and, 68
coasta l , 68
of earth's crust, 34-35
g l a c i a l , 57-58
hea d l a n d s and, 68
a n d landforms, 48
and mountains, 1 1 7
a n d rapids, 44
a n d rejuvenati o n , 44
river, 4 1 -4 3
by water, 40-4 1
a n d waterfa l l s , 44
wave-cut platforms a n d ,
68
by w i n d , 75
Erratics, 59
Eskers, 60
Evaporites, 80, 1 02
Expa n d i n g - u n iverse
theory, 1 6
Extru sive igneous rocks,
93
Fault block mounta i n s ,
1 18
Faults, 1 05 , 1 1 1 - 1 1 3
i n mounta i n chains,
121
reverse, 1 1 2
strike-sl i p , 1 1 2
tear, 1 1 2
thrust, 1 1 2
transfo r m , 1 4 1 , 1 44 ,
1 45
Feldspars, 2 9
F i l l structures, 8 1
F o l d s , 1 05 , 1 07- 1 09
in mounta i n chains,
121
Foliation, 94
Forests, buried, 1 04
Foss i l s , 1 04
a n d dating, 1 50
Fractures,
of minerals, 2 7
rock, 1 1 0
Frost shatte r i n g , 36

1 58

Fuels,
atom i c , 98
minera l , 98
Fumaroles, 5 1
Gabbro, 93
Galaxy, 1 2 , 1 4- 1 5
Galena, 3 1
Geologic c o l u m n , 1 5 1
Geologic map, 1 54- 1 55
Geologic time scale,
1 52
Geology,
branches of, 5
history of, 4-9
Geomagnetism studies,
1 34
Geophysical correlation,
151
Geophysical exploration,
131
Geophysical measurements, 1 30
Geophysics, 5
Geysers, 52
Glaciation,
histor of, 6 1 -6 2
p r e - P eistocene, 62
and sea leve l , 62
Glaciers,
deposits of, 59-60
and erosio n , 57-58
and glaciation, 56-62
Graben, 1 1 2
Gradation, 3 2
G r a d e d bed d i n g , 8 1
Granite, 93
Granite porphry, 93
Graphite, 24
Grave l ,
i n i ndustry, 1 03
Gravimeter, 1 3 2
Gravity,
anomalies, 1 3 2 , 1 33
faults, 1 1 1
force of, 1 32
profi l e , 1 3 2
Graywacke, 79
Great Spiral Nebula
M3 1 , 1 5
Groundwater, 49-53
Gulf of E d e n ,
a n d rift vol leys, 1 33
Guyots, 1 37 , 1 42
Pratt-Welker chain of,
1 42
Gyps u m , 28

r.

Hardness,
of m i nera l s , 26
Head lands,
and erosi o n , 68

Heat flow, 1 30 , 1 39
Hexago n a l crysta l s , 2 5
H i storical geo l ogy, 5
H i story,
of atmosphere, 20
of earth , 1 47 , 1 48- 1 55
of geology, 4
of glaciation, 6 1 -6 2
H o g b a c k s , 48
Horns,
and g l a c i a l e r o s i o n ,
58
Horst, 1 1 2
Hot springs, 5 1
Hydrologic cycle, 40
Hydrosphere , 40
Hydrothermal ores, 1 0 1
Ice ages, 62
Identification ,
of m i n e r a l s , 26-27
Igneous rocks,
classification of, 89-93
common extrusive, 93
common intrusive, 93
as continental foundation, 83
form of, 92
intrusive, 8 6
joints i n , 1 1 0
and magmas, 92
in mounta i n ranges,
1 20
texture of, 92
I n c i sed meanders, 1 05
I ndustry,
minerals used in,
96- 1 03
I nstruments,
gravimeter, 1 32
seismograph, 1 26- 1 27
Intrusions,
layered, 88
sha l l ow, 86
Intrusive igneous rocks,
86, 93
lslond arcs, 1 23 , 1 381 39 , 1 45
Island trenches, 1 38- 1 39,
1 45
Isostasy, 1 33
Joints, and rocks, 1 1 0
J u p i ter, 1 0
Kame terraces, 60
Kames, 60
Kettle holes, 60
lacco l i t h s , 87
landforms, erosi o n a l , 48
landslides, 39

