VLDCA2

HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG
===== =====
SCH BI GING
VT L I CNG A2
(Dng cho sinh vin h o to i hc t xa)
Lu hnh ni b
H NI - 2005
HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG
BI GING
VT L I CNG A2
Bin son :
TS. V TH THANH H
ThS. HONG TH LAN HNG
Hiu nh:
TS. L TH MINH THANH
Li ni u
LI NI U
Tp VT L I CNG (A2) ny l tp hai ca b sch hng dn hc tp mn
Vt l i cng cho sinh vin h o to i hc t xa ca Hc vin Cng ngh Bu chnh
Vin thng, c bin son theo chng trnh ci cch gio dc do B Gio dc v o
to thng qua (1990).
B sch gm hai tp:
Tp I: VT L I CNG (A1) bao gm cc phn C, NHIT, IN, T do
Ts. V Vn Nhn, Ts. V inh Chu v Ks. Bi Xun Hi bin son.
Tp II: VT L I CNG (A2) bao gm cc phn QUANG HC, THUYT
TNG I HP, C HC LNG T V VT L NGUYN T do Ts. V Th
Thanh H v ThS. Hong Th Lan Hng bin son.
Tp sch Vt l i cng A2 gm 8 chng:
- Chng I: Dao ng in t
- Chng II: Giao thoa nh sng
- Chng III: Nhiu x nh sng
- Chng IV: Phn cc nh sng
- Chng V: Thuyt tng i hp
- Chng VI: Quang hc lng t
- Chng VII: C hc lng t
- Chng VIII: Vt l nguyn t.
Trong mi chng u c:
1. Mc ch, yu cu gip sinh vin nm c trng tm ca chng.
2. Tm tt ni dung gip sinh vin nm bt c vn t ra, hng gii quyt v
nhng kt qu chnh cn nm vng.
3. Cu hi l thuyt gip sinh vin t kim tra phn c v hiu ca mnh.
4. Bi tp gip sinh vin t kim tra kh nng vn dng kin thc l thuyt gii
quyt nhng bi ton c th.
Phn cng bin son tp VT L I CNG (A2) nh sau:
V Th Thanh H bin son l thuyt cc chng II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII.
Hong Th Lan Hng bin son l thuyt chng I v bi tp ca tt c cc
chng. 1
Li ni u
Tp VT L I CNG (A2) ny mi in ln u, nn khng trnh khi nhng
thiu st. Chng ti xin chn thnh cm n s ng gp qu bu ca bn c cho quyn
sch ny.
H Ni, ngy 1 thng 11 nm 2005
NHM TC GI
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
CHNG I: DAO NG IN T
Dao ng in t l s bin thin tun hon theo thi gian ca cc i lng in v
t, c th nh in tch q trn cc bn t in, cng dng in i trong mt mch in
xoay chiu, hiu in th gia hai u mt cun dy hay s bin thin tun hon ca in
trng, t trng trong khng gian v.v... Tu theo cu to ca mch in, dao ng in
t trong mch chia ra: dao ng in t iu ho, dao ng in t tt dn v dao ng
in t cng bc.
I. MC CH - YU CU
1. Nm c dao ng in t iu ho, dao dng in t tt dn, dao ng in t
cng bc, hin tng cng hng.
2. Nm c phng php tng hp hai dao ng iu ho cng phng v cng tn s,
hai dao ng iu ho cng tn s v c phng vung gc.
II. NI DUNG:
1. DAO NG IN T IU HO
1. Mch dao ng in t LC
Xt mt mch in gm mt t in c in dung C, mt cun dy c h s t

cm L. B qua in tr trong mch. Trc ht, t in C c b ngun tch in n
in tch Q0, hiu in th U0. Sau , ta b b ngun i v ng kho ca mch dao
ng. Trong mch c bin thin tun hon theo thi gian ca cng dng in i, in
tch q trn bn t in, hiu in th gia hai bn t, nng lng in trng ca t
in, nng lng t trng ca ng dy ...
Cc dao ng in t ny c dng hnh sin
vi tn s 0 v bin dao ng khng i.
Do , cc dao ng ny c gi l cc dao
ng in t iu ho. Mt khc trong mch ch
c mt cc yu t ring ca mch nh t in C
v cun cm L, nn cc dao ng in t ny
c gi l cc dao ng in t ring.
Hnh 1-1. Mch dao ng in t

ring
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
Ta xt chi tit hn qu trnh dao ng ca mch trong mt chu k T. Ti thi im

t = 0, in tch ca t l Q 0 , hiu in th gia hai bn l U 0 = Q 0 / C , nng lng
in trng ca t in c gi tr cc i bng:
E e(max ) =
Q 02
2C
(1-1)
Cho t phng in qua cun cm L. Dng in do t phng ra tng t ngt t

khng, dng in bin i ny lm cho t thng gi qua cun cm L tng dn. Trong
cun cm L c mt dng in t cm ngc chiu vi dng in do t C phng ra, nn
dng in tng hp trong mch tng dn, in tch trn hai bn t gim dn. Lc ny
nng lng in trng ca t in Ee= q 2 / 2C gim dn, cn nng lng t trng
trong lng ng dy Em = Li 2 / 2 tng dn. Nh vy, c s chuyn ho dn t nng
lng in trng sang nng lng t trng.
Hnh 1-2. Qu trnh to thnh dao ng in t ring

Khi t C phng ht in tch, nng lng in trng Ee = 0, dng in trong
mch t gi tr cc i I0, nng lng t trng trong ng dy t gi tr cc i
E m(max ) = LI 02 / 2 , l thi im t = T/4. Sau dng in do t phng ra bt u
gim v trong cun dy li xut hin mt dng in t cm cng chiu vi dng in do
t phng ra . V vy dng in trong mch gim dn t gi tr I0 v khng, qu trnh ny
xy ra trong khong t t = T/4 n t = T/2. Trong qu trnh bin i ny cun L ng
vai tr ca ngun np in cho t C nhng theo chiu ngc li, in tch ca t li tng
dn t gi tr khng n gi tr cc i Q0. V mt nng lng th nng lng in
trng tng dn, cn nng lng t trng gim dn. Nh vy c s chuyn ho t
nng lng t trng thnh nng lng in trng, giai on ny kt thc ti thi im
t = T/2, lc ny cun cm gii phng ht nng lng v in tch trn hai bn t li
t gi tr cc i Q0 nhng i du hai bn, nng lng in trng li t gi tr cc
i E e(max ) = Q 02 / 2C . Ti y, kt thc qu trnh dao ng trong mt na chu k u.
T C phng in vo cun cm theo chiu ngc vi na chu k u, cun cm li
6
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
c tch nng lng ri li gii phng nng lng, t C li c tch in v n cui

chu k (t = T) t C c tch in vi du in tch trn cc bn nh ti thi im ban
u, mch dao ng in t tr li trng thi dao ng ban u. Mt dao ng in t
ton phn c hon thnh. Di y ta thit lp phng trnh m t dao ng in
t trn.
2. Phng trnh dao ng in t iu ho
V khng c s mt mt nng lng trong mch, nn nng lng in t ca mch

khng i:
E e + E m = E = const
Thay E e =
(1-2)
q2
Li 2
v E m =
vo (1-2), ta c:
2C
2
q 2 Li 2
+
= const
2C
2
(1-3)
Ly o hm c hai v ca (1-3) theo thi gian ri thay dq / dt = i , ta thu c:

q Ldi
+
=0
C dt
(1-4)
Ly o hm c hai v ca (1-4) theo thi gian ri thay dq/dt =i, ta c:

d 2i
dt 2
1
i=0
LC
(1-5)
+ 02 i = 0
(1-6)
1
= 02 , ta c:
LC
d 2i
dt
l phng trnh vi phn cp hai thun nht c h s khng i. Nghim tng qut
ca (1-6) c dng:
i = I 0 cos(0 t + )
(1-7)
trong I0 l bin ca cng dng in, l pha ban u ca dao ng, 0 l tn

s gc ring ca dao ng:
0 =
1
LC
(1-8)
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
T tm c chu k dao ng ring

T0 ca dao ng in t iu ho:
T0 =
2
= 2 LC
0
(1-9)
Cui cng ta nhn xt rng in tch

ca t in, hiu in th gia hai bn
t. cng bin thin vi thi gian theo
nhng phng trnh c dng tng t
nh (1-7).
Hnh 1-3. ng biu din dao ng

iu ho
2. DAO NG IN T TT DN
1. Mch dao ng in t RLC
Trong mch dao ng by gi c thm mt in

tr R tng trng cho in tr ca ton mch (hnh
1-4). Ta cng tin hnh np in cho t C, sau cho t
in phng in qua in tr R v ng dy L. Tng t
nh trnh by bi dao ng in t iu ho, y
cng xut hin cc qu trnh chuyn ho gia nng
lng in trng ca t in v nng lng t trng
ca ng dy. Nhng do c s to nhit trn in tr R,
nn cc dao ng ca cc i lng nh i, q, u,... khng Hnh 1-4. Mch dao ng in
t tt dn
cn dng hnh sin na, cc bin ca chng khng
cn l cc i lng khng i nh trong trng hp
dao ng in t iu ho, m gim dn theo thi gian. Do , loi dao ng ny c
gi l dao ng in t tt dn. Mch dao ng RLC trn c gi l mch dao ng
in t tt dn.
2. Phng trnh dao ng in t tt dn
Do trong mch c in tr R, nn trong thi gian dt phn nng lng to nhit

trn in tr Ri2dt bng gim nng lng in t -dE ca mch. Theo nh lut bo
ton v chuyn ho nng lng, ta c:
dE = Ri 2 dt
(1-10)
q 2 Li 2
+
vo (1-10), ta c:
Thay E =
2C
2
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
q 2 Li 2
= Ri 2 dt
d
+
2C
2
(1-11)
Chia c hai v ca phng trnh (1-11) cho dt, sau ly o hm theo thi gian v
thay dq/dt = i, ta thu c:
q
di
+ L = Ri
C
dt
(1-12)
Ly o hm c hai v ca (1-12) theo thi gian v thay dq/dt = i, ta thu c:

d 2i
dt 2
R di
1
+
i=0
L dt LC
(1-13)
R
1
= 2 ,
= 02 , ta thu c phng trnh:
L
LC
d 2i
+ 2
di
+ 02 i = 0
dt
(1-14)
dt
l phng trnh vi phn cp hai thun nht c h s khng i. Vi iu kin h s
2
tt nh sao cho 0 > hay
1 R
>
LC 2L
th nghim tng qut ca phng trnh
(1-14) c dng:
i = I 0 e t cos(t + )
(1-15)
trong I0, l hng s tch phn ph thuc vo iu kin ban u, cn l tn s gc

ca dao ng in t tt dn v c gi tr:
=
1 R

LC 2L
< 0
(1-16)
Chu k ca dao ng in t tt dn:

T=
2
=
2
1 R

LC 2L
2
02
(1-17)
Nh vy, chu k dao ng tt dn ln hn chu k dao ng ring trong mch.

i lng I 0 e t l bin ca dao ng tt dn. N gim dn vi thi gian theo qui
lut hm m. Tnh cht tt dn ca dao ng in t c c trng bng mt i lng
gi l lng gim lga, k hiu bng ch : lng gim lga c gi tr bng lga t
nhin ca t s gia hai tr s lin tip ca bin dao ng cch nhau mt khong thi
gian bng mt chu k dao ng T. Theo nh ngha ta c:
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
= ln
I 0 e t
I 0 e (t +T )
= T
(1-18)
trong = R / 2L , r rng l nu R cng
ln th cng ln v dao ng tt cng

nhanh. iu ph hp vi thc t.
Ch : trong mch dao ng RLC ghp ni
tip, ta ch c hin tng dao ng in t
khi:
2
1
L
R
>
hay R < 2
LC 2L
C
Tr s R 0 = 2
L
c gi l in tr ti
C
Hnh 1-5. ng biu din dao ng

in t tt dn
hn ca mch. Nu R R0 trong mch

khng c dao ng.
3. DAO NG IN T CNG BC
1.Hin tng:
duy tr dao ng in t trong mch dao

ng RLC, ngi ta phi cung cp nng lng cho
mch in b li phn nng lng b tn hao
trn in tr R. Mun vy, cn mc thm vo mch
mt ngun in xoay chiu c sut in ng bin
thin tun hon theo thi gian vi tn s gc v
bin E0: E= E0sint
Hnh 1-6. Mch dao ng in

t cng bc
Lc u dao ng trong mch l chng cht ca

hai dao ng: dao ng tt dn vi tn s gc v dao ng cng bc vi tn s gc
. Giai on qu ny xy ra rt ngn, sau dao ng tt dn khng cn na v
trong mch ch cn dao ng in t khng tt c tn s gc bng tn s gc ca
ngun in. l dao ng in t cng bc.
2. Phng trnh dao ng in t cng bc
Trong thi gian dt, ngun in cung cp cho mch mt nng lng bng Eidt.
Phn nng lng ny dng b p vo phn nng lng to nhit Joule - Lenx v
10
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
tng nng lng in t trong mch. Theo nh lut bo ton v chuyn ho nng lng,
ta c :
dE + Ri 2dt = Eidt
(1-19)
q 2 Li2
+ Ri 2dt = Eidt
d
+
2C
2
(1-20)
Thc hin php ly vi phn v thay E= E0sint ta c:

q
di
+ Ri + = E0 sin t
dt
C
Ly o hm hai v theo thi gian ca (1-21), thay dq/dt = i, ta c:
L
d 2i
dt 2
+R
di i
+ = E0 cos t
dt C
(1-21)
(1-22)
1
R
= 2 ,
= 02 , ta thu c phng trnh:
L
LC
d 2i
dt 2
+ 2
E
di
+ 02 i = 0 cos t
dt
L
(1-23)
Phng trnh vi phn (1-23) c nghim l tng ca hai nghim:

- Nghim tng qut ca phng trnh thun nht. chnh l nghim ca
phng trnh dao ng in t tt dn.
- Nghim ring ca phng trnh khng thun nht. Nghim ny biu din mt
dao ng in t khng tt do tc dng ca ngun in. Nghim ny c dng:
i = I 0 cos(t + )
(1-24)
trong l tn s gc ca ngun in kch thch, I0 l bin , l pha ban u ca

dao ng, c xc nh bng:
I0 =
E0
1
R 2 + L
, cot g =
1
C
L
R
t Z = R 2 + L
v gi l tng tr
C
1
ln
C
lt l cm khng v dung khng ca mch dao
ng.
ca mch dao ng, Z L = L v Z C =
11
Hnh 1-7. ng biu din dao

ng in t cng bc
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
3. Hin tng cng hng
Cng thc trn chng t bin I0 ca dng in cng bc ph thuc vo gi tr

tn s gc ca ngun xoay chiu kch thch. c bit vi mt in tr R nht nh, bin
I0 t gi tr cc i khi tn s gc c gi tr sao cho tng tr Z ca mch dao ng
cc tiu, gi tr ca phi tho mn iu kin:
1
= 0 hay =
C
(1-25)
LC
ta thy gi tr ny ca ng bng tn s gc ca mch dao ng ring:
ch = 0
(1-26)
Hin tng bin dng in ca mch dao

ng in t cng bc t gi tr cc i
c gi l hin tng cng hng in. Vy
hin tng cng hng in xy ra khi tn s
gc ca ngun xoay chiu kch thch c gi tr
bng tn s gc ring ca mch dao ng.
Gi tr ch ca ngun xoay chiu kch
thch c gi l tn s cng hng. ng
biu din (1-8) cho ta thy r s bin thin ca
bin dng in I0 ca mch dao ng cng
Hnh1-8. ng biu din cng

hng in
bc theo tn s gc ca ngun xoay chiu kch thch.

Trong thc t, mun xy ra cng hng in, ta dng hai phng php sau:
- Hoc thay i tn s gc ca ngun kch thch sao cho n bng tn s gc
ring 0 ca mch dao ng.
- Hoc thay i h s t cm L v in dung C ca mch dao ng sao cho tn
s gc ring 0 ng bng tn s gc ca ngun kch thch.
Hin tng cng hng in c ng dng rt rng ri trong k thut v tuyn
in, th d trong vic thu sng in t ( mch chn sng).
4. S TNG HP DAO NG
1.Tng hp hai dao ng iu ho cng phng v cng tn s
Gi s c mt cht im tham gia ng thi hai dao ng iu ho cng phng

v cng tn s:
x1 = A1 cos(0 t + 1 )
(1-27)
x 2 = A 2 cos(0 t + 2 )
(1-28)
12
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
Hai dao ng ny cng phng Ox v cng tn s gc 0, nhng khc bin v pha

ban u. Dao ng tng hp ca cht im bng tng ca hai dao ng thnh phn
x = x1 + x2 = A cos(0t + )
(1-29)
C th tm dng ca x bng phng php cng lng gic. Nhng thun tin, ta dng
phng php gin Fresnel.
r
r
V hai vc t OM1, OM 2 cng t ti im O, c ln bng bin A1, A2 ca
hai dao ng . thi im t = 0, chng hp vi trc Ox cc gc 1 v 2 l pha ban u.
r
r
Khi tng hp ca OM1, OM 2 l mt vc t
r
r
r
OM = OM1 + OM 2
(1-30)
r
vc t OM trng vi ng cho ca hnh bnh hnh OM1MM2, c ln bng A v
hp vi trc Ox mt gc v c xc nh bi h thc:
A = A12 + A 22 + 2A1A 2 cos(2 1 ) , tg =
A1 sin 1 + A 2 sin 2
A1 cos 1 + A 2 cos 2
(1.31)
Hnh 1-9. Tng hp hai dao ng iu ho cng phng, cng tn s.

r
r
Hai vc t OM1 v OM 2 quay xung quanh im O theo chiu dng vi cng vn
tc gc khng i bng tn s gc 0 . thi im t, hai vc t ny s hp vi trc Ox
cc gc (0t + 1) v (0t + 2) ng bng pha dao ng x1 v x2. Hnh chiu trn
r
r
phng Ox ca hai vc t OM1 v OM 2 c gi tr bng:
r
hc ox OM1 = A1 cos(0 t + 1 ) = x1
(1-32)
r
hc ox OM 2 = A 2 cos(0 t + 2 ) = x 2
(1-33)
13
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
r
r
V hai vc t OM1 v OM 2 quay theo chiu dng vi cng vn tc gc 0 , nn hnh
bnh hnh OM1MM2 gi nguyn dng khi n quay quanh im O. Do , thi im t,

r
vc t tng hp OM vn c ln bng A v hp vi trc Ox mt gc (0t + ). Hnh
r
chiu trn phng Ox ca vc t tng hp OM c tr s bng:
r
hc ox OM = A cos(0 t + ) = x
(1-34)
Mt khc theo nh l v hnh chiu, ta c:
r
r
r
hc ox OM = hc ox OM1 + hc ox OM 2
(1-35)
Nh vy, tng hp hai dao ng iu ho x1 v x2 cng phng, cng tn s gc

cng l mt dao ng iu ho x c cng phng v cng tn s gc 0 vi cc dao
ng thnh phn, cn bin A v pha ban u ca n c xc nh bi (1-31) . H
thc (1-31) cho thy bin A ca dao ng tng hp x ph thuc vo hiu pha
(1 2 ) ca hai dao ng thnh phn x1 v x2:
- Nu (2 1) = 2k , vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th cos(2 1 ) = 1 v bin A

t cc i:
A = A1 + A 2 = A max
(1-36)
Trong trng hp ny, hai dao ng x1 v x2 cng phng, cng chiu v c gi l

hai dao ng cng pha.
- Nu (2 1) = (2k + 1) , vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th cos(2 1 ) = 1 v
bin A t cc tiu:
A = A1 A 2 = A min
(1-37)
Trong trng hp ny, hai dao ng x1v x2 cng phng ngc chiu v gi l hai dao
ng ngc pha.
2. Tng hp hai dao ng iu ho c phng vung gc v cng tn s gc
Gi s mt cht im tham gia ng thi hai dao ng iu ho x v y c phng

vung gc v cng tn s gc 0 :
x = A1 cos(0 t + 1 )
x
= cos 0 t cos 1 sin 0 t sin 1
A1
y = A 2 cos(0 t + 2 )
y
= cos 0 t cos 2 sin 0 t sin 2
A2
14
(1.38)
(1-39)
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
Ln lt nhn (1-38) v (1-39) vi cos 2 v cos 1 ,
ri cng v vi v:
y
x
cos 2
cos 1 = sin 0 t sin ( 2 1 )
A1
A2
(1-40)
Tng t, ln lt nhn (1-38) v (1-39) vi sin 2 v

sin 1 , ri cng v vi v:
y
x
sin 2
sin 1 = cos 0 t sin ( 2 1 )
A1
A2
(1-41)
Hnh 1-10. Hai dao ng iu
ho vung gc
Bnh phng hai v (1-40) , (1-41) ri cng v vi v:
x2
A12
y2
A 22
2 xy
cos( 2 1 ) = sin 2 ( 2 1 )
A1A 2
(1-42)
Phng trnh (1-42) chng t qu o chuyn ng tng hp ca hai dao ng iu ho

c phng vung gc v c cng tn s gc l mt ng elip. Dng ca elip ny ph
thuc vo gi tr ca hiu pha ( 2 1 ) ca hai dao ng thnh phn x v y.
- Nu ( 2 1 ) = 2k , vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th (1-42) tr thnh:
x2
A12
y2
A 22
y
2xy
x
= 0 hay
=0
A1 A 2
A1 A 2
(1-43)
Phng trnh (1-43) chng t cht

im dao ng theo ng thng nm
trong cung phn t I v III, i qua v
tr cn bng bn ca cht im ti gc
O v trng vi ng cho ca hnh
ch nht c hai cnh bng 2A1 v
Hnh 1-11. Qu o ca cht im
khi 2 1 =2k
2A 2 .
- Nu ( 2 1 ) = (2k + 1) , vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th (1-42) tr thnh:

x2
A12
y2
A 22
2xy
y
x
= 0 hay
+
=0
A1 A 2
A1 A 2
15
(1-44)
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
Phng trnh (1-44) chng t cht

im dao ng theo ng thng nm
trong cung phn t II v IV, i qua v
tr cn bng bn ca cht im ti gc
O v trng vi ng cho ca hnh
ch nht c hai cnh bng 2A1 v
2A 2 .
Hnh 1-12. Qu o ca cht im

khi 2 1 =(2k+1)
- Nu ( 2 1 ) = (2k + 1)
x2
A12
y2
A 22
, vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th (1-42) tr thnh:

2
=1
(1-45)
Hnh 1-13: Qu o ca cht im khi
Qu o ca cht im khi
2-1=(2k+1)/2
2-1=(2k+1)/2 v A1=A2
Phng trnh (1-45) chng t cht im dao ng trn mt qu o lip dng chnh tc
c hai bn trc l A1 v A 2 . c bit nu A1 = A 2 = A th (1-45) tr thnh:
x 2 + y2 = A2
(1-46)
Trong trng hp ny, qu o ca cht im l ng trn c tm ti gc to O v bn

knh bng A.
-
Nu ( 2 1 ) c cc gi tr khc vi cc gi tr nu trn th cht im s

chuyn ng trn nhng qu o lip xin.
16
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
2 1 = 0
/2 < 2 1 <
2 1 = 3/2
0 < 2 - 1 < /2
2 1 =
3/2 < 2 1 <2
2 1=/2
< 2 - 1 <3/2
2 1 =2
Hnh 1.14. Cc dng qu o ca cht im khi 2 1= 0 2 v A1 = A2

Nh vy: Tng hp hai dao ng iu ho c phng vung gc vi nhau v cng
tn s gc l mt dao ng c dng elip (trong nhng trng hp ring l mt dao ng
iu ho).
III. TM TT NI DUNG
1. Dao ng in t iu ho: Mch dao ng ch c L v C ( R = 0), cc i lng in
v t tham gia dao ng theo qui lut iu ho hnh sin ( hoc cosin) ca thi gian vi
tn s ring 0, bin dao ng khng i.
17
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
2. Dao ng in t tt dn: Trong mch dao ng LC c thm in tr R, do c s

hao tn nng lng do to nhit Joule Lenx, bin dao ng trong trng hp ny
gim theo qui lut hm m, chu k dao ng T ln hn chu k dao ng ring T0.
3. Dao ng in t cng bc: Trong mch dao ng RLC mc thm mt ngun in
kch thch c tn s cung cp tun hon phn nng lng b mt do to nhit. Dao
ng in t s c duy tr vi tn s gc ca ngun kch thch. Mt hin tng
quan trng trong trng hp ny l khi tn s gc ca ngun kch thch bng tn s
gc ring 0 ca mch dao ng th c hin tng cng hng xy ra. Khi , bin
ca dng in s cc i. Tn s c gi l tn s cng hng ch = 0. Hin
tng cng hng c rt nhiu ng dng trong khoa hc k thut, nht l trong ngnh
v tuyn in.
4. Tng hp hai dao ng iu ho cng phng, cng tn s
Gi s c mt cht im tham gia ng thi hai dao ng iu ho cng phng

v cng tn s:
x1 = A1 cos(0 t + 1 )
x 2 = A 2 cos(0 t + 2 )
Dao ng tng hp c dng: x = x1 + x 2 = A cos(0 t + )
Trong : A = A12 + A 22 + 2A1A 2 cos( 2 1 ) , tg =
A1 sin 1 + A 2 sin 2
A1 cos 1 + A 2 cos 2
- Nu ( 2 1 ) = 2k , vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th A = A1 + A 2 = A max
- Nu ( 2 1 ) = (2k + 1) , vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th A = A1 A 2 = A min
5. Tng hp hai dao ng iu ho cng tn s c phng vung gc:
Gi s mt cht im tham gia ng thi hai dao ng iu ho x v y c phng

vung gc v cng tn s gc 0 :
x = A1 cos(0 t + 1 )
y = A 2 cos(0 t + 2 )
Phng trnh qu o chuyn ng tng hp ca cht im:
x2
A12
y2
A 22
2 xy
cos( 2 1 ) = sin 2 ( 2 1 )
A1A 2
- Nu ( 2 1 ) = 2k , vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th phng trnh qu o

chuyn ng tng hp ca cht im:
18
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
x2
A12
y2
A 22
y
2 xy
x
= 0 hay
=0
A1 A 2
A1 A 2
- Nu ( 2 1 ) = (2k + 1) , vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th phng trnh qu

o chuyn ng tng hp ca cht im:
x2
A12
y2
A 22
2 xy
y
x
= 0 hay
+
=0
A1 A 2
A1 A 2
, vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th phng trnh qu

2
o chuyn ng tng hp ca cht im:
- Nu ( 2 1 ) = (2k + 1)
x2
A12
y2
A 22
=1
IV. CU HI L THUYT
1.Thit lp phng trnh dao ng in t iu ho ring khng tt cho dng in:
i = I 0 cos(0 t + ) .
2. Vit biu thc tn s v chu k ca dao ng ring khng tt.
3. M t mch dao ng in t tt dn. Thit lp biu thc ca dng in trong mch
dao ng in t tt dn.
4. Vit biu thc tn s v chu k ca mch dao ng in t tt dn. So snh chu k
dao ng tt dn vi chu k dao ng ring.
5. M t mch dao ng in t cng bc. Thit lp biu thc ca dng in trong
mch dao ng in t cng bc. Nu ngha ca cc i lng c trong biu thc.
6. Hin tng cng hng l g? Khi no xy ra hin tng cng hng?
7. Vit phng trnh dao ng tng hp ca hai dao ng iu ho cng phng, cng
tn s. Khi no th bin dao ng tng hp t gi tr cc i v cc tiu?
8. Vit phng trnh dao ng tng hp ca hai dao ng iu ho cng tn s c
phng vung gc vi nhau. Vi iu kin no th dao ng tng hp c dng ng
thng, elip vung, ng trn?
V. BI TP
Th d 1: Mt mch dao ng in t iu ho gm mt cun dy thun cm c h s
t cm L = 5.10-2H v mt t in c in dung C = 2.10-6F, t c tch in ti hiu
in th cc i U0= 120V. Tnh:
19
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
1. Tn s dao ng ca mch.
2. Nng lng in t ca mch.
3. Dng in cc i trong mch.
Bi gii
1. Tn s dao ng ca mch:
f =
1
1
1
= 500 Hz
=
=
T 2 LC 2.3,14. 5.10 2.2.10 6
2. Nng lng dao ng ca mch: E =
1
1
CU 02 = 2.10 6.(120) 2 = 0,014J
2
2
3. Dng in cc i trong mch:

CU 02
2.10 6.(120) 2
1
2 1 2
=
= 0,76A
E = CU 0 = LI0 I 0 =
2
2
L
5.10 2
Th d 2: Mt mch dao ng in t gm mt t in c in dung C = 7F, cun dy

c h s t cm L = 0,23H v in tr R = 40. Ban u in tch trn hai bn t Q0 =
5,6.10-4C. Tm:
1. Chu k dao ng in t trong mch.

2. Lng gim lga ca mch dao ng in t tng ng.
3. Phng trnh bin thin theo thi gian ca cng dng in trong mch
v hiu in th gia hai bn t in.
Bi gii
1.V in tr R = 40 0 nn dao ng in t trong mch l dao ng in t tt dn.

Phng trnh dao ng ca in tch trn hai bn t:
q = Q 0 e t cos(t + )
Khi t = 0 th q = Q 0 cos , nhng theo gi thit q = Q 0 nn = 0 phng trnh dao

ng ca in tch trn hai bn t: q = Q 0 e t cos t
Chu k dao ng ca mch:
T=
2
1 R
LC 2L
2.3,14
40
6 2.0,23
0,23.7.10
1
2. Lng gim lga ca dao ng in t trong mch:
= T =
RT 40.8.10 3
=
= 0,7
2L
2.0,23
20
= 8.10 3 s
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
3.Phng trnh bin thin theo thi gian ca cng dng in v hiu in th gia
2
dq
hai bn t in:
=
= 250 (rad / s ) , i =
= 0,44e 87 t sin 250t (A )
T
dt
u=
q
= 80e 87 t cos 250t
C
(V )
Bi tp t gii
1. Mt mch dao ng in t iu ho gm mt t in c in dung C = 2F v mt
cun dy thun cm c t cm L = 0,5H. T c tch n hiu in th cc i U0=
100V.Tm:

p s
1. E =
1
1
CU 02 = .2.10 6.(100) 2 = 10 2 J
2
2
2. E =
1
1
CU 02 = LI 02 I 0 =
2
2
CU 02
=
L
2.10 6.(100) 2
= 0,2A
0,5
2. Mt mch dao ng in t iu ho gm mt t in c in dung C = 0,25F v

mt cun dy thun cm c t cm L = 1,015H. in tch cc i trn hai bn t
Q0= 2,5C. Tm:

1. Chu k, tn s dao ng ca mch.
p s: 1. T = 2 LC = 3,16.10 3 s , f =
1 Q 02
2. E =
= 12,5.10 6 J ,
2 C
1
= 316 Hz
T
3. I 0 =
Q 02
LC
= 5.103 A
3. Mt mch dao ng in t iu ho gm mt cun dy thun cm c h s t cm
L = 1H v mt t in c in tch trn hai bn t bin thin iu ho theo phng trnh

q=
5.10 5
cos 400t (C) .
1. Tm in dung ca t.
2. Tm nng lng in t ca mch.
21
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
3. Vit phng trnh bin thin theo thi gian ca cng dng in trong
mch.
1
p s: 1. 0 =
3. i =
LC
C=
1
02 L
10 6
F,
1,6
2. E =
1 Q 02
= 2.10 4 J
2 C
dq
= 2.10 2 sin 400t (A)
dt
4. Mt mch dao ng in t iu ho gm t in c in dung C = 6,3.10-7F v mt

dy thun cm c h s t cm L. Phng trnh biu din s bin thin theo thi gian
ca cng dng in trong mch i = 0,02 sin 400t (A ) . Tm:
1.Chu k, tn s dao ng.

2. H s t cm L.
3. Nng lng in trng cc i v nng lng t trng cc i.
4. Hiu in th cc i trn hai bn t.
p s
1. T =
2
1
1
= 5.10 3 s , f = = 200Hz ; 2. L =
= 1H
T
0
C02
CU 02
LI 02
4
3. E e(max) =
= 1,97.10 J , E m (max) =
= 1,97.10 4 J
2
2
4. U 0 = 25,2 (V )
5. Mt mch dao ng in t iu ho gm t in c in dung C = 9.10-7F v cun
dy thun cm c h s t cm L. Hiu in th gia hai bn t in bin thin iu ho
theo phng trnh u = 50 cos 10 4 t (V ) .

1.Tm chu k v tn s dao ng.
2. Tm h s t cm L.
3. Vit phng trnh bin thin ca cng dng in trong mch theo
thi gian.
4. Tm nng lng in t ca mch.
p s
1. T =
2
1
1
= 2.10 4 s , f = = 5.10 3 Hz ; 2. L =
= 10 3 H
2
T
0
C 0
3. i = C
CU 02
du
= 0,11.10 2 J
= 1,4 sin 10 4 t (A ) ; 4. E =
2
dt
22
Chng 1: Dao ng in t
6. Mt mch dao ng gm t in c in dung C = 0,4.10-6F, mt cun dy c h s

t cm L = 10-2H v in tr R = 2.
1. Tm chu k v tn s dao ng ca mch.

2. Sau thi gian mt chu k hiu in th gia hai ct ca t in gim i bao
nhiu ln.
1.T = 4.10-4s, f =
p s:
Ut
1
= 1,04
= 2500Hz ; 2.
T
U t +T
7. Mt mch dao ng gm t in c in dung C = 1,1.10-9F, cun dy c t cm

L = 5.10-5H v lng gim lga = 0,005. Tm thi gian nng lng in t trong
mch gim i 99% .Coi gn ng chu k dao ng ca mch T = 2 LC .

p s: Nng lng dao ng ti thi im t l Et, nng lng dao ng ti thi im
t + t l Et + t.
Sau thi gian t nng lng gim 99%, ngha l cn li 1%
Et
(Q 0 e t ) 2
( Q 0 e ( t + t ) ) 2
= 100 , t = 6,8.10 3 s
Et =
, E t + t =
,
E t + t
2C
2C
8. Mt mch dao ng in t gm t in c in dung C = 0,2.10-6F, mt cun dy c

t cm L = 5,07.10-3H v in tr R.Tm:
1. Lng gim lga, bit hiu in th trn hai bn t gim i 3 ln sau 10-3s.
Coi gn ng chu k dao ng ca mch theo cng thc T = 2 LC .
2. in tr R ca mch.
U
T ln 0
4
U1 = 2.10 ln 3 = 0,22
p s: 1. T = 2 LC = 2.10 4 (s) , =
t
10 3
2.
R=
2L
= 11,1
T
9. Mt mch dao ng in t iu ho gm mt cun dy thun cm c t cm
L = 3.10-5H v mt t in. Mch dao ng cng hng vi bc sng = 750m. Tm

in dung ca t in. Cho c= 3.108m/s.
p s: T =
2
= 2 LC C =
= 0,52.10 8 F
2
2
c
4 c L
23
Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng
CHNG II: GIAO THOA NH SNG