lava, 85
li mestone, 79, 1 03
and porosity, 4 9
limonite, 28
lithological corre l a t i o n ,
151
loess deposits, 77
loggin g, electri c , 1 3 1
lopoliths, 88
luster, of m i nera l s , 26
Mag m a , 90-9 1 , 9 2
Magmatic o r e s , 1 00
Magnetic lields, 1 34 , 1 35
Magnetic surveys, 1 35
Magnetometers, 1 34
Montie, 1 29
convection currents,
1 46 , 1 47
Mop(s),
geologic U . S . , 1 54- 1 55
paleographic, 1 53
Marble, 95
Marine deposi t i o n , 70
Marine sed i ments, 72-73
Mass wastin g , 38
Measurement(s) ,
of age in rocks ,
1 48- 1 49
of earth, 7
geophysica l , 1 30
of s u n , 1 3
Mechanical weatheri n g ,
36
Mercury, 1 0
Metamorphic ores, 1 0 1
Metamorphic rock s ,
foliation in, 94
i n mounta i n chains, 1 20
recrysta l l i zation i n , 95
textural changes i n , 94
Metamorph i s m , 94-95
and new m i n e r a l s , 95
Meteors, 1 1
Meteorites, 1 1
Micas, 29
Mid-ocean ridges, 1 23 ,
1 36
Milky Way, 1 4
Mineral(s),
atomic structure of, 24
carbonates, 2 8
characteristics o f ,
22-24
color of, 27
constructiona l , 1 03
common ore, 3 1
crystal form of, 25
fuels, 98
hardness of, 2 6
identification of,
26-27

Minerol(s) (con t . ) :
and i ndustry, 96- 1 03
luster of, 26
oxides, 28-29
rock-fo r m i n g , 28-30
sulfates, 28
Monoc l i n e s , 1 07
Monoc l i n i c crysta l s , 25
Moon, 1 0
Mora ines, 59
Mounta i n - b u i l d i n g ,
1 1 5- 1 24, 1 45
Mountain ranges,
folded , 1 1 9- 1 2 1
and gravity anomalies,
1 33
structu r a l , 1 1 8
Mounta i n s , 1 1 5- 1 24, 1 33
and crustal movement,
1 1 5- 1 24
dome, 1 1 8
erosional, 1 1 7
erosion in folded, 1 2 1
fa u l t blocks, 1 1 8
and orogeny, 1 24
roots of, 1 2 1
uplift i n folded, 1 2 1
volca n i c , 1 1 6
Mud cracks, 8 1
Natural bridges, 4 8
N iagara Falls, 4 4 , 4 5
N utation , o f earth, 1 2
Ocean(s), 63-73
currents in, 64
floor, 1 23
floor spreading,
1 40- 1 4 1
salt content i n , 64, 1 48
structure of, 1 36- 1 43
tides i n , 65
water movement i n ,
64-7 1
waves i n , 65
Obsid i a n , 93
Off-shore bars, 7 1
O i l shale, 99
Olivine, 30
Oozes, 73
Ore(s),
deposits, 1 00
hydrotherma l , 1 0 1
magmatic, 1 00
meta l l i c , 1 02
metamorphic, 1 0 1
minerals, 3 1
sedim entary, 1 02
Orthorhombic crysta l s ,
25
Outcrop and faults, 1 1 3
Outwash deposits, 60

Oxides, 28
Oxyg e n ,
i n e a r t h ' s crust, 22
Paleographic mops, 1 53
Paleomagneti s m , 1 34
Petro leum, 98, 99
P h y l l ites, 94
Physical geology, 5
Ph y sical oceanography, 5
P i l l o w l a v a , 85
P i racy,
river, 47
strea m , 45
Placer deposits, 1 02
Planetesimal theory, 1 7
Planets, 1 0, 1 1 , 1 7
Plateau basa lts, 84
Plate tecto n i c s , 1 44- 1 47
Pluto, 1 0
Plutonic intru sive rocks,
86
Porosity,
of l i mestone, 49
of rock and sand, 4 9
Pratt-Welker c h a i n o f
guyots, 1 42
Pratt's hypothes i s , 1 33
Precession, of earth, 1 2
P u m i c e , 93
Pyrite, 3 1
Pyroxenes, 30
Quartz, 29
Quartzite, 95
Radial drai nage patte r n ,
47
Radi oactive decay, 1 48
Radio carbon dating, 1 49
Raised beaches, 1 04
Rapids, and erosion, 44
Red Sea, and rift va l leys,
1 1 2 , 1 33
Rego l i t h , 35
Rejuvenation,
and erosion, 44
Residual mineral
deposits, 1 02
Reverse fault, 1 1 2
Revolution, of earth, 1 2
Ridges, m i d -ocea n , 1 2 3 ,
1 36
Rift va l ley, 1 1 2 , 1 33
Ripple marks, 8 1
River(s),
cycles, 4 2
f o r m of, 4 1
pi racy, 47
profi les, 42-43
Rock(s),
deformation , 1 06- 1 1 4