I. MC CH - YU CU
1. Nm c mt s khi nim nh quang l, cng sng, hm sng nh sng, nh l
Malus v nguyn l Huygens l nhng c s ca quang hc sng.
2. Nm c nh ngha v iu kin c giao thoa nh sng.
3. Kho st hin tng giao thoa nh sng (iu kin cc i, cc tiu giao thoa, v tr vn
sng, vn ti) trong th nghim Young, giao thoa gy bi bn mng (nm khng kh, h vn
trn Newton).
4. ng dng hin tng giao thoa trong o lng, kim tra phng, cong ca cc vt,
kh phn x...
II. NI DUNG
1. C S CA QUANG HC SNG
Quang hc sng nghin cu cc hin tng giao thoa, nhiu x, phn cc... da trn
bn cht sng in t ca nh sng. Ngi u tin ra thuyt sng nh sng l nh vt l
ngi H Lan Christian Huygens nm 1687. Theo Huygens, nh sng l sng n hi
truyn trong mt mi trng c bit gi l te v tr lp y khng gian. Thuyt sng
nh sng gii thch c cc hin tng ca quang hnh hc nh phn x, khc x nh
sng. Vo u th k th 19, da vo thuyt sng nh sng Fresnel gii thch cc hin
tng giao thoa, nhiu x nh sng. Nhng khi hin tng phn cc nh sng c pht
hin th quan nim v sng n hi trong te v tr bc l r nhng thiu st. Hin
tng phn cc nh sng chng t sng nh sng l sng ngang v nh chng ta bit,
sng n hi ngang ch c th truyn trong mi trng cht rn. n nm 1865, da vo
nhng nghin cu l thuyt ca mnh v trng in t v sng in t, Maxwell nu ln
thuyt in t v sng nh sng. Trong tit ny chng ta s nghin cu v mt s nhng
khi nim c bn ca sng nh sng v cc nguyn l nh nguyn l chng cht cc sng,
nguyn l Huygens l c s ca quang hc sng.
1. Mt s khi nim c bn v sng
Sng l qu trnh truyn pha ca dao ng. Da vo cch truyn sng, ngi ta chia
sng thnh hai loi: sng ngang v sng dc.
Sng ngang l sng m phng dao ng ca cc phn t vung gc vi phng truyn
sng.
24

Sng dc l sng m phng dao ng ca cc phn t trng vi phng truyn sng.
Khng gian c sng truyn qua c gi l trng sng. Mt sng l qi tch nhng
im dao ng cng pha trong trng sng. Gii hn gia phn mi trng m sng
truyn qua v cha truyn ti gi l mt u sng. Nu sng c mt u sng l mt cu th
c gi l sng cu v nu mt u sng l mt phng th c gi l sng phng. i
vi mi trng ng cht v ng hng, ngun sng nm tm ca mt sng cu, tia sng
(phng truyn sng) vung gc vi mt u sng (hnh 2-1). Nu ngun sng rt xa
phn mi trng m ta kho st th mt sng l nhng mt phng song song, cc tia sng l
nhng ng thng song song vi nhau v vung gc vi cc mt sng (hnh 2-2).
Hnh 2-1. Sng cu
Hnh 2-2. Sng phng
2. Thuyt in t v nh sng ca Maxwell

nh sng l sng in t, ngha l trng in t bin thin theo thi gian truyn i
trong khng gian. Sng nh sng l sng ngang, bi v trong sng in t vect cng
in trng E v vect cm ng t B lun dao ng vung gc vi phng truyn sng.
Khi nh sng truyn n mt, vect cng in trng tc dng ln vng mc gy nn
cm gic sng. Do vect cng in trng trong sng nh sng gi l vect sng.
Ngi ta biu din sng nh sng bng dao ng ca vect sng E vung gc vi phng
truyn sng.
Mi sng nh sng c bc sng 0 xc nh gy nn cm gic sng v mt mu sc
xc nh v gi l nh sng n sc. Tp hp cc nh sng n sc c bc sng 0 nm
trong khong t 0,4 m n 0,76 m to thnh nh sng trng.
3. Quang l
Xt hai im A, B trong mt mi trng ng tnh chit sut n, cch nhau mt on
d
bng d. Thi gian nh sng i t A n B l t = , trong v l vn tc nh sng trong
v
mi trng.
nh ngha: Quang l gia hai im A, B l on ng nh sng truyn c trong chn
khng vi cng khong thi gian t cn thit sng nh sng i c on ng d trong
mi trng chit sut n.
25
L = ct =
c
d = nd
v
(2-1)
Chit sut n = c/ v vi c l vn tc nh sng trong chn khng.

Nh vy khi nh sng truyn trong mi trng cht, vi vic s dng khi nim
quang l chng ta chuyn qung ng nh sng i c trong mi trng chit sut n
sang qung ng tng ng trong chn khng v do ta c th s dng vn tc truyn
ca nh sng trong chn khng l c thay cho vn tc v truyn trong mi trng.
Nu nh sng truyn qua nhiu mi trng chit sut n1, n2, n3 ... vi cc qung
ng tng ng d1, d2, d3 ... th quang l s l
L = n idi
(2-2a)
Nu nh sng truyn trong mi trng m chit sut thay i lin tc th ta chia on

ng AB thnh cc on nh ds coi chit sut khng thay i trn mi on nh v
quang l s l
B
L = nds
(2-2b)
4. nh l Malus v quang l
a. Mt trc giao l mt vung gc vi cc tia ca mt chm sng.
Hnh 2-3. Mt trc giao

Theo nh ngha nu chm sng l ng qui th mt trc giao l cc mt cu ng
tm, cn nu l chm sng song song th mt trc giao l cc mt phng song song.
b. nh l Malus: Quang l ca cc tia sng gia hai mt trc giao ca mt chm sng th
bng nhau.
5. Hm sng nh sng
Xt sng nh sng phng n sc truyn theo phng y vi vn tc v trong mi
trng chit sut n. Gi s ti O phng trnh ca dao ng sng l:
x (O) = A cos t
(2-3)
th ti im M cch O mt on d, phng trnh dao ng sng l:
26
L
x ( M ) = A cos ( t ) = A cos ( t )
c
2 L
2L
= A cos( t
) = A cos( t
)
T c
(2-4)
trong l thi gian nh sng truyn t O n M, L l

quang l trn on ng OM, l bc sng nh sng
2L
trong chn khng, A l bin dao ng v =
l
pha ban u. Phng trnh (2-4) c gi l hm sng nh

sng.
Hnh 2-4
6. Cng sng
Cng sng c trng cho sng ti mi im trong khng gian c sng nh
sng truyn qua.
nh ngha: Cng sng ti mt im l i lng c tr s bng nng lng trung bnh
ca sng nh sng truyn qua mt n v din tch t vung gc vi phng truyn sng
trong mt n v thi gian.
V mt nng lng ca sng in t t l thun vi bnh phng bin ca vct
cng in trng nn cng sng ti mt im t l vi bnh phng bin dao
ng sng ti im :
I = kA2
k: H s t l. Khi nghin cu cc hin tng giao thoa, nhiu x c trng cho tnh cht
sng ca nh sng, ngi ta ch cn so snh cng sng ti cc im khc nhau m
khng cn tnh c th gi tr ca cng sng, do qui c ly k = 1:
I = A2
(2-5)
7. Nguyn l chng cht cc sng

Khi c hai hay nhiu sng nh sng truyn ti giao nhau ti mt im no trong
khng gian th s tng hp ca cc sng tun theo nguyn l chng cht cc sng. Nguyn l
ny c pht biu nh sau:
Khi hai hay nhiu sng nh sng gp nhau th tng sng ring bit khng b cc
sng khc lm cho nhiu lon. Sau khi gp nhau, cc sng nh sng vn truyn i nh c,
cn ti nhng im gp nhau dao ng sng bng tng cc dao ng sng thnh phn.
8. Nguyn l Huygens
Nguyn l Huygens c pht biu nh sau: " Mi im trong khng gian nhn c
sng sng t ngun sng thc S truyn n u tr thnh ngun sng th cp pht sng
sng v pha trc n".
Nguyn l Huygens c m t n gin trn hnh 2-5 nh sau: Sng phng c
pht ra t ngun sng v cng ti mt AB, tt c cc im trn mt sng AB u tr thnh
27

ngun th cp v li pht sng cu v pha trc, bao hnh CD ca tt c cc sng cu ny
li tr thnh mt sng.
Hnh 2-5
2. GIAO THOA NH SNG
1. nh ngha:
Hin tng giao thoa nh sng l hin tng gp nhau ca hai hay nhiu sng nh
sng kt hp, kt qu l trong trng giao thoa s xut hin nhng vn sng v nhng vn
ti xen k nhau.
Hnh 2-6. Th nghim giao thoa khe Young (Yng)

iu kin giao thoa: hin tng giao thoa ch xy ra i vi sng nh sng kt hp.
Sng nh sng kt hp l nhng sng c hiu pha khng thay i theo thi gian.
Nguyn tc to ra hai sng nh sng kt hp l t mt sng duy nht tch ra thnh hai sng
ring bit. Dng c to ra cc sng nh sng kt hp: v d khe Young (hnh 2-6), gng
Fresnel.
2. Kho st hin tng giao thoa
a. iu kin cc i, cc tiu giao thoa
Xt hai ngun sng nh sng n sc kt hp S1 v S2. Phng trnh dao ng sng
ca chng ti v tr ca S1 v S2 l:
28
x (S1 ) = A1 cos t
x (S2 ) = A 2 cos t
Ti M ta nhn c hai dao ng sng:
x1 = A1 cos( t
2L1
)
x 2 = A 2 cos( t
2L 2
)
L1 v L2 l quang l trn on ng r1 v r2.

V khong cch S1S2 nh hn rt nhiu so vi khong cch t mt phng ca hai khe
n mn quan st nn ta coi y l trng hp tng hp ca hai dao ng cng phng,
cng tn s. Ta bit rng bin dao ng sng tng hp ti M ph thuc vo hiu pha ca
hai dao ng
2
(L1 L 2 )
Nu hai dao ng cng pha, hiu pha = 2k , th bin dao ng sng tng hp
ti M s c gi tr cc i v cng sng ti im M l cc i. Nh vy iu kin cc
i giao thoa l:
2
(L1 L 2 ) = 2k
L1 L 2 = k
vi
(2-6)
k = 0,1,2...
(2-7)
Nu hai dao ng ngc pha, hiu pha = (2k + 1) , th bin dao ng sng
tng hp ti M s c gi tr cc tiu v do cng sng cc tiu. Nh vy iu kin
cc tiu giao thoa l:
2
(L1 L 2 ) = (2k + 1)
L1 L 2 = (2k + 1)
vi k = 0,1,2...
2
=
(2-8)
(2-9)
b. V tr ca vn giao thoa
H thng khe Young nh hnh v, c
t trong khng kh. Xt im M trn mn E,
im M cch im O mt khong l y. T S2 k
S2H S1M. V S1S2 = l rt nh v khong
cch D t khe n mn E ln nn S1H r1-r2 =
l sin l tg v
r1 r2 =
ly
D
(2-10)
Hnh 2-7. V tr ca vn giao thoa
29

Trong khng kh nn L1-L2 = r1-r2. T iu kin cc i, cc tiu giao thoa ta d dng
tnh c v tr cc vn sng v vn ti.
V tr cc vn sng (cc i giao thoa):
r1 r2 =
ys = k
l.y s
= k
D
D
l
vi
k = 0, 1, 2...
(2-11)
k = 0, 1, 2...
(2-12)
V tr cc vn ti (cc tiu giao thoa):
r1 r2 =
ly t
= (2k + 1)
D
2
y t = (2k + 1)
D
2l
vi
T cc cng thc (2-11) v (2-12) ta thy nh giao thoa trn mn E c cc c im:

- Vi k = 0 th ys = 0, tc l gc O trng vi vn cc i giao thoa. Vn ny c gi
l vn cc i gia.
- Cc vn cc i giao thoa ng vi k = 1, 2... v cc vn cc tiu giao thoa nm
xen k cch u nhau c hai pha i vi vn cc i gia. i vi vn sng, bc giao thoa
trng vi k . i vi vn ti, khi k > 0 bc giao thoa trng vi k + 1 , khi k < 0 bc giao
thoa trng vi k .
- Khong cch gia hai vn sng k tip:
i = y k +1 y k = ( k + 1)
D
D D
k
=
l
l
l
(2-13)
Tng t, khong cch gia hai vn ti k tip cng l i v i c gi l khong vn.

Cc vn giao thoa l cc on thng nm trn mt phng vung gc vi mt phng
hnh v, do nu dch chuyn ng thi S1 v S2 theo phng vung gc vi mt phng
hnh v th h thng vn ch trt trn mnh n v khng thay i g. Do ta c th thay
hai ngun sng im S1 v S2 bng hai ngun sng khe t vung gc vi mt phng hnh
v cho hnh nh giao thoa r nt hn.
c. H vn giao thoa khi dng nh sng trng
Nu ngun sng S1 v S2 pht nh sng trng gm mi nh sng n sc c bc
sng = 0,4 0,76m , th mi nh sng n sc s cho mt h vn giao thoa c mu sc
ring v rng i khc nhau. Ti gc ta O, mi nh sng n sc u cho cc i, nn
vn cc i gia l mt vn sng trng, hai mp vin mu (trong tm, ngoi ). Nhng vn
cc i khc ng vi cng mt gi tr ca k l nhng vn c mu sc khc nhau nm chng
ln nhau to thnh nhng vn sng nhiu mu sc. Cc vn ny cng b nhe dn khi xa vn
sng trng trung tm.
30

3. GIAO THOA GY BI BN MNG
Khi nhn vo mng x phng, vng du trn mt nc, ta thy mu sc rt p, mu
sc c to nn bi s giao thoa ca cc tia phn x trn hai mt ca bn mng. Trc
khi i vo nghin cu v giao thoa gy bi bn mng chng ta xem xt hin tng giao thoa
do phn x.
1. Giao thoa do phn x
nghin cu hin tng giao thoa do phn x Lloyd lm th nghim sau: Gng
G c bi en ng sau, chit sut ca thy tinh ln hn chit sut ca khng kh ntt > nkk.
Ngun sng S rng v cch xa. Mn E c t vung gc vi gng. Mt im M trn
mn E s nhn c hai tia sng t S gi n. Tia truyn trc tip SM v tia SIM phn x
trn gng, sau n M. Hai tia ny giao thoa vi nhau.
Hnh 2-8. Th nghim ca Lloyd

Theo
thuyt:
nu
r1 r2 = L1 L 2 = k
th
im
sng,
nu
th im M s ti. Tuy nhin thc nghim li thy rng:

2
nhng im l thuyt d on l sng th kt qu li l ti v ngc li, nhng im l thuyt
d on l ti th li l sng. Vy hiu pha dao ng ca hai tia sng trong trng hp ny
2
2
(L1 L 2 ) m phi l =
(L1 L 2 ) + . thm mt
khng phi l =
lng th pha dao ng ca mt trong hai tia phi thay i mt lng . V tia SM truyn
trc tip t ngun n im M, nn ch c tia phn x trn gng mi thay i, c th l
pha dao ng ca n sau khi phn x s thay i mt lng . Tng ng vi vic pha
thay i mt lng l th quang l ca n s thay i mt lng l:
r1 r2 = L1 L 2 = (2k + 1)
1 =
2
L1
L1 = L1 +
'1 =
2
2
L1 + =
L1
(2-14)
Trong 1 v L1 l pha v quang l khi cha tnh n s thay i pha do phn x, cn 1'
v L'1 l pha v quang l ca tia sng khi c tnh n s phn x trn thy tinh l mi
31

trng chit quang hn mi trng nh sng ti. Trong trng hp phn x trn mi trng
c chit sut nh hn chit sut mi trng nh sng ti, v d ta cho nh sng truyn trong
mi trng thy tinh n mt phn cch gia thy tinh v khng kh ri phn x li, khi
pha dao ng v quang l ca tia phn x khng c g thay i.
Kt lun: Khi phn x trn mi trng chit quang hn mi trng nh sng ti, pha dao
ng ca nh sng thay i mt lng , iu cng tng ng vi vic coi tia phn
x di thm mt on .
2
2. Giao thoa gy bi nm khng kh
Nm khng kh l mt lp khng
kh hnh nm gii hn bi hai bn thu
tinh phng G1, G2 c dy khng ng
k, t nghing vi nhau mt gc nh .
Chiu chm tia sng n sc song song,
vung gc vi mt G2 . Tia sng t ngun
S i vo bn thu tinh G1 ti M chia lm
hai: Mt tia phn x i ra ngoi (tia R1),
mt tia i tip vo nm khng kh, n K
trn G2 v phn x ti ri i ra ngoi
Hnh 2-9. Nm khng kh
(tia R2). Ti M c s gp nhau ca hai tia
phn x ni trn v chng giao thoa vi
nhau. Trn mt G1 ta nhn c vn giao thoa. Tia R2 (l tia phn x trn mt G2) phi i
thm mt on 2d so vi tia R1 (l tia phn x trn mt G1) v v tia R2 phn x trn mt
trn ca G2 (thy tinh) chit quang hn mi trng nh sng n (khng kh) nn quang l
ca tia ny di thm mt on l / 2 . Cn tia R1 phn x trn mt di ca G1 th khng
thay i pha v y l phn x trn mi trng khng kh, km chit quang hn mi trng
nh sng ti (mi trng thy tinh). Hiu quang l ca hai tia l:
L 2 L1 = 2d +
(2-15)
d l b dy ca lp khng kh ti M. Cc im ti tho mn iu kin:
L 2 L1 = 2d +
= (2k + 1)
2
2
Do :
dt = k
vi
k = 0,1,2...
(2-16)
Tp hp cc im c cng b dy d ca lp khng kh l mt on thng song song vi

cnh nm. Ti cnh nm d = 0, ta c mt vn ti.
Cc im sng tho mn iu kin:
32
L 2 L1 = 2d +
= k
2
Do :
d s = ( 2 k 1)
vi
k =1,2,3...
(2-17)
Vn sng cng l nhng on thng song song vi cnh nm v nm xen k vi vn ti.

3. Vn trn Newton
H cho vn trn Newton gm mt thu knh phng - li t tip xc vi mt bn thy
tinh phng (hnh 2-10). Lp khng kh gia thu knh v bn thy tinh l bn mng c b
dy thay i. Chiu mt chm tia sng n sc song song vung gc vi bn thy tinh. Cc
tia sng phn x mt trn v mt di ca bn mng ny s giao thoa vi nhau, to thnh
cc vn giao thoa c cng dy, nh x mt cong ca thu knh phng- li.
Ging nh nm khng kh, cc tiu vn giao thoa (vn ti) nm ti v tr ng vi b
dy ca lp khng kh:
dt = k
vi k = 0,1,2...
(2-18)
v cc i vn giao thoa (vn sng) nm ti v tr ng vi b dy lp khng kh:
d s = ( 2 k 1)
vi k = 1,2,3...
(2-19)
Hnh 2-10. Vn trn Newton

Do tnh cht i xng ca bn mng nn cc vn giao thoa l nhng vng trn ng
tm gi l vn trn Newton.
Ta tnh bn knh ca vn th k:
33
rk2 = R 2 (R d k ) 2
trong R l bn knh cong ca thu knh, dk l b dy ca lp khng kh ti vn th k. V
d k << R do :
rk2 2Rd k
Nu vn th k l vn ti, ta c d t = k
, do :
2
rk = R . k
(2-20)
Nh vy bn knh ca cc vn ti t l vi cn bc hai ca cc s nguyn lin tip.

4. NG DNG HIN TNG GIAO THOA
1. Kim tra cc mt knh phng v li
kim tra phng ca mt tm knh hoc cong ca mt mt cu li ngi ta
t chng trn mt tm thy tinh c phng chun to ra mt bn mng hnh nm hoc
mt h cho vn trn Newton. Nu tm knh khng tht phng hoc mt cu khng cong u
th cc vn giao thoa s khng thnh nhng ng song song cch u hoc khng phi l
nhng vn trn ng tm m b mo m ti nhng ch b li.
2. Kh phn x cc mt knh
Khi mt chm sng ri vo mt thu knh
hay lng knh th mt phn nh sng s b phn x
tr li. nh sng phn x ny s lm nh b m.
kh phn x, ngi ta ph ln thy tinh mt
mng mng trong sut, c chiu dy d v chit
sut n. Khi chiu chm tia sng song song theo
phng vung gc vi mng mng th c s giao
thoa ca hai tia phn x, tia th nht phn x trn
Hnh 2-11. Kh nh sng phn x
mt gii hn gia mng mng-thy tinh v tia th
hai phn x trn mt phn cch gia khng kh-mng mng. Chit sut n v b dy d ca
mng c chn sao cho hai tia phn x ngc pha nhau. Gi nkk v ntt l chit sut ca
khng kh v chit sut ca thy tinh th n kk < n < n tt . Hiu quang l ca hai tia phn x
tha mn iu kin cc tiu giao thoa:
suy ra:
L = 2nd +

= 2nd = (2k + 1)
2 2
2
d = (2k + 1)
4n
(2-21)
l bc sng nh sng trong chn khng. dy nh nht ca mng mng l:

34
d min =
4n
(2-22)
Ta thy khng th kh ng thi mi nh sng phn x c bc sng khc nhau.

Trong thc t thng chn b dy d tha mn iu kin (2-22) ng vi nh sng mu xanh
lc = 0,55m l nh sng nhy nht vi mt ngi.
3. Giao thoa k Rayleigh (Rly)
Giao thoa k Rayleigh l dng c dng o chit sut (hay nng ) ca cht lng
v cht kh vi chnh xc cao. M hnh ca giao thoa k Rayleigh c trnh by trn
hnh 2-12.
nh sng n sc t ngun S sau khi qua thu knh hi t L1 v hai khe S1, S2 b tch
thnh hai chm tia song song. Hai chm s giao thoa vi nhau trn mt phng tiu ca
thu knh hi t L2. Nh th knh L ta c th quan st c h thng vn giao thoa .
Hnh 2-12. Giao thoa k Rayleigh

Trn ng i ca hai chm tia ban u ta t hai ng chiu di d ng cng mt cht
lng chit sut no bit. Ghi h thng vn giao thoa trn mn quan st. Sau thay cht
lng trong mt ng bng cht lng cn nghin cu. V chit sut ca cht lng ng trong
hai ng by gi khc nhau nn hiu quang l ca hai chm tia b thay i mt lng
L = L1 L 2 = (n n o )d
(2-23)
n l chit sut ca cht lng cn o. Kt qu l h thng vn giao thoa b dch chuyn. m

s vn giao thoa b dch chuyn ta c th tnh c chit sut ca cht lng. Ta bit rng khi
hiu quang l thay i mt bc sng th h thng vn dch chuyn mt khong vn. Do
nu h thng vn giao thoa dch chuyn m khong vn th hiu quang l s thay i mt
khong bng:
L = (n n o )d = m
(2-24)
T suy ra chit sut ca cht lng cn o l:
n=
m
+ no
d
(2-25)
Ta cng c th o chit sut mt cht kh bng cch s dng giao thoa k Rayleigh,
so snh cht kh vi mt cht kh c chit sut bit trc.
35

4. Giao thoa k Michelson (Maikenxn)
Giao thoa k Michelson dng o di cc
vt vi chnh xc cao. Hnh 2-13 trnh by m
hnh ca giao thoa k Michelson .nh sng t
ngun S chiu ti bn bn m P (c trng mt lp
bc rt mng) di gc 45o. Ti y nh sng b tch
thnh hai tia: tia phn x truyn n gng G1 v tia
khc x truyn n gng G2. Sau khi phn x trn
hai gng G1 v G2 cc tia sng truyn ngc tr li,
i qua bn P v ti giao thoa vi nhau knh quan
st. V tia th nht ch i qua bn P mt ln cn tia
th hai i qua P ba ln nn hiu quang l ca hai tia
Hnh 2-13. Giao thoa k Michelson
ln, vn giao thoa quan st c l nhng vn bc
cao, nn nhn khng r nt. khc phc iu ny
ngi ta t bn P ging ht P nhng khng trng bc trn ng i ca tia th nht.
Nu ta dch chuyn gng G2 song song vi chnh n dc theo tia sng mt on
bng na bc sng th hiu quang l ca hai tia s thay i mt bc sng, kt qu h vn
giao thoa s thay i mt khong vn. Vy mun o chiu di ca mt vt ta dch chuyn
gng G2 t u ny n u kia ca vt v m s vn dch chuyn. Nu h thng vn dch
chuyn m khong vn th chiu di ca vt cn o l:
l=m
(2-26)
Giao thoa k Michelson dng o chiu di vi chnh xc rt cao, ti phn trm

micrmet (10-8m).
III. TM TT NI DUNG
1. Giao thoa nh sng ca khe Young
* Giao thoa nh sng l hin tng gp nhau ca hai hay nhiu sng nh sng kt
hp. Kt qu l trong trng giao thoa s xut hin nhng vn sng v nhng vn ti xen k
nhau.
* Sng nh sng kt hp l nhng sng c cng phng dao ng v hiu pha khng
thay i theo thi gian.
* iu kin cc i giao thoa l:
L1 L 2 = k,
k = 0,1,2....
iu kin cc tiu giao thoa l:
L1 L 2 = (2k + 1) ,
2
k = 0,1,2....
* V tr cc vn sng (cc i giao thoa):
36
D
,
l
ys = k
k = 0, 1, 2....
V tr cc vn ti (cc tiu giao thoa):
y t = (2k + 1)
D
,
2l
k = 0, 1, 2....
Khong cch gia hai vn sng (hoc vn ti) k tip:
i=
D
l
2. Giao thoa gy bi bn mng

* Giao thoa do phn x: Khi phn x trn mi trng chit quang hn mi trng nh
sng ti, quang l ca tia phn x di thm mt on /2.
* Giao thoa ca nm khng kh: Nm khng kh l mt lp khng kh hnh nm gii
hn bi hai bn thu tinh phng G1, G2 c dy khng ng k, t nghing vi nhau mt
gc nh . Do s giao thoa ca cc tia phn x mt trn v mt di ca nm, ta thu
c cc vn thoa ngay mt trn ca nm. Cc tiu vn giao thoa (vn ti) nm ti v tr
ng vi b dy ca lp khng kh:
dt = k
,
2
k =0,1,2...
Tp hp cc im c cng b dy d ca lp khng kh l mt on thng song song vi

cnh nm. Ti cnh nm d = 0 ta c mt vn ti.
Cc i vn giao thoa (vn sng) nm ti v tr ng vi b dy lp khng kh:
d s = ( 2 k 1)
k =1,2,3...
Vn sng cng l nhng on thng song song vi cnh nm v nm xen k vi vn ti.

* Vn trn Newton: H cho vn trn Newton gm mt thu knh phng - li t tip
xc vi mt bn thy tinh phng. Lp khng kh gia thu knh v bn thy tinh l bn
mng c b dy thay i.
Ging nh nm khng kh, cc tiu vn giao thoa (vn ti) nm ti v tr ng vi b
dy ca lp khng kh:
dt = k
,
2
k = 0,1,2...
v cc i vn giao thoa (vn sng) nm ti v tr ng vi b dy lp khng kh
d s = ( 2 k 1)
,
4
k = 1,2,3...
Do tnh cht i xng ca bn mng nn cc vn giao thoa l nhng vng trn ng

tm gi l vn trn Newton.
Bn knh ca vn ti th k:
37
rk = R . k
S giao thoa cho bi cc bn mng c rt nhiu ng dng trong vic kim tra
phng v cong ca cc thu knh. Ngi ta dng giao thoa k Milchelson o di
ca mt vt, php o t chnh xc ti 10-8m.
IV. CU HI L THUYT
1. Nu nh ngha hin tng giao thoa nh sng, iu kin giao thoa nh sng. Th no l
sng nh sng kt hp ?
2. Tm iu kin cc i, cc tiu giao thoa. Xc nh v tr cc vn giao thoa cc i v cc
tiu, b rng ca cc vn giao thoa.
3. M t hin tng giao thoa khi dng nh sng trng.
4. Trnh by hin tng giao thoa gy bi nm khng kh v ng dng.
5. Trnh by hin tng giao thoa cho bi h vn trn Newton v ng dng.
6. M t v nu ng dng ca giao thoa k Rayleigh.
7. M t v nu ng dng ca giao thoa k Milchelson.
V. BI TP
Th d 1: Hai khe Young cch nhau mt khong l = 1mm, c chiu bng nh sng
n sc c bc sng = 0,6m. Mn quan st c t cch mt phng cha hai khe
mt on D=2m.
1.Tm khong vn giao thoa.
2. Xc nh v tr ca ba vn sng u tin ( coi vn sng trung tm l vn sng
bc khng).
3. Xc nh dch ca h vn giao thoa trn mn quan st nu trc mt trong hai
khe t mt bn mng song song, trong sut c b dy e =2m, chit sut n = 1,5.
Bi gii
1. Khong vn giao thoa: i =
D 0,6.10 6.2
=
= 1,2.10 3 m
3
l
10
2. V tr ca vn sng c xc nh bi cng thc:
ys =
kD
, k = 0, 1, 2 , 3...
l
y s1 =
D 0,6.10 6.2
2D
=
= 1,2.10 3 m , y s 2 =
= 2,4.10 3 m
3
l
l
10
ys 3 =
3D
= 3,6.10 3 m
l
38

3. dch chuyn ca h vn:
Khi t bn mng trong sut
trc mt trong hai khe, hiu quang
l gia cc tia sng t hai khe n
mt im trn mn thay i. Mun
bit h vn dch chuyn nh th
no, ta phi tnh hiu quang l ca
hai tia sng ti mt im trn mn.
T hnh v ta c hiu quang l
L1 L 2 = [(r1 e ) + ne] r2 = (r1 r2 ) + (n 1)e

yl
y l
M r1 r2 =
, do L1 L 2 =
+ (n 1)e
D
D
V tr vn sng c xc nh bi iu kin:
y l
kD (n 1)eD
L1 L 2 = s + (n 1)e = k y s =
l
l
D
V tr vn ti c xc nh bi iu kin:
y l
D
D (n 1)eD
y t = (2k + 1)
L1 L 2 = t + (n 1)e = (2k + 1)
l
D
2l
2l
Mt khc: y s =
(2k + 1)D
kD
, yt =
l
l
H vn dch chuyn mt khong: y =
e(n 1).D 2.10 6.0,5.2

=
= 2.10 3 m
3
l
10
Th d 2: Mt chm sng song song c bc sng = 0,6m chiu vung gc vi mt

nm khng kh. Tm gc nghing ca nm. Cho bit rng ca 10 khong vn k tip
mt trn ca nm bng b = 10mm.
Bi gii:
Hiu quang l hai tia:
L = 2d +
= (2k + 1)
2
2
dy ca nm khng kh ti v tr vn ti
th k:
dk =
k
, k = 0,1, 2, 3...
2
dy ca nm khng kh ti v tr vn ti th k+10:
39
d k +10 =
(k + 10)
2
d
dk
sin = k +10
=
I1I 2
(k + 10) k
2
b
2 = 5 = 3.10 4 rad
b
Th d 3: Mt chm sng n sc song song chiu vung gc vi mt phng ca bn mng

khng kh nm gia bn thu tinh phng t tip xc vi mt cong ca thu knh phng li. Bn knh ca mt li thu knh l R = 6,4m. Quan st h vn trn Newton trong chm
sng phn x, ngi ta o c bn knh ca hai vn ti k tip ln lt l 4,0mm v
4,38mm. Xc nh bc sng ca chm sng chiu ti v s th t ca cc vn ni trn.
Bi gii: Bn knh ca hai vn ti k tip th k v k + 1 trong h vn trn Newton c xc
nh bi cng thc:
rk = kR ,
rk +1 =
(k + 1)R
Bc sng chm nh sng chiu ti:
2
2
(
4,38.10 3 ) (4.10 3 )
=
= 0,497.10 6 m
rk2+1 rk2
R
6,4
S th t ca vn ti th k:
k=
rk2
R
(4.10 3 )2
6,4.0,497.10 6
=5
S th t ca vn ti k tip l 6.
Bi tp t gii
1. Hai khe Young cch nhau mt khong l = 1mm, c chiu bng nh sng n sc, h
vn giao thoa quan st c trn mn c khong vn i = 1,5mm. Khong cch t mn quan
st n mt phng cha hai khe D = 3m. Tm:
1. Bc sng ca nh sng chiu ti.
2. V tr ca vn sng th ba v vn ti th t.
p s
1. i =
D
il
= = 0,5.10 6 m
l
D
2. y s 3 =
3D
= 4,5.10 3 m ,
l
yt4 =
(2k + 1)D
= 5,25.10 3 m
2l
2. Hai khe Young cch nhau mt khong l = 1mm, c chiu bng nh sng n sc
c bc sng cha bit. Mn quan st c t cch mt phng cha hai khe mt on
D = 2m. Khong cch t vn sng th nht n vn sng th by l 7,2mm. Tm:
1. Bc sng ca nh sng chiu ti.
40

2. V tr ca vn ti th ba v vn sng th t.
3. dch chuyn ca h vn giao thoa trn mn quan st, nu t trc mt trong
hai khe mt bn mng song song, trong sut, chit sut n =1,5, b dy e = 0,02mm.
p s: Khong cch t vn sng th nht n vn sng th by l 6i i = 1,2.10 3 m
D
il
= = 0,6.10 6 m ,
l
D
(2k + 1)D
= 3mm, y s 4 = 4i = 4,8mm
2. y t 3 =
2l
1. i =
3. y =
e(n 1).D 0,02.10 3.0,5.2

=
= 0,02m
l
10 3
c bc sng = 0,6m. Mn quan st c t cch mt phng cha hai khe mt on
D = 1m.
1. Tm v tr vn sng th t v vn ti th nm.
2. t trc mt trong hai khe mt bn mng song song, trong sut, chit sut n =
1,5, h vn giao thoa trn mn quan st dch mt khong 2mm. Tm b dy ca bn mng.
p s
1. y s 4 =
4 D
(2k + 1)D
= 1,2.10 3 m , y t 5 =
= 1,35.10 3 m
l
2l
2. y =
y.l
e(n 1).D
e=
= 8.10 6 m
l
(n 1).D
bc sng = 0,5m. Mn quan st c t cch mt phng cha hai khe mt on D
= 2m.
1. Tm khong vn giao thoa.
2. t trc mt trong hai khe mt bn mng song song, trong sut, b dy e = 12m,
h vn giao thoa trn mn quan st dch mt khong 6mm. Tm chit sut ca bn mng.
p s
D 0,5.10 6.2
1. i =
=
= 10 3 m ,
3
l
10
2. y =
y.l + eD
e(n 1).D
n=
= 1,25
l
eD
c bc sng cha bit. Khi h thng t trong khng kh cho khong cch gia hai vn
sng lin tip i = 0,6mm. Mn quan st c t cch mt phng cha hai khe D = 1m.
41
1. Tm bc sng ca nh sng chiu ti.