1 59

Rock(s) (cont . ) ,
facies, 1 50
fractures, 1 1 0
igneous, 89-93
measuring age of,
1 48-1 49
metamorphic, 94, 95,
1 20
sedimentary, 78-8 1
systems, 1 5 1
Rock lo l l s , 3 8
Rock-forming m i n e r a l s ,
2 8-30
Ropy lava, 85
Rotat i o n ,
of e a r t h , 1 2
Sand ,
in i n d ustry, 1 03
Sand bars, 7 1
Sand dunes, 76-77
Sandstone, 78
Sate l l ites, 1 0
Scour structures, 8 1
Seafloor,
spreading of, 1 40- 1 4 1
Sea level s ,
and coastal features,
69
a n d glaciation, 62
Sea mounts, 1 37
Sea water, 64
Sedimentary ores, 1 02
Sedimentary rocks 78-8 1
c a l formed, 79
s i ,
dating of, 1 50
detrita l , 78
joints i n , 1 1 0
in mounta i n ranges,
1 20
organic, 79
Sed i m entary structures, 8 1
Sed i m ents,
marine, 72-73
red-clay, 73
Seismograms, 1 26- 1 27
Seismograph, 1 26, 1 27
Septarian nodule, 49
Shale, 79
o i l , 99
Shell,
conti nenta l , 66, 67
Shield volcanoes, 84
S i l iceous ooze, 73
Silicon,
in earth's crust, 2 2
S i l l s , 86, 87
Slickensides,
and faults, 1 1 3

r: 7

Slope,
continenta l , 66, 67
Slumps, 39
Soi l ,
mass wasting of, 38
and weather ing, 37
Soil creep, 39
Solar syste m ,
movement of, 1 2
origin of, 1 6- 1 7
Space,
planets in, 1 0- 1 1
Specific gravity,
of minera l s , 27
Sphalerite, 3 1
Sp i
l s, 1 1 3
Stocks, 88
Stone aggregate, 1 03
Storm beaches, 7 1
Stratigraphic correlation,
1 50
Stream(s),
consequent, 46
piracy, 45
Strike-sl i p f a u l t s , 1 1 2
Structural geology, 5
Studies and surveys ,
geomagneti s m , 1 34

;Jf

;;r2?

30
paleomagnetic,
1 35
Submarine canyons,
67
Submerged coastlines,
69
Subsidence, 39
Sudbury deposits, 1 00
Su lfates, 28
S u n , 1 0, 1 3
Superimposed drai nage
pattern, 46
Synclines, 1 07 , 1 08
Tear faults, 1 1 2
Tensional faults, 1 1 1
Tetragonal crysta l s , 25
Thrust lo u l t , 1 1 2
Tides, 65
h
s
u t , 1 4 1 ,
1 44, 1 45
Tre l l i s drainage patterns,
46
Trenches,
island, 1 38-1 39
submarine, 1 23
Triassic equator, 1 35
Tric l i n i c crysta l s , 25

{ t

Tsuna m i s , 1 25
Tu rbidity currents, 67
U n conform ities , 1 05, J 1 4
Underground water,
49-53
U n iverse, o r i g i n of, 1 6
U p l ift,
and erosi o n , 44
fau l t s , 1 1 2
Uranium,
and age s t u d i e s , 1 49
Varve c l a y s , 60
Varved bed d i n g , 8 1
Ventifacts, 75
Volca n i c ,
activity, 8 3 , 8 4
bomb, 85
island arcs, 1 38-1 39
plugs, 87
prod ucts, 85
tuff, 85
Vo lcanoes, 83-85, 1 42
distribution, 85, 1 23 ,
1 42
form of, 84
prod ucts of, 85
s h i e l d , 84
Vulcan i s m , 33
Water,
and d rainage patterns,
46-55
and erosi o n , 40-4 1
as natural resource,
54-55
and hydro logic cyc l e ,
40
origin o f , 2 0
supply of, 50
table , 50
undergro u n d , 49-53
Waterfa l l s ,
a n d erosion, 4 4
Waves, i n ocean s , 65
Weath e r i n g , 35
chem i c a l , 36
d i fferentia l , 48
effects of, 35
mecha nica l , 36
spheroida l , 36
and s o i l , 37
ula, 1 5

d, ;;

deposits, 76-77
Wor l d ,
size and s h a p e o f , 6-7
Yosemite Vo l ley, 34

1 60

GEOLOGY

a, CktcU,
FRANK RHODES, President of Cornell University, was
educated at Solihull School and the University of Birming
ham. He has held teaching positions at the University of
illinois and the University of Wales, Swansea, where he
was Professor and Head of the Geology Department for
12 years . He served successively as Professor of Geology,
Dean of the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts,
and Vice President for Academic Affairs at the University
of Michigan. He is past Chairman of the Boards of the
Carnegie Foundation, the American Council on Educa
tion, and the Association of American Universities. He is
a member of the National Science Board and President
Bush's Education Policy Advisory Committee and holds
honorary degrees from 20 colleges and universities .
RAYMOND PERLMAN, teacher, designer, illustrator,
and formerly Professor of Art (in charge of graphic
design) at the University of illinois, in Champaign, holds
degrees in fine arts from that university, and has a Master
of Professional Arts degree from the Art Center School in
Los Angeles . In the Golden Guide Series he has illus
trated Fossils, Geology, and Rocks and Minerals. HOWARD
FRIEDMAN prepared the illustrations on pages 97, 1 22123, 139 bottom, 142 bottom, 145 top, 146, 147, and 153.