2. Nu vo khong gia mn quan st v mt phng cha hai khe mt cht lng th
khong cch gia hai vn sng lin tip i/ = 0,45mm. Tm chit sut ca cht lng.
p s
1. i =
D
il
= = 0,6.10 6 m ,
l
D
2. i =
i 4
i
n= =
i 3
n
6. Mt chm nh sng n sc song song c bc sng = 0,5m chiu vung gc vi mt

mt ca nm khng kh. Quan st trong nh sng phn x, ngi ta o c rng ca
mi vn giao thoa bng i = 0,5mm.
1. Xc nh gc nghing ca nm.
2. Chiu ng thi vo mt nm khng kh hai chm tia sng n sc c bc sng
ln lt l 1 = 0,5m , 2 = 0,6m . Tm v tr ti cc vn ti cho bi hai chm sng
ni trn trng nhau. Coi cnh ca bn mng nm khng kh l vn ti bc khng.
p s
1. dy ca nm khng kh ti v tr vn ti bc k l: d k =
k
2
d
dk
rng ca mt vn giao thoa: i = k +1

= = 0,5.10 3 rad
=
2
2i
2. Gi x l khong cch t cnh nm n vn ti th k trn mt nm. V bn nm c gc

d
nghing rt nh nn: sin = k
x
V tr ca vn ti th k: x =
k
= ki
2
V tr ti cc vn ti ca hai chm sng n sc 1 v 2 trng nhau:
k 11 k 2 2
5
k 2 = k1
=
6
2
2
k1
12
18
k2
10
15
3,0
6,0
9,0
x1=x2 (mm)
7. Mt bn mng nm thu tinh c gc nghing = 2 v chit sut n = 1,52. Chiu mt

chm sng n sc song song vung gc vi mt mt ca bn. Xc nh bc sng ca
chm sng n sc nu khong cch gia hai vn ti k tip bng i = 0,3mm.
p s:
Cc vn ti tho mn iu kin cc tiu giao thoa:
42
L = 2nd
= (2k + 1)
2
2
. Gi x l khong cch t cnh

2n
nm n v tr vn ti th k trn mt nm. V gc nghing ca nm rt nh nn coi gn
d
ng: sin =
x
dy ca bn nm ti v tr vn ti th k: d k = (k + 1)
rng ca mi vn giao thoa:
dk
d
= 2ni = 0,529m
=
i = x k +1 x k = k +1
2n
8. Xt mt h thng cho vn trn Newton. Xc nh b dy ca lp khng kh ta quan
st thy vn sng u tin, bit rng nh sng ti c bc sng = 0,6m.
p s: d s = (2k 1) , k = 1, 2, 3.. d s1 = = 0,15m

4
4
9. Cho mt chm sng n sc song song bc sng = 0,6m, chiu vung gc vi mt
phng ca bn mng khng kh nm gia bn thu tinh phng t tip xc vi mt cong ca
mt thu knh phng - li. Tm b dy ca lp khng kh ti v tr vn ti th t ca chm
tia phn x. Coi tm ca h vn trn Newton l vn s 0.
p s: d t =
4
k
= 1,2m
, k = 0,1, 2, ... d t 4 =
2
2
10. Cho mt chm sng n sc song song chiu vung gc vi mt phng ca bn mng
khng kh nm gia bn thu tinh phng t tip xc vi mt cong ca mt thu knh phng
- li. Bn knh mt li thu knh l R = 8,6m. Quan st h vn trn Newton qua chm sng
phn x v o c bn knh vn ti th t l r4 = 4,5mm. Xc nh bc sng ca chm
sng n sc. Coi tm ca h vn trn Newton l vn s 0.
p s:
r2
rk = kR , k = 0,1, 2, 3... r4 = 4R = 4 = 0,589m
4R
11. Cho mt chm sng n sc song song chiu vung gc vi mt phng ca bn mng
khng kh nm gia bn thu tinh phng t tip xc vi mt cong ca mt thu knh phng
- li. Bn knh mt li thu knh l R = 15m. Quan st h vn trn Newton qua chm sng
phn x v o c khong cch gia vn ti th t v vn ti th hai mi lm bng 9mm.
Xc nh bc sng ca chm sng n sc. Coi tm ca h vn trn Newton l vn s 0.
p s
rk = kR r25 r4 = ( 25 4 ) R =
(r25 r4 )2
R
25 4
= 0,6.10 6 m
12. Ngi ta dng giao thoa k Michelson o dn n di ca mt vt. nh sng n

sc dng trong th nghim c bc sng = 0,6.10-6m. Khi dch chuyn gng di ng t v
43

tr ban u (ng vi lc vt cha b nung nng) n v tr cui (ng vi lc sau khi vt b
nung nng), ngi ta quan st thy c 5 vch dch chuyn trong knh quan st. Hi sau khi
dn n vt di thm bao nhiu?
p s: Khi dch chuyn gng mt khong /2 th hiu quang l thay i v c mt vn
dch chuyn. Vy sau khi nung nng vt dn n thm l , s vn dch chuyn l m, nn:
m.
l =
= 1,5.10 5 cm
2
13.Trong th nghim dng giao thoa k Michelson, khi dch chuyn gng di ng mt
khong 0,161mm, ngi ta quan st thy hnh giao thoa dch i 500 vn. Tm bc sng ca
nh sng dng trong th nghim.
p s: =
2.l
= 0,644m
m
44
Chng 3: Nhiu x nh sng
CHNG III: NHIU X NH SNG

I. MC CH - YU CU
1. Nm c nguyn l Huygens Fresnel v phng php i cu Fresnel tnh bin
dao ng sng tng hp ti mt im no .
2. Vn dng phng php i cu Fresnel xt nhiu x qua mt l trn nh, mt a trn
nh v mt khe hp.
3. Nm c nhiu x qua cch t, nhiu x trn tinh th.
II. NI DUNG
1. NHIU X NH SNG CA SNG CU
1. Hin tng nhiu x nh sng
nh sng t ngun S truyn qua mt l
trn nh trn mn P. Sau P t mn quan st E,
trn mn E ta nhn c hnh trn sng ng
knh BD ng dng vi l trn BD. Theo nh
lut truyn thng ca nh sng, nu thu nh l
trn P th hnh trn sng trn mn E nh li.
Thc nghim chng t rng khi thu nh l trn
n mt mc no th trn mn E xut hin
nhng vn trn sng ti xen k nhau. Trong vng
Hnh 3-1: Hin tng nhiu x nh sng
ti hnh hc (ngoi BD) ta cng nhn c
vn sng v trong vng sng hnh hc (vng BD) cng c vn ti. Ti C c th nhn c
im ti hay sng ph thuc vo kch thc ca l trn v khong cch t mn E n mn
P. Nh vy nh sng khi i qua l trn b lch khi phng truyn thng.
nh ngha: Hin tng tia sng b lch khi phng truyn thng khi i gn cc chng
ngi vt c kch thc nh c gi l hin tng nhiu x nh sng.
Chng ngi vt c th l mp bin hay vt cn hoc mt l trn c kch thc cng c
bc sng ca nh sng chiu ti.
Hin tng nhiu x nh sng c th gii thch da vo nguyn l Huygens-Fresnel. Nguyn
l c pht biu nh sau.
Nguyn l Huygens - Fresnel
45

- Mi im trong khng gian c sng nh sng t ngun thc gi n u tr
thnh ngun sng th cp pht sng nh sng v pha trc.
- Bin v pha ca ngun th cp l bin v pha do ngun thc gy ra ti v tr
ca ngun th cp.
Theo nguyn l HuygensFresnel, khi nh sng chiu n l trn, cc im trn l trn
u tr thnh ngun th cp pht sng cu th cp. Bao hnh ca cc mt sng cu th cp l
mt sng. mp ca l trn mt sng b un cong v tia sng lun vung gc vi mt sng,
do mp bin cc tia sng b i phng so vi phng ca sng ti (hnh 3-2)
Hnh 3-2. Gii thch nh tnh hin tng nhiu x

Mi ngun sng th cp trn mt l trn BD c bin v pha dao ng ng bng
bin v pha dao ng do ngun sng S gy ra ti im . Dao ng sng ti mi im
trn mn nh E s bng tng cc dao ng sng do nhng ngun sng th cp trn l trn
BD gy ra ti im . T biu thc ca hm sng, da vo nguyn l Huygens-Fresnel
ngi ta c th tm c biu thc nh lng ca dao ng sng ti mt im M trn mn
hnh E, nhng vic tnh ton kh phc tp v phi tnh tch phn. Fresnel a ra mt
phng php tnh n gin gi l phng php i cu Fresnel.
2. Phng php i cu Fresnel
Hnh 3-3
46

Xt ngun sng im S pht nh sng n sc v im c chiu sng M. Ly S lm
tm dng mt cu bao quanh S, bn knh R < SM. t MB = b. Ly M lm tm v cc
mt cu 0 , 1 , 2 ... c bn knh ln lt l b, b + , b + 2 ... , trong l bc sng

2
2
do ngun S pht ra. Cc mt cu 0 , 1 , 2 ... chia mt cu thnh cc i gi l i cu
Fresnel. Vi cch dng nh vy, ngi ta chng minh c rng din tch cc i cu bng
nhau v bng:
S =
Rb
R+b
( 3-1)
Bn knh rk ca i cu th k bng:
rk =
Rb
k
R+b
vi
k = 1, 2, 3...
(3-2)
Theo nguyn l Huygens, mi i cu tr thnh ngun sng th cp pht nh sng ti

im M. Gi ak l bin dao ng sng do i cu th k gy ra ti M. Khi k tng, cc i
cu cng xa im M v gc nghing tng (hnh 3-3), do ak gim: a1 > a2 > a3 ... Khi k
kh ln th a k 0 .
V khong cch t i cu n im M v gc nghing tng rt chm nn ak gim
chm, ta c th coi ak do i cu th k gy ra l trung bnh cng ca ak-1 v ak+1:
1
a k = (a k 1 + a k +1 )
2
(3-3)
Khong cch ca hai i cu k tip ti im M khc nhau / 2 . Cc i cu u

nm trn mt sng , ngha l pha dao ng ca tt c cc im trn mi i cu u nh
nhau. Kt qu, hiu pha ca hai dao ng sng do hai i cu k tip gy ra ti M l:
2
2
(L1 L 2 ) = . =
2
(3-4)
Nh vy hai dao ng sng ngc pha nhau nn chng s kh ln nhau. V M

kh xa mt , ta coi cc dao ng sng do cc i cu gy ra ti M cng phng, do dao
ng sng tng hp do cc i gy ra ti M s l:
a = a1 - a2 + a3 - a4+...
(3-5)
Sau y chng ta s s dng phng php i cu Fresnel kho st hin tng

nhiu x ca nh sng qua l trn, a trn v qua khe hp.
3. Nhiu x qua l trn
Xt ngun sng im S, pht nh sng n sc qua l trn AB trn mn chn P n
im M, S v M nm trn trc ca l trn. Ly S lm tm dng mt cu ta vo l trn
AB. Ly M lm tm v cc i cu Fresnel trn mt . Gi s l cha n i cu. Bin
dao ng sng tng hp ti M l:
47
a = a1 a 2 + a 3 a 4 + ... a n
Hnh 3-4. Nhiu x qua l trn

Ta c th vit:
an
a3 a3
a5
a1 a1
2
+ a2 +
a4 +
a=
+
+ ... +
a n 1
a
2 2
2 2
2
an n
2
2
V cc biu thc trong du ngoc bng khng, nn:
a
a
a= 1 n
2
2
Ly du + nu i n l l v du - nu i n l chn. Ta xt cc trng hp sau:
(3-6)
* Khi khng c mn chn P hoc kch thc l trn rt ln: n , a n 0 nn cng

sng ti M:
a2
I0 = a 2 = 1
4
(3-7)
* Nu l cha s l i cu
a a
a= 1+ n
2
2
a
a
I= 1 + n
2
2
(3-8)
I > I0, im M sng hn khi khng c mn P. c bit nu l cha mt i cu
a a
a = 1 + 1 = a1
2 2
I = a12 = 4I 0
(3-9)
Cng sng gp 4 ln so vi khi khng c l trn, nh vy im M rt sng.

* Nu l cha s chn i cu
a a
a= 1 n
2 2
(3-10)
48
a
a
I= 1 n
2
2
(3-11)
I < I0, im M ti hn khi khng c l trn. Nu l trn cha hai i cu th
a a
a = 1 2 0 , do I = 0, im M ti nht.
2 2
Tm li im M c th sng hn hoc ti hn so vi khi khng c l trn ty theo
kch thc ca l v v tr ca mn quan st.
4. Nhiu x qua mt a trn
Gia ngun sng S v im M c mt a trn
chn sng bn knh ro. Gi s a che khut m i cu
Fresnel u tin. Bin dao ng ti M l:
a = a m +1 a m + 2 + a m + 3 ....
a
a
a
a = m +1 + m +1 a m + 2 + m + 3 + ...
2
2
2
Hnh 3-5. Nhiu x qua mt a trn
V cc biu thc trong ngoc c th coi bng khng, do :
a
a = m+1
2
(3-12)
Nu a ch che t i cu th am+1 khng khc a1 l my, do cng sng ti M

cng ging nh trng hp khng c chng ngi vt gia S v M. Trong trng hp a
che nhiu i cu th am+1 0 do cng sng ti M bng khng.
2. NHIU X NH SNG CA SNG PHNG
1. Nhiu x ca sng phng qua mt khe hp
to ra chm sng song song, ngi ta t ngun sng S ti tiu im ca thu knh
hi t Lo. Chiu chm sng n sc song song bc sng vo khe hp c b rng b (hnh
3-6). Sau khi i qua khe hp, tia sng s b nhiu x theo nhiu phng. Tch cc tia nhiu
x theo mt phng no chng s gp nhau v cng. Mun quan st nh nhiu x
chng ta s dng thu knh hi t L, chm tia nhiu x s hi t ti im M trn mt phng
tiu ca thu knh hi t L. Vi cc gi tr khc nhau chm nhiu x s hi t ti cc
im khc nhau. Ty theo gi tr ca im M c th sng hoc ti. Nhng im sng ti
ny nm dc trn ng thng vung gc vi chiu di khe hp v c gi l cc cc i
v cc tiu nhiu x.
49
Hnh 3-6. Nhiu x qua mt khe hp

V nh sng gi n khe l sng phng nn mt phng khe l mt sng, cc sng th
cp trn mt phng khe dao ng cng pha. Xt cc tia nhiu x theo phng =0, chng
hi t ti im F. Mt phng khe v mt quan st l hai mt trc giao do theo nh l
Malus, cc tia sng gi t mt phng khe ti im F c quang l bng nhau v dao ng
cng pha nn chng tng cng nhau. im F rt sng v c gi l cc i gia.
Xt trng hp 0 . p dng tng ca phng php i cu Fresnel ta v cc
mt phng 0 , 1 , 2 ,... vung gc vi chm tia nhiu x v cch u nhau mt khong
/2, chng s chia mt khe thnh cc di sng nm song song vi b rng ca khe hp. B
rng ca mi di l l =
v s di trn khe s l:
2 sin
N=
b 2b sin
=
l
(3-13)
Theo nguyn l Huygens, nhng di ny l ngun sng th cp dao ng cng pha (v

nm trn cng mt mt sng) v pht nh sng n im M. V quang l ca hai tia sng t
hai di k tip n im M khc nhau /2 nn dao ng sng do hai di k tip gi ti M
ngc pha nhau v chng s kh nhau. Kt qu l nu khe cha s chn di (N = 2k) th
dao ng sng do tng cp di k tip gy ra ti M s kh ln nhau v im M s ti v l
cc tiu nhiu x. iu kin im M ti l:
N=
2b sin
= 2k
hay
sin = k
vi k = 1, 2, 3...
(3-14)
Nu khe cha mt s l di (N = 2k+1) th dao ng sng do tng cp di k tip gi

ti im M s kh ln nhau, cn dao ng sng do di cui cng gi ti th khng b kh.
Kt qu im M s sng v c gi l cc i nhiu x bc k. Cng sng ca cc cc
i ny nh hn rt nhiu so vi cc i gia. iu kin im M sng l:
50
N=
2b sin
= 2k + 1
hay
sin = (2k + 1)
2b
vi
k = 1, 2, 3...
(3-15)
Tm li ta c cc iu kin cc i, cc tiu nhiu x qua mt khe hp nh sau:

- Cc i gia (k=0) :
sin = 0
- Cc tiu nhiu x :
sin = , 2 , 3 ,...
b
b
b
- Cc i nhiu x :
sin = 3
, 5 , ...
2b
2b
th phn b cng sng trn mn quan st cho bi hnh 3-7.
Hnh 3-7. Hnh nhiu x ca sng phng qua mt khe hp

Nhn xt thy cc cc i nhiu x bc k = 1,2,3...nm xen gia cc cc tiu nhiu x
v phn b i xng hai bn cc i gia. Cc i gia c b rng gp i cc cc i
khc. Theo tnh ton l thuyt, cng sng ca cc cc i nhiu x tun theo h thc sau
I0 : I1 : I2 : I3 : ....= 1 : 0,045 : 0,016 : 0,008 : ...
2. Nhiu x ca sng phng truyn qua cch t phng
Cch t phng l mt h nhiu khe hp ging nhau c rng b, nm song song cch u
trn cng mt mt phng. Khong cch d gia hai khe k tip c gi l chu k ca cch
t.
S khe hp trn mt n v chiu di: n =
1
d
51

Xt mt cch t phng c N khe hp. B
rng ca mt khe l b, chu k ca cch t l d.
Chiu chm sng n sc song song bc sng
vung gc vi mt cch t. V cc khe c th coi
l ngun kt hp, do ngoi hin tng nhiu x
gy bi mt khe cn c hin tng giao thoa gy
bi cc khe. Do nh nhiu x qua cch t s
phc tp hn nhiu so vi nh nhiu x qua mt
khe hp. Ta s kho st nh nhiu x qua cch t:
Hnh 3-8. Nhiu x qua cch t
- Tt c N khe hp u cho cc tiu nhiu x ti nhng im trn mn nh tha mn iu

kin:
sin = k
vi k = 1,2,3...
(3-16)
Nhng cc tiu ny c gi l cc tiu chnh.

- Xt phn b cng sng gia hai cc tiu chnh:
Hiu quang l ca hai tia sng xut pht t hai khe k tip n im M l
L1 L 2 = d sin . Nu hiu quang l bng s nguyn ln bc sng
L1 L 2 = d sin = m th dao ng sng do hai tia gy ra ti M cng pha v tng

cng ln nhau. Kt qu im M sng. Cc im c gi l cc i chnh. V tr cc
cc i chnh l:
sin = m
vi m = 0, 1, 2, 3....
(3-17)
S nguyn m l bc ca cc i chnh. Cc i chnh gia (m = 0) nm ti tiu im F ca

thu knh. V d > b nn gia hai cc tiu chnh c th c nhiu cc i chnh. V d: k = 1
d
nn m < k = 3 , ngha l m = 0, 1, 2. Nh vy gia hai
v d/b = 3 . Do m < k
b
b
d
cc tiu chnh c 5 cc i chnh.
Hnh 3-9 nh nhiu x qua ba khe hp
52
- Xt phn b cng sng gia hai cc i chnh:

Ti im chnh gia hai cc i chnh k tip, gc nhiu x tha mn iu kin:
sin = (2m + 1)
2d
vi m = 0,1,2...
Ti cc im ny, hiu quang l ca hai tia gi t hai khe k tip c gi tr l:
. y l iu kin cc tiu giao thoa, hai tia s kh ln nhau. Tuy

2
nhin im chnh gia cha chc ti. minh ha c th ta xt hai trng hp n
gin sau:
d sin = (2m + 1)
+ Nu s khe hp N = 2 (s chn) th cc dao ng sng do hai khe hp gi ti s

kh nhau hon ton v im chnh gia s ti. im ti c gi l cc tiu ph.
+ Nu s khe hp N = 3 (s l) th cc dao ng sng do hai khe hp gi ti s kh
nhau, cn dao ng sng do khe th ba gy ra khng b kh. Kt qu l gia hai cc i
chnh l mt cc i. Cc i ny c cng kh nh, nn c gi l cc i ph. R
rng gia cc i ph ny v hai cc i chnh hai bn phi c hai cc tiu ph.
Ngi ta chng minh c rng, nu cch t c N khe hp th gia hai cc i chnh
s c N-1 cc tiu ph v N-2 cc i ph. Hnh 3-9 biu din nh nhiu x qua ba khe hp.
Cch t phng c th dng o bc sng nh sng, ng dng trong my n sc...
T cng thc (3-17) nu ta bit c chu k ca cch t, bng cch o gc ng vi cc
i chnh bc m ta c th xc nh c bc sng nh sng.
3. Nhiu x trn tinh th
Cc nguyn t (phn t hay ion) cu to
nn vt rn tinh th c sp xp theo mt cu
trc tun hon gi l mng tinh th, trong v
tr ca cc nguyn t (phn t hay ion) gi l nt
mng. Khong cch gia cc nt mng, c trng
cho tnh tun hon, c gi l chu k ca mng
tinh th. Chiu ln tinh th mt chm tia
Rnghen, mi nt mng tr thnh tm nhiu x
v mng tinh th ng vai tr nh mt cch t
vi chu k l chu k ca mng tinh th. Chm tia
Hnh 3-10. Nhiu x trn tinh th
Rnghen s nhiu x theo nhiu phng, tuy nhin ch theo phng phn x gng
(phng m gc phn x bng gc ti), cng ca tia nhiu x ln ta c th quan
st c nh nhiu x. Nhng tia nhiu x ny s giao thoa vi nhau v cho cc i nhiu
x nu hai tia nhiu x k tip c hiu quang l bng s nguyn ln bc sng
L = 2d sin = k
hay
53
sin = k
2d
(3-18)
d l khong cch gia hai mt phng nguyn t ca vt rn tinh th (chu k mng tinh th).
Cng thc (3-18) gi l cng thc Vulf-Bragg. y l cng thc c bn phn tch cu
trc ca vt rn tinh th bng tia Rnghen. Nu bit bc sng ca tia Rnghen v o gc
ta c th xc nh c chu k d ca mng tinh th.
III. TM TT NI DUNG
1. Hin tng nhiu x nh sng
* nh ngha: Hin tng nhiu x nh sng l hin tng tia sng b lch khi
phng truyn thng khi i qua cc chng ngi vt c kch thc nh nh l trn, khe hp,
a trn...
* Nguyn l Huygens - Fresnel:
- Mi im trong khng gian c sng nh sng t ngun thc gi n u tr
thnh ngun sng th cp pht sng nh sng v pha trc.
- Bin v pha ca ngun th cp l bin v pha do ngun thc gy ra ti v
tr ca ngun th cp.
2. Phng php i cu Fresnel
Din tch cc i cu bng nhau v bng:
S =
Rb
R+b
Bn knh rk ca i cu th k bng:
rk =
Rb
k
R+b
k=1,2,3...
trong R l bn knh ca mt sng bao quanh ngun sng im S

b l khong cch t im c chiu sng M ti i cu th nht.
l bc sng do ngun S pht ra.
3. Nhiu x sng cu qua l trn
p dng phng php i cu Fresnel, ta tnh c bin ca nh sng tng hp ti
M, cch ngun S mt khong R+b:
a
a
a= 1 n
2
2
Ly du + nu n l l v du - nu n l chn. Ta xt cc trng hp sau:
* Khi khng c mn chn P hoc l trn rt ln: n , a n 0
sng ti M:
54
nn cng
a2
I0 = a 2 = 1
4
* Nu l cha s l i cu:
a a
a= 1+ n
2
2
a
a
I= 1 + n
2
2
I > I0, im M sng hn khi khng c mn P. c bit nu l cha mt i cu
a a
a = 1 + 1 = a1
2 2
I = a12 = 4I 0
Cng sng gp 4 ln so vi khi khng c l trn, nh vy im M rt sng.

* Nu l cha s chn i cu
a a
a= 1 n
2 2
a
a
I= 1 n
2
2
I < I0, im M ti hn khi khng c l trn. Nu l trn cha hai i cu th
a a
a = 1 2 0 , do I = 0, im M ti nht.
2 2
Tm li im M c th sng hn hoc ti hn so vi khi khng c l trn tu theo
kch thc ca l v v tr ca mn quan st.
4. Nhiu x ca sng phng qua mt khe hp
p dng phng php i cu Fresnel ta tnh ton c bin dao ng sng tng
hp ti mt im M trn mn quan st. Kt qu ta c cc iu kin cc i, cc tiu nhiu
x qua mt khe hp nh sau:
- Cc i gia (k=0) :
sin = 0
- Cc tiu nhiu x :
sin = , 2 , 3 ,...
b
b
b
- Cc i nhiu x :
sin = 3
, 5 , ...
2b
2b
Trn th phn b cng sng ta thy cc i gia rt sng, cc cc i nhiu x

bc k=1,2,3...nm xen gia cc cc tiu nhiu x v phn b i xng hai bn cc i
gia. Cc i gia c b rng gp i cc cc i khc. Theo tnh ton l thuyt, cng
sng ca cc cc i nhiu x tun theo h thc sau:
I0 : I1 : I2 : I3 : ....= 1 : 0,045 : 0,016 : 0,008 : ...
5. Nhiu x qua nhiu khe Cch t
55

Cch t phng l mt h nhiu khe hp ging nhau c rng b, nm song song cch
u trn cng mt mt phng. Khong cch d gia hai khe k tip c gi l chu k ca
cch t. Ngi ta c th ch to c cc cch t di 10cm, trn mi mm c t 500 1200
vch. Cc cch t ny c th s dng xc nh bc sng nh sng n sc, xc nh
thnh phn cu to ca cc cht v dng trong my quang ph...
i vi vt rn tinh th, mng tinh th ng vai tr mt cch t khng gian ba chiu.
S nhiu x ca cc tia X trn cc nt mng cho ta kt qu:
2d sin = k
d l khong cch gia hai nt mng, gi l hng s mng. y l cng thc Vulf-Bragg,
c dng xc nh cu trc ca vt rn tinh th.
IV. CU HI L THUYT
1. Nu nh ngha hin tng nhiu x nh sng. Dng nguyn l Huygens gii thch nh
tnh hin tng nhiu x.
2. Pht biu nguyn l Huygens-Fresnel.
3. Trnh by phng php i cu Fresnel.
4. Gii thch hin tng nhiu x nh sng qua l trn nh. Xt cc trng hp l trn cha
mt s l i cu, mt s chn i cu, c bit cha mt i cu v hai i cu.
5. M t hin tng nhiu x nh sng qua mt khe hp. Tm iu kin cc i, cc tiu
nhiu x. V nh nhiu x ca sng phng qua mt khe hp.
6. nh ngha cch t phng v nu ng dng ca cch t.
7. Trnh by nhiu x ca tia X trn tinh th. Cng thc Vulf- Bragg. Nu ng dng ca
hin tng nhiu x tia X.
V. BI TP
Th d 1: Mt ngun sng im chiu nh sng n sc bc sng = 0,5m vo mt l
trn c bn knh r = 0,5mm. Khong cch t ngun sng n l trn R = 1m.Tm khong
cch t l trn n mn quan st tm nhiu x l ti nht.
p s: tm ca hnh nhiu x l ti nht th l trn ch cha 2 i cu Fresnel, bn knh
ca l trn bng bn knh ca i cu th 2
Rr22
2Rb
0,25.106
1
r2 =
=rb=
=
= m
2
6
R+b
3
2R r2 2.0,5.10 0,25.10
Th d 2: Mt chm tia sng n sc c bc sng = 0,5m c chiu vung gc vi
mt khe hp ch nht c b rng b = 0,1mm, ngay sau khe hp t mt thu knh hi t.
Tm b rng ca vn cc i gia trn mn quan st t ti mt phng tiu ca thu knh v
cch thu knh D = 1m.
56

Bi gii: B rng ca vn cc i gia l
khong cch gia hai cc tiu nhiu x u
tin hai bn cc i gia. ln ca gc
nhiu x ng vi cc cc tiu nhiu x
l: sin = .
b
T hnh v ta thy
l = 2Dtg 2D sin
l=
2D 2.1.0,5.10 6
=
= 1cm
b
0,1.10 3
Th d 3: Cho mt chm tia sng n sc song song c bc sng = 0,5m, chiu vng
gc vi mt ca mt cch t phng truyn qua. st pha sau ca cch t ngi ta t mt
thu knh hi t c tiu c f = 50cm. Khi trn mn quan st t ti mt phng tiu ca
thu knh, hai vch quang ph bc nht cch nhau mt khong a = 10,1cm. Xc nh:
1. Chu k cch t v s khe trn 1cm chiu di ca cch t.
2. S vch cc i chnh trong quang ph nhiu x.
Bi gii
1.V tr cc cc i chnh trong quang ph
nhiu x xc nh bi cng thc:
sin =
m
, m = 0, 1, 2, 3...
d
Do vy v tr hai vch cc i chnh ca

quang ph bc nht ng vi gc lch 1
bng: sin 1 = , v 1 rt nh nn
d
tg1 sin 1 .
T hnh v, ta c tg1 =
M1F L
=
OF 2f
So snh tg 1 vi sin 1 ta c chu k cch t:
d=
2f 2.50.10 2.0,5.10 6
=
= 4,95m
L
10,1.10 2
S khe trn 1cm chiu di ca cch t: n =

2. T cng thc: sin =
1
= 2020 khe / cm
d
m
d 4,95.10 6
, m sin 1 m =
= 9,9
0,5.10 6
d
57

V m nguyn nn c th ly cc gi tr: 0, 1,2 ,3 ,4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Do cc vch cc i chnh ti a trong quang ph nhiu x ca cch t bng:
Nmax = 2.9 + 1 = 19 vch.
Bi tp t gii
1. Chiu nh sng n sc bc sng = 0,5m vo mt l trn bn knh cha bit. Ngun
sng im t cch l trn 2m, sau l trn 2m t mn quan st. Hi bn knh ca l trn
bng bao nhiu tm ca hnh nhiu x l ti nht.
p s: tm ca hnh nhiu x l ti nht th l trn ch cha 2 i cu Fresnel:
r=
kRb
=
R+b
2.2.2.0,5.10 6
= 10 3 m
4
2. Mt mn nh c t cch ngun sng im n sc bc sng = 0,5m mt khong

2m. Chnh gia mn nh v ngun sng t mt l trn ng knh 0,2cm. Tm s i cu
Fresnel m l trn cha c.
p s: Bn knh ca l trn bng bn knh ca i cu th k
r=
r 2 ( R + b)
kRb
=4
k=
Rb
R+b
3. Mt ngun sng im chiu nh sng n sc bc sng = 0,5m vo mt l trn c

bn knh r = 1mm. Khong cch t ngun sng n l trn R= 1m. Tm khong cch t l
trn n mn quan st l trn cha ba i Fresnel.
p s: l trn ch cha ba i cu Fresnel c ngha l bn knh ca l trn bng bn
Rr32
10 6
3Rb
knh ca i cu th ba: r3 =
b=
=
= 2m
R+b
3R r32 3.0,5.10 6 10 6
4. t mt mn quan st cch mt ngun sng im pht ra nh sng n sc bc sng
= 0,6m mt khong x. Chnh gia khong x t mt a trn nh chn sng ng knh
1mm. Hi x bng bao nhiu im M0 trn mn quan st c sng gn ging nh cha
t a trn, bit im M0 v ngun sng u nm trn trc ca a trn.
p s: Mun cng sng ti M0 gn ging nh khi cha c a trn th a trn ch
chn mt i cu Fresnel:
4.(0,5.103 ) 2
2r 2
Rb
= 1,67m
; R = b R =
; x = 2R =
r1 =
R+b
0,6.106
5. Mt chm tia sng n sc song song bc sng = 0,589m chiu thng gc vi mt
khe hp c b rng b = 2m. Hi nhng cc tiu nhiu x c quan st di nhng gc
nhiu x bng bao nhiu? (so vi phng ban u)
p s: p dng cng thc:
58

sin =
k
, sin 1 1 = 17 08, 2 = 36 0 5, 3 = 62 0
b
6. Chiu mt chm tia sng n sc song song vung gc vi mt khe hp. Bc sng nh
1
b rng ca khe hp. Hi cc tiu nhiu x th ba c quan st di gc
sng bng
6
lch bng bao nhiu?
p s: = 300
7. Mt chm tia sng c ri vung gc vi mt cch t. Bit rng gc nhiu x i vi
vch quang ph 1 = 0,65m trong quang ph bc hai bng 1 = 450. Xc nh gc nhiu
x ng vi vch quang ph 2 = 0,5m trong quang ph bc ba.
p s:
3 2 sin 1
2 = 54 0 40
2 1
8. Cho mt chm tia sng n sc song song c bc sng = 0,7m chiu vung gc vi
mt ca mt cch t truyn qua. Trn mt phng tiu ca thu knh hi t t st pha sau
sin 1 = m1n1 = 2n1 , sin 2 = m 2 n 2 = 3n 2 sin 2 =
cch t, ngi ta quan st thy vch quang ph bc ba lch = 48 0 36 . Xc nh:

1. Chu k cch t v s khe trn 1cm chiu di ca cch t.
2. S cc i chnh nm trong khong gia hai cc tiu chnh bc nht trong nh
nhiu x. Cho bit mi khe ca cch t c rng b = 0,7m, sin 48 0 36 = 0,75
p s:
1.Gc nhiu x ng vi cc cc i chnh c xc nh bi cng thc:
sin =
m
m
d=
= 2,8.10 4 cm
sin
d
S khe trn 1cm chiu di ca cch t: n =
1
3571 khe / cm
d
2. Gc nhiu x ng vi cc tiu chnh trong nh nhiu x c xc nh bi cng thc:

k
, s cc i chnh nm gia hai cc tiu chnh bc nht phi tho mn iu kin:
sin =
b
m k
kd
m
= 4 . Vy gia hai cc tiu chnh bc nht c 7 cc i chnh.
d
b
b
9. Cho mt cch t phng c chu k cch t d = 2m. Sau cch t t mt thu knh hi t,
trn mn quan st t ti mt phng tiu ca thu knh ngi ta quan st thy khong cch
gia hai quang ph bc nht ng vi bc sng 1 = 0,4044m v 2 = 0,4047m bng
0,1mm. Xc nh tiu c ca thu knh.
p s:
59

Gc nhiu x ng vi cc i:
sin =
m
d
V tr cc i ng vi gc nhiu x:
y = MF = f .tg
y 2 y1
, y 2 y1 = 0,1mm,
tg 2 tg1
sin 2 = 2 , sin 1 = 1
d
d
f =
f = 0,65m
10. Mt chm nh sng trng song song chiu vung gc vo mt mt cch t phng. Cho
bit trn mi milimet chiu di ca cch t c n = 50 khe. Pha sau cch t t mt thu
knh hi t. Xc nh hiu s cc gc nhiu x ng vi vch c bc sng 1 = 0,76m
nm cui quang ph bc nht v vch tm c bc sng 2 = 0,4m nm u quang ph
bc hai.
p s: d =
1
= 0,02mm
n
Gc nhiu x cui quang ph bc nht ng vi nh sng :
0,76.10 6
sin 1 = 1 =
= 0,038 1 = 2 011
3
d 0,02.10
Gc nhiu x u quang ph bc hai ng vi nh sng tm:
sin 2 =
2 2 2.0,4.10 6
=
= 0,04 2 = 2 018
3
d
0,02.10
Hiu s ca cc gc nhiu x: = 2 1 = 7
11. Cho mt chm tia sng n sc song song chiu vung gc vo mt ca mt cch t
phng c chu k d = 2m. Xc nh bc ln nht ca cc vch cc i trong quang ph
nhiu x cho bi cch t i vi nh sng c bc sng 1 = 0,7m v i vi nh sng
tm c bc sng 2 = 0,42m.
p s: sin = m
d. sin
d
, m sin 1 , nn m
m=
i vi nh sng : m1
i vi nh sng tm: m 2
d
= 2,86 m1(max ) = 2
1
d
= 4,76 m 2(max ) = 4
2
60
Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng
CHNG IV: PHN CC NH SNG

Trong hai chng trc chng ta nghin cu hin tng giao thoa v hin tng
nhiu x nh sng ch da vo bn cht sng ca nh sng m khng cn phn bit sng nh
sng l sng ngang hay sng dc. Trong chng ny chng ta s chng minh nh sng l
sng ngang qua hin tng phn cc nh sng. Ta bit sng in t l sng ngang, l
sng c cc vect cng in trng v vect cng t trng dao ng vung gc
vi phng truyn sng. Ch c sng ngang mi c th th hin tnh phn cc cho nn
nghin cu s phn cc ca nh sng chng ta mt ln na khng nh bn cht sng in
t ca nh sng.
I. MC CH - YU CU
1. Nm c s phn cc nh sng th hin nh sng l sng ngang. Phn bit nh sng t
nhin v nh sng phn cc (mt phn, ton phn). Thit lp nh lut Malus.
2. Nm c s phn cc nh sng do phn x, khc x, phn cc do lng chit t nhin.
3. Nm c ng dng ca hin tng quay mt phng phn cc xc nh nng ca
cc cht hot quang trong phn cc k (ng k).
II. NI DUNG
1. NH SNG PHN CC
1. nh sng t nhin v nh sng phn cc
1
(a)
(b)
E1
Tia sng
Tia sng
Hnh 4-1. nh sng t nhin (a) v nh sng phn cc thng (b)

61

nh sng do mt ngun sng pht ra l tp hp ca v s cc on sng ni tip
nhau. Trong mi on sng, vect cng in trng E lun dao ng theo mt phng
xc nh vung gc vi tia sng. Nhng do tnh hn lon ca chuyn ng bn trong mi
nguyn t nn vect E trong cc on sng do mt nguyn t pht ra c th dao ng theo
cc phng khc nhau vung gc vi tia sng. Mt khc ngun sng bao gm nhiu
nguyn t, do phng dao ng ca vect E trong cc on sng do cc nguyn t pht
ra cng thay i hn lon v phn b u xung quanh tia sng. nh sng c vect cng
in trng dao ng u n theo mi phng vung gc tia sng c gi l nh sng t
nhin. Hnh 4-1a biu din nh sng t nhin, trong mt phng vung gc vi tia sng cc
vect E c tr s bng nhau v phn b u n xung quanh tia sng.
nh sng t nhin khi i qua mi trng bt ng hng v mt quang hc (v d bn
tinh th Tuamalin), trong nhng iu kin nht nh no do tc dng ca mi trng nn
vect E ch dao ng theo mt phng xc nh. nh sng c vect E ch dao ng theo
mt phng xc nh c gi l nh sng phn cc thng hay nh sng phn cc ton
phn. Hnh 4-1b biu din nh sng phn cc ton phn E1 . Hin tng nh sng t nhin
bin thnh nh sng phn cc gi l hin tng phn cc nh sng. Mt phng cha tia sng
v phng dao ng ca E c gi l mt phng dao ng, cn mt phng cha tia sng
v vung gc vi mt phng dao ng gi l mt phng phn cc.
Vi nh ngha nh sng phn cc ton phn th mi on sng do nguyn t pht ra
l mt nh sng phn cc ton phn. Nh vy nh sng t nhin do cc nguyn t ca mt
ngun sng pht ra l tp hp ca v s nh sng phn cc ton phn, dao ng u n
theo tt c mi phng vung gc vi tia sng.
Trong mt s trng hp do tc dng ca mi trng ln nh sng truyn qua n,
vect cng in trng vn dao ng theo tt c cc phng vung gc vi tia sng
nhng c phng dao ng yu, c phng dao ng mnh. nh sng ny c gi l nh
sng phn cc mt phn.
2. nh lut Malus v phn cc nh sng
Thc nghim chng t rng, bn tinh th Tuamalin (hp cht silicbrat aluminium)
vi chiu dy 1mm c th bin nh sng t nhin thnh nh sng phn cc thng. Nguyn
nhn ca hin tng ny l do tnh hp th nh sng khng u theo cc phng khc nhau
trong tinh th (gi l tnh hp th d hng). Trong bn Tuamalin c mt phng c bit
gi l quang trc ca tinh th (k hiu l ) . Theo phng quang trc, nh sng khng b
hp th v truyn t do qua bn tinh th, cn theo phng vung gc vi quang trc, nh
sng b hp th hon ton. Khi ta chiu mt chm tia sng t nhin vung gc vi mt
ABCD ca bn tinh th tuamalin c quang trc song song cnh AB, v nh sng l sng
ngang nn tia sng sau bn tuamalin c vect sng E song song vi quang trc ca bn
(hnh 4-1b). Di y ta s xt k hn v s truyn nh sng qua bn tuamalin.
62

Xt nh sng t nhin truyn ti bn tuamalin T1, bt k vect sng E no ca nh
sng t nhin cng u c th phn tch thnh hai thnh phn: E1x vung gc vi quang
trc 1 v E1y song song vi quang trc
1 . Khi
E 2 = E12x + E12y
(4-1)
Do nh sng t nhin c E phn b u n xung quanh tia sng nn ta c th ly

trung bnh:
E12x = E12y =
1 2
E
2
(4-2)
Do tnh hp th d hng ca bn tinh th tuamalin, thnh phn E1x vung gc vi

quang trc b hp th hon ton, cn thnh phn E1y song song vi quang trc c truyn
hon ton qua bn tuamalin T1, nh sng t nhin bin thnh nh sng phn cc ton
phn c vect sng E1 = E1y song song vi quang trc 1 (hnh 4-2) v cng sng I1
sau bn T1 bng:
I1 = E12 = E12y =
1 2 1
E = I0
2
2
(4-3)
trong I 0 = E 2 l cng ca nh sng t nhin truyn ti bn T1.

Ly mt bn tuamalin T2 c quang trc 2 t sau T1. Gi l gc gia quang trc
1 v 2 . Vect sng E1 sau bn tuamalin T1 s c phn tch thnh hai thnh phn:
,
E 2 = E1 cos
song
song
vi
quang
trc
2 v
,,
E 2 = E1 sin vung gc vi 2 . Thnh phn E 2 s truyn

,,
qua bn T2, cn thnh phn E 2 s b hp th hon ton. Nh

vy sau bn T2 ta cng nhn c nh sng phn cc ton
,
phn c vect sng E 2 = E 2 v cng sng I2 bng

I 2 = E 22 = E12 cos 2 = I1 cos 2
(4-4)
I1 l cng sng sau bn tuamalin T1. Nh vy nu gi c
nh bn T1 v quay bn T2 xung quanh tia sng th I2 s thay
i. Khi hai quang trc song song vi nhau, = 0 th I2 s
Hnh 4-2
t gi tr cc i v bng I1. Cn lc hai quang trc vung gc vi nhau, =

bng 0. T1 c gi l knh phn cc, T2 c gi l knh phn tch (hnh 4-3)
Cng thc (4-4) biu din mt nh lut gi l nh lut Malus.
63
th I2 s
2

nh lut Malus: Khi cho mt chm tia sng t nhin truyn qua hai bn tuamalin c
quang trc hp vi nhau mt gc th cng sng nhn c t l vi cos2.
Do tnh i xng ca nh sng t nhin xung quanh phng truyn nn nu ta quay
bn tuamalin xung quanh tia sng th v tr no cng c nh sng truyn qua. Cn khi tia
sng chiu n bn tuamalin l nh sng phn cc th khi quay bn tuamalin cng sng
sau bn s thay i. Nh vy bn tuamalin c th gip ta phn bit c chm sng t
nhin v chm sng phn cc.
Hnh 4-3
3. S phn cc nh sng do phn x v khc x
Thc nghim chng t rng khi cho mt tia sng t nhin chiu ti mt phn cch
gia hai mi trng di gc ti i 0 th tia phn x v tia khc x u l nh sng phn
cc mt phn. Vect cng in trng ca tia phn x c bin dao ng ln nht
theo phng vung gc vi mt phng ti, cn vect cng in trng ca tia khc x
c bin dao ng ln nht theo phng nm trong mt phng ti (hnh 4-4) . Khi thay
i gc ti i th mc phn cc ca tia phn x v tia khc x cng thay i. Khi gc ti i
tha mn iu kin:
tg iB = n21
(4-5)
th tia phn x s phn cc ton phn,
n
n 21 = 2 l chit sut t i ca mi
n1
trng hai i vi mi trng mt, iB c
gi l gc ti Brewster hay gc phn cc
ton phn. V d khi phn x t khng kh
trn thy tinh th iB = 57o. Tia khc x khng
bao gi l nh sng phn cc ton phn,
nhng khi i = iB th tia khc x cng b phn
cc mnh nht.
B
Hnh 4-4: Phn cc do phn x
v khc x
64

2. PHN CC DO LNG CHIT
Thc nghim chng t rng mt s tinh th nh bng lan, thch anh... c tnh cht
c bit l nu chiu mt tia sng n tinh th th ni chung ta s c hai tia. Hin
tng ny gi l hin tng lng chit. Nguyn nhn l do tnh bt ng hng ca tinh
th v mt quang hc (tc l tnh cht quang ca tinh th cc hng khc nhau th s
khc nhau). nghin cu hin tng lng chit chng ta xt tinh th bng lan.
Tinh th bng lan l dng kt tinh ca
canxi cacbnat (CaCO3). Mi ht tinh th bng
lan c dng mt khi su mt hnh thoi (hnh
4-5), trong ng thng ni hai nh A v A1
gi l quang trc ca tinh th. Mt tia sng truyn
vo tinh th bng lan theo phng song song vi
quang trc s khng b tch thnh hai tia khc x.
Chiu mt tia sng t nhin vung gc vi mt
Hnh 4-5 Tinh th bng lan
ABCD ca tinh th. Thc nghim chng t rng tia ny s b tch thnh hai tia khc x
(hnh 4-6):
- Tia truyn thng khng b lch khi phng truyn gi l tia thng (k hiu l tia
o). Tia ny tun theo nh lut khc x nh sng. Tia thng phn cc ton phn, c vect
sng E vung gc vi mt mt phng c bit gi l mt phng chnh ca tia (mt
phng cha tia thng v quang trc).
- Tia lch khi phng truyn gi l tia bt thng (k hiu l tia e). Tia ny khng
tun theo nh lut khc x nh sng. Tia bt thng phn cc ton phn, c vect sng E
nm trong mt phng chnh ca n (mt phng cha quang trc v tia bt thng).
Khi l ra khi tinh th, hai tia thng v tia bt thng ch khc nhau v phng phn
cc. Chit sut ca tinh th bng lan i vi tia thng lun khng i v bng no=1,659.
Chit sut ne ca tinh th bng lan i vi tia bt thng ph thuc vo phng
truyn ca n trong tinh th v thay i t 1,659 (theo phng quang trc) n 1,486 (theo
phng vung gc vi quang trc). Nh vy i vi tinh th bng lan ta c:
ne no
(4-6)
V chit sut n = c/v, vi c l vn tc nh sng trong chn khng v v l vn tc nh sng

trong mi trng, do :
ve vo
(4-7)
ngha l trong tinh th bng lan, vn tc ca tia bt thng ni chung ln hn vn tc ca

tia thng.
Tinh th bng lan, thch anh, tuamalin... l nhng tinh th n trc. Trong t nhin
cn c tinh th lng trc, l nhng tinh th c hai quang trc theo hai hng khc nhau.
Mt tia sng t nhin truyn qua tinh th lng trc cng b tch thnh hai tia khc x
nhng c hai tia ny u l nhng tia bt thng.
65
Hnh 4-6. Tnh lng chit ca tinh th

3. KNH PHN CC
Ngi ta s dng cc tinh th lng chit ch to knh phn cc. Knh phn cc l
nhng dng c c th bin nh sng t nhin thnh nh sng phn cc, v d nh bn
tuamalin, bn plarit, lng knh nicn...
1. Bn plarit
Mt s tinh th lng chit c tnh hp th d hng mnh i vi mt trong hai tia
thng v bt thng. V d bn tinh th tuamalin dy hn 1mm hu nh hp th hon ton
tia thng v ch cho tia bt thng truyn qua n. V vy bn tuamalin c th dng lm
knh phn cc.
Trong nhng nm gn y ngi ta ch to nhng knh phn cc lm bng
xenluylit, trn c ph mt lp tinh th nh hng sunfat-it-kinin c tnh hp th d
hng mnh. Nhng bn ny gi l bn plarit. Bn plarit dy khong 0,1 mm c th
hp th hon ton tia thng v to ra nh sng phn cc ton phn sau khi i ra khi bn.
Bn plarit tng i r nn c s dng nhiu trong ngnh vn ti. khc phc
hin tng ngi li xe t b lo mt do nh sng t cc n pha ca cc t khc chy
ngc chiu gy ra, ngi ta dn cc bn plarit ln mt knh n pha t v knh chn gi
pha trc ngi li t sao cho quang trc ca cc bn song song v cng nghing 45o so
vi phng ngang. Khi hai t chy ngc chiu ti gp nhau th cc bn plarit trn hai
t ny c quang trc bt cho nhau. Nh vy nh sng phn cc pht ra t n pha ca t
th nht chy ti khng th truyn qua knh chn gi ca t th hai chy ngc chiu
chiu vo mt ngi li xe. Trong khi ngi li xe th hai vn c th nhn thy nh sng
phn cc pht ra t n pha ca xe mnh chiu sang cc vt pha trc, v nh sng phn
cc ny sau khi phn x trn cc vt vn gi nguyn phng dao ng song song vi quang
trc ca knh chn gi trc mt ngi li xe.
2. Lng knh Nicol (Nicn)
Lng knh Nicol (gi tt l nicn) l mt khi tinh th bng lan c ct theo mt cho
thnh hai na v dn li vi nhau bng mt lp nha canaa trong sut c chit sut n= 1,550.
66

Tia sng t nhin SI chiu vo mt AC ca nicn theo phng song song vi mt y
CA' b tch thnh hai: tia thng v tia bt thng. Chit sut ca tinh th i vi tia thng
no=1,659, cn chit sut ca tinh th i vi tia bt thng ne ph thuc vo hng, n thay
i t 1,486 n 1,659. V no > ne nn tia thng b khc x mnh hn tia bt thng. Chit
sut ca tinh th i vi tia thng ln hn chit sut ca lp nha v hnh dng, kch thc
ca nicn c chn sao cho tia thng khi n lp nha canaa b phn x ton phn v
sau b hp th trn lp sn en ca mt y CA'. Cn tia bt thng (ne < n) truyn qua
lp nha canaa v l ra khi nicn theo phng song song vi tia ti SI.
Hnh 4-7. Lng knh Nicol

Nh vy, nicn bin nh sng t nhin (hoc phn cc mt phn) truyn qua n thnh
nh sng phn cc ton phn c mt phng dao ng trng vi mt phng chnh ca nicn.
Nu cho mt chm sng t nhin qua h hai nicn N1 v N2 th cng sng I2
pha sau bn nicn N2 cng c xc nh theo nh lut Malus (cng thc 4-4), vi l
gc gia hai mt phng chnh ca nicn N1 v N2.
Khi hai nicn N1 v N2 t v tr song song, ng vi = 0, cng sng sau
nicn N2 t cc i I2 = Imax (sng nht). Khi hai nicn t v tr bt cho, ng vi
=/2, cng sng sau nicn N2 t cc tiu I2 = Imin (ti nht).
Hnh 4-8. a) Hai nicn song song
67
b) Hai nicn bt cho

4. NH SNG PHN CC ELIP
Trong cc tit trc chng ta nghin cu nh sng phn cc thng, l nh sng
c vect sng E dao ng theo mt phng xc nh, tc l E dao ng trn ng thng.
Thc nghim ch ra rng ta c th to ra nh sng phn cc trong u mt vect
sng E chuyn ng trn mt ng elip (hay ng trn), nh sng phn cc ny c
gi l nh sng phn cc elip hay phn cc trn.
Xt bn tinh th T c quang trc v dy d. Chiu vung gc vi mt trc ca
bn tinh th mt tia sng phn cc ton phn c vect sng E hp vi quang trc mt gc
. Khi vo bn tinh th, tia sng ny b tch thnh hai: tia thng v tia bt thng. Tia
thng c vect sng E o vung gc vi quang trc, cn tia bt thng c vect sng E e
song song vi quang trc v c hai vect sng u nm trong mt phng vung gc vi tia
sng (hnh 4-9).
Hnh 4-9. nh sng phn cc elip

Vect sng tng hp ca tia thng v tia bt thng ti im M sau bn tinh th
bng:
E = Eo + Ee
(4-8)
trong bn tinh th, hai tia ny truyn i vi vn tc khc nhau (do chit sut ca
tinh th i vi hai tia khc nhau, ne no ) v khi l ra khi bn chng li truyn i vi cng
vn tc. Do , hiu quang l ca tia thng v tia bt thng ti mt im M sau bn
bng:
L = L o - L e = (n o - n e )d
(4-9)
tng ng vi hiu pha l
2
2
(L o - L e ) =
( n o - n e )d
trong l bc sng nh sng trong chn khng.
68
(4-10)

Cc vect sng E o v E e dao ng theo hai phng vung gc vi nhau, do u
mt vect sng tng hp s chuyn ng trn mt ng elip xc nh bi phng trnh:
x2
A12
y2
A 22
2 xy
cos = sin 2
A 1A 2
(4-11)
vi A1 v A2 ln lt l bin v = o - e l hiu pha dao ng ca hai vect sng
E o v E e . Nu trc khi vo bn tinh th, nh sng phn cc ton phn c bin l A th

A1=A.sin v A2=A.cos .
Nh vy, nh sng phn cc thng sau khi truyn qua bn tinh th s bin thnh nh
sng phn cc elip. Chng ta s xt mt vi trng hp ring ph thuc vo dy d ca
bn tinh th.
1. Bn phn t bc sng
Bn phn t bc sng l bn tinh th c dy d sao cho hiu quang l ca tia
thng v tia bt thng truyn qua bn bng mt s l ln ca phn t bc sng:
L = (n o - n e )d = (2k + 1)
(4-12)
Khi hiu pha ca hai tia bng:
= (2k + 1)
(4-13)
v phng trnh (4-11) s thnh:
x2
A12
y2
A 22
=1
(4-14)
Hnh 4-10a: Phn cc elip
Hnh 4-10b: Phn cc trn
dng chnh tc
Trong trng hp ny, u mt ca vect sng tng hp E pha sau bn tinh th

chuyn ng trn mt elip dng chnh tc c hai bn trc l A1 v A2 c xc nh bi
phng trnh (4-14) (hnh 4-10a). c bit, nu = 45o th A1 = A2 = A0 v phng trnh
(4-14) s thnh:
x 2 + y 2 = A 02
(4-15)
69

Khi u mt ca vect sng tng hp E pha sau bn tinh th chuyn ng trn ng
trn tm O, bn knh A0 c xc nh bi phng trnh (4-15) (hnh 4-10b).
Nh vy, sau khi truyn qua bn phn t bc sng, nh sng phn cc thng b
bin i thnh nh sng phn cc elip dng chnh tc hoc phn cc trn.
2. Bn na bc sng
Bn na bc sng l bn tinh th c dy d sao cho hiu quang l ca tia thng
v tia bt thng truyn qua bn bng mt s l ln na bc sng:
L = (n o - n e )d = (2k + 1)
(4-16)
Khi hiu pha ca hai tia bng:
= (2k + 1)
(4-17)
x
y
+
=0
A1 A 2
(4-18)
y l phng trnh ca ng thng, mt vect sng tng
Hnh 4-11
hp E pha sau bn s chuyn ng trn ng thng nm

trong gc phn t th hai v th t ca h ta Oxy (hnh 4-11), ng thng hp vi
quang trc mt gc . Trc khi vo bn tinh th, mt vect sng ca nh sng phn cc
thng dao ng trn ng thng. Nh vy sau khi truyn qua bn na bc sng nh sng
phn cc thng vn l nh sng phn cc thng, nhng phng dao ng quay i mt
gc 2 so vi trc khi i vo bn.
3. Bn mt bc sng
Bn mt bc sng l bn tinh th c dy d sao cho
hiu quang l ca tia thng v tia bt thng truyn qua bn
bng mt s nguyn ln bc sng:
L = (n o - n e )d = k
(4-19)
khi hiu pha ca hai tia bng:
= 2k
(4-20)
Hnh 4-12
x
y
=0
A1 A 2
(4-21)
y l phng trnh ca ng thng, nm trong gc phn t th nht v th ba ca h ta

Oxy (hnh 4-12), ng thng hp vi quang trc mt gc . Nh vy sau khi truyn
qua bn mt bc sng nh sng phn cc thng gi nguyn khng i.
70

5. LNG CHIT DO IN TRNG
Mt s cht lng nh sulfua ccbon, benzn... khi chu tc dng ca in trng th
tr nn bt ng hng v mt quang hc. Hin tng ny c Kerr tm ra nm 1875 v
gi l hiu ng Kerr. S th nghim v hiu ng Kerr c trnh by trn hnh 4-13.
Hnh 4-13. Th nghim v hiu ng Kerr

Khi cha c in trng, cc phn t cht lng chuyn ng nhit hn lon nn cht
lng l ng hng v khng lm thay i phng ca nh sng phn cc ton phn sau
nicn N1 truyn ti n. Do nh sng phn cc ton phn ny khng th truyn tip qua
nicn N2 (bt cho vi N1) v sau nicn N2 s hon ton ti.
Khi cht lng chu tc dng ca in trng gia hai bn cc ca t in, cc phn
t ca n tr thnh cc lng cc in nm dc theo phng ca in trng. Cht lng tr
thnh mi trng bt ng hng vi quang trc l phng ca in trng. Trong trng
hp ny, chm nh sng phn cc ton phn sau nicn N1 truyn ti cht lng b tch thnh
tia thng v tia bt thng. Tng hp ca hai tia ny s l nh sng phn cc elip, c th
truyn tip qua nicn N2 (bt cho vi N1), nn sau nicn N2 s sng.
Thc nghim chng t vi mi nh sng n sc, hiu s chit sut no - ne ca cht
lng (chu tc dng ca in trng) i vi tia thng v tia bt thng truyn trong n c
ln t l vi bnh phng cng in trng E tc dng ln cht lng:
n o n e = kE 2
(4-22)
vi k l h s t l ph thuc vo bn cht ca cht lng. Hiu pha gia hai dao ng ca tia
thng v tia bt thng sau khi i qua lp cht lng c b dy d s l:
=
2
2 2
( n o n e )d =
kE d = 2BE 2 d
(4-23)
trong B = k/ gi l hng s Kerr. Gi tr ca B ph thuc nhit ca cht lng v

bc sng nh sng.
Thi gian cc phn t nh hng theo phng ca in trng v thi gian
cc phn t tr v trng thi chuyn ng hn lon ch vo c 10-10s. Tnh cht ny ca hiu
ng Kerr c ng dng ch to van quang hc dng ng ngt nh sng rt nhanh
khng c qun tnh.
71

6. S QUAY MT PHNG PHN CC
Mt s tinh th hoc dung dch c tc dng lm quay mt phng phn cc ca chm
nh sng phn cc ton phn truyn qua chng. Hin tng ny gi l hin tng quay mt
phng phn cc. Cc cht lm quay mt phng phn cc ca nh sng phn cc gi l cht
hot quang, th d nh thch anh, dung dch ng...
Hin tng quay mt phng phn cc c th hin nh sau: Cho nh sng t nhin
i qua knh phn cc T1 v knh phn tch T2 t vung gc vi nhau. Kt qu l nh sng
khng i qua c knh phn tch T2, sau bn T2 s ti. By gi nu t gia knh phn cc
T1 v knh phn tch T2 mt bn tinh th thch anh c quang trc nm dc theo phng
truyn ca tia sng th thy nh sng
i qua c knh phn tch T2, sau
bn T2 s sng. Mun cho nh sng
khng i qua c ta phi quay knh
phn tch mt gc . iu chng
t di tc dng ca bn tinh th nh
sng phn cc thng sau bn T1 b
quay i mt gc (hnh 4-14), hay ta
ni bn tinh th lm quay mt
phng phn cc mt gc . l hin
Hnh 4-14. Hin tng quay mt phng phn cc
tng quay mt phng phn cc.
Thc nghim cho thy gc quay ca mt phng phn cc t l thun vi dy d
ca bn tinh th:
= d
(4-24)
l h s quay, n c gi tr ph thuc bn cht, nhit ca cht rn quang hot v bc

sng ca nh sng. V d i vi bn thch anh 200C: = 21,7 /mm ng vi
= 0,589 m; = 48,9 /mm ng vi = 0,4047 m.
i vi cc dung dch, gc quay ca mt phng phn cc t l vi dy d ca lp
dung dch c nh sng phn cc truyn qua v t l vi nng c ca dung dch:
= [ ] cd
(4-25)
trong [] c gi l h s quay ring, n c gi tr ph thuc bn cht v nhit ca

dung dch hot quang, ng thi ph thuc bc sng ca nh sng. V d i vi nh
sng vng Na ( = 0,589m) 200C, [] ca dung dch ng l 66,50cm2/g.
Hin tng quay mt phng phn cc c ng dng trong mt dng c gi l ng
k xc nh nng ng trong dung dch.
nh sng t bng n S truyn qua knh lc sc F v knh phn cc P bin i thnh
nh sng n sc phn cc ton phn. Quan st trong ng ngm O, ng thi quay knh
phn tch A cho ti khi th trng trong ng ngm tr nn ti hon ton. Khi knh phn
tch A nm v tr bt cho vi knh phn cc P v mt phng chnh ca chng vung gc
vi nhau. Gc 1 xc nh v tr ca knh phn tch A c c trn thc o gc K. t
72

ng thu tinh H cha y dung dch hot quang cn nghin cu vo khong gia hai knh A
v P, th trng trong ng ngm O li sng. Nguyn nhn l do dung dch hot quang
lm mt phng dao ng ca nh sng phn cc ton phn truyn qua n quay i mt gc
ti v tr khng vung gc vi mt phng chnh ca knh phn tch A na. By gi ta quay
knh phn tch A cho n khi th trng trong ng ngm O ti hon ton. c gc 2, xc
nh v tr ny ca knh phn tch A. T tm ra c gc quay ca mt phng phn cc
= 2 - 1.
Hnh 4-15. M hnh ca ng k

Theo cng thc (4-25), nu bit dy d v hng s quay ring [ ] ca dung dch hot
quang, ta d dng xc nh c nng c ca dung dch :
c=
= 2
[].d [].d
(4-26)
III. TM TT NI DUNG
1. S phn cc nh sng
* nh sng c vect cng in trng dao ng u n theo mi phng
vung gc tia sng c gi l nh sng t nhin.
* nh sng c vect cng in trng ch dao ng theo mt phng xc nh
c gi l nh sng phn cc thng hay nh sng phn cc ton phn.
* nh sng c vect cng in trng dao ng theo tt c cc phng vung
gc vi tia sng nhng c phng dao ng yu, c phng dao ng mnh c gi l nh
sng phn cc mt phn.
* Mt phng cha tia sng v phng dao ng ca E c gi l mt phng dao
ng, cn mt phng cha tia sng v vung gc vi mt phng dao ng gi l mt phng
phn cc.
* Trong bn Tuamalin c mt phng c bit gi l quang trc ca tinh th (k hiu
l ) . Theo phng quang trc, nh sng khng b hp th, m truyn qua hon ton cn
theo phng vung gc vi quang trc, nh sng b hp th hon ton.
* nh lut Malus: Khi cho mt chm tia sng t nhin truyn qua hai bn tuamalin
c quang trc hp vi nhau mt gc th cng sng nhn c t l vi cos2.
73
I 2 = I1 cos 2
2. S phn cc do phn x, khc x:
Thc nghim chng t rng khi cho mt tia sng t nhin chiu ti mt phn cch
gia hai mi trng di gc ti i 0 th tia phn x v tia khc x u l nh sng phn
cc mt phn. Vect cng in trng ca tia phn x c bin dao ng ln nht
theo phng vung gc vi mt phng ti, cn vect cng in trng ca tia khc x
c bin dao ng ln nht theo phng nm trong mt phng ti. Khi thay i gc ti i
th mc phn cc ca tia phn x v tia khc x cng thay i. Khi gc ti i tha mn
iu kin:
tg iB = n21
th tia phn x s phn cc ton phn, n21 l chit sut t i ca mi trng hai i vi mi
trng mt, iB c gi l gc ti Brewster. Tia khc x khng bao gi l nh sng phn
cc ton phn, nhng khi i = iB th tia khc x cng b phn cc mnh nht.
B
3. S phn cc do lng chit

Thc nghim chng t rng mt s tinh th nh bng lan, thch anh... c tnh cht c
bit l nu chiu mt tia sng n tinh th th ni chung ta s thu c hai tia. Hin tng
ny gi l hin tng lng chit. Nguyn nhn l do tnh bt ng hng ca tinh th v
mt quang hc (tc l tnh cht quang ca tinh th cc hng khc nhau th s khc nhau).
Tia sng khi chiu vo tinh th lng chit s b tch thnh hai tia khc x:
- Tia tun theo nh lut khc x gi l tia thng. Tia thng phn cc ton phn, c
vect sng E vung gc vi mt phng chnh ca tia thng.
- Tia khng theo nh lut khc x gi l tia bt thng. Tia bt thng phn cc ton
phn, c vect sng E nm trong mt phng chnh ca n.
Khi l ra khi tinh th, hai tia thng v tia bt thng ch khc nhau v phng phn
cc. Chit sut ca tinh th bng lan i vi tia thng lun khng i v bng no=1,659.
Chit sut ne ca tinh th bng lan i vi tia bt thng ph thuc vo phng truyn ca
n trong tinh th v thay i t 1,659 (theo phng quang trc) n 1,486 (theo phng
vung gc vi quang trc). Nh vy i vi tinh th bng lan ta c:
ne no
V chit sut n = c/v, vi c l vn tc nh sng trong chn khng v v l vn tc nh sng
trong mi trng, do :
ve vo
ngha l trong tinh th bng lan, vn tc ca tia bt thng ni chung ln hn vn tc ca
tia thng.
Tinh th bng lan, thch anh, tuamalin... l nhng tinh th n trc. Trong t nhin
cn c tinh th lng trc, l nhng tinh th c hai quang trc theo hai hng khc nhau.
Mt tia sng t nhin truyn qua tinh th lng trc cng b tch thnh hai tia khc x
nhng c hai tia ny u l nhng tia bt thng.
74

Ngi ta s dng cc tinh th lng chit ch to knh phn cc. Knh phn cc l
nhng dng c c th bin nh sng t nhin thnh nh sng phn cc, v d nh bn
tuamalin, bn plarit, lng knh nicol...
Mt s cht lng nh sulfua ccbon, benzn... khi chu tc dng ca in trng th
tr nn bt ng hng v mt quang hc (c tnh lng chit). Hiu ng ny gi l hiu
ng Kerr v c ng dng ch to van quang hc
4. nh sng phn cc elip
nh sng phn cc trong u mt vect sng E chuyn ng trn mt ng elip
(hay ng trn) c gi l nh sng phn cc elip (hay phn cc trn) .
Chiu vung gc vi mt trc ca bn tinh th mt tia sng phn cc ton phn c
vect sng E hp vi quang trc mt gc . Khi vo bn tinh th, tia sng ny b tch thnh
hai: tia thng v tia bt thng. Tia thng v tia bt thng l hai tia sng kt hp, chng
giao thoa vi nhau. Cc vect sng E o ca tia thng v E e dao ng theo hai phng
vung gc vi nhau, do u mt vect sng tng hp s chuyn ng trn mt ng
elip xc nh bi phng trnh:
x2
A12
y2
2 xy
cos = sin 2
2 A A
A2
1 2
-
(1)
x, y l di dao ng, A1, A2 l bin dao ng ca E o v E e . Hiu pha ca cc tia

thng v tia bt thng l
2
2
(L o - L e ) =
( n o - n e )d
(2)
* Bn phn t bc sng
Bn phn t bc sng l bn tinh th c dy d sao cho hiu quang l ca tia
thng v tia bt thng truyn qua bn bng mt s l ln ca phn t bc sng:
L = (n o - n e )d = (2k + 1)
(3a)
Thay (3a) vo (2), sau vo (1) ta thu c phng trnh ca ng elip dng chnh tc.
Do sau khi truyn qua bn phn t bc sng, nh sng phn cc thng b bin i
thnh nh sng phn cc elip dng chnh tc hoc phn cc trn.
* Bn na bc sng
Bn na bc sng l bn tinh th c dy d sao cho hiu quang l ca tia thng
v tia bt thng truyn qua bn bng mt s l ln na bc sng:
L = (n o - n e )d = (2k + 1)
(3b)
Thay (3b) vo (2), sau vo (1) ta thu c phng trnh ca ng thng, quay mt gc
2. Do khi truyn qua bn na bc sng nh sng phn cc thng vn l nh sng phn
cc thng, nhng phng dao ng quay i mt gc 2 so vi trc khi i vo bn.
75

* Bn mt bc sng
Bn mt bc sng l bn tinh th c dy d sao cho hiu quang l ca tia thng
v tia bt thng truyn qua bn bng mt s nguyn ln bc sng:
L = (n o - n e )d = k
(3c)
Thay (3c) vo (2), sau vo (1) ta thu c phng trnh ca ng thng. Vy sau khi
truyn qua bn mt bc sng nh sng phn cc thng gi nguyn khng i.
5. S quay mt phng phn cc
Mt s tinh th hoc dung dch c tc dng lm quay mt phng phn cc ca chm
nh sng phn cc ton phn truyn qua chng. Hin tng ny gi l s quay mt phng
phn cc. Cc cht lm quay mt phng phn cc ca nh sng phn cc gi l cht hot
quang, th d nh thch anh, dung dch ng...
Thc nghim cho thy gc quay ca mt phng phn cc t l thun vi dy d
ca bn tinh th:
= d
l h s quay, n c gi tr ph thuc bn cht v nhit ca cht rn quang hot v

bc sng ca nh sng.
i vi cc dung dch, gc quay ca mt phng phn cc t l vi dy d ca
lp dung dch c nh sng phn cc truyn qua v t l vi nng c ca dung dch:
= [ ] cd
trong [] c gi l h s quay ring, n c gi tr ph thuc bn cht v nhit ca
dung dch hot quang, ng thi ph thuc bc sng ca nh sng.
Hin tng quay mt phng phn cc c ng dng trong mt dng c gi l ng
k xc nh nng ng trong dung dch.
IV. CU HI L THUYT
1. Hin tng phn cc chng t bn cht g ca nh sng ? nh sng l sng ngang hay
sng dc ? Gii thch ti sao ?
2. Phn bit nh sng t nhin v nh sng phn cc ton phn, nh sng phn cc mt
phn.
3. Pht biu v vit biu thc ca nh lut Malus.
4. Trnh by s phn cc do phn x, khc x.
5. Trnh by tnh lng chit ca tinh th.
6. Nu s ging nhau v khc nhau ca hai tia thng v bt thng khi i qua tinh th
bng lan.
7. Trnh by hiu ng Kerr.
8. nh ngha nh sng phn cc elip, phn cc trn. Trnh by cch to ra nh sng phn
cc elip. Xt cc trng hp b dy bn mt phn t bc sng, bn na bc sng v bn
mt bc sng.
76

8. Nu ng dng ca hin tng quay mt phng phn cc.
V. BI TP
Th d 1: Hi gc nghing ca mt tri so vi chn tri phi bng bao nhiu nhng tia
sng mt tri phn chiu trn mt h b phn cc ton phn. Bit rng chit sut ca nc
h n = 1,33.
Bi gii:
Theo nh lut Brewster, mun tia
sng phn chiu b phn cc ton phn th
gc ti ca n phi bng gc ti Brewster,
xc nh bi cng thc:
tgi B = n = 1,33 i B = 530 5

Do gc nghing ca mt tri so vi ng chn tri: = 900 i B = 36055
Th d 2: Cho mt chm tia sng phn cc thng c bc sng trong chn khng l
0 = 0,589m chiu vung gc vi quang trc ca mt bn tinh th bng lan. Chit sut ca
tinh th bng lan i vi tia thng v tia bt thng ln lt bng n0 = 1,658 v ne = 1,488.
Xc nh bc sng ca tia thng v tia bt thng.
Bi gii: Bc sng ca nh sng truyn trong mi trng c chit sut n lin h vi bc
sng 0 ca nh sng trong chn khng: = 0

n
Bc sng ca tia thng trong tinh th bng lan: t =
0 0,589
=
= 0,355m
n 0 1,658
Bc sng ca tia bt thng trong tinh th bng lan: bt =
0
= 0,396m
ne
Bi tp t gii
1. Cho bit khi nh sng truyn t mt cht c chit sut n ra ngoi khng kh th xy ra
hin tng phn x ton phn ca nh sng ng vi gc gii hn igh = 450. Xc nh gc ti
Brewster ca cht ny, mi trng cha tia ti l khng kh.
p s:
Gc gii hn:
n
1
n = 2 = 1,414
sin i gh = kk =
n
2
tgi B =
n
n kk
= 1,414 i B = 54 0 43
77

2. nh sng t nhin truyn t khng kh ti chiu vo mt bn thu tinh. Cho bit nh sng
phn x b phn cc ton phn khi gc khc x r = 330. Xc nh chit sut ca bn thu
tinh.
p s:
Khi chm phn x b phn cc ton phn th gc ti i tho mn:
tgi = tgi B = n n =
Theo nh lut khc x nh sng:
sin i
= n , m sin i B = sin i = n. sin 330
sin r
n. sin 330
n=
sin i B
sin i B
=
cos i B
1 sin 2 i B
1 n. sin 33
0 2
n 1,56
3. Xc nh gc ti Brewster ca mt mt thu tinh c chit sut n1 = 1,57 khi mi trng

nh sng ti l:
1. Khng kh.
2. Nc c chit sut n2 = 4/3.
p s: i B = 57 0 30, i B = 49 0 43
4. Mt chm tia sng sau khi truyn qua mt cht lng ng trong mt bnh thu tinh, phn
x trn y bnh. Tia phn x b phn cc ton phn khi gc ti trn y bnh bng 42 0 37 ,
chit sut ca bnh thu tinh n = 1,5. Tnh:
1. Chit sut ca cht lng.
2. Gc ti trn y bnh chm tia phn x trn phn x ton phn.
p s: n/ = 1,63, i = 66056/
5. Cho mt chm tia sng t nhin chiu vo mt ca mt bn thu tinh nhng trong cht
lng. Chit sut ca thu tinh l n1 = 1,5. Cho bit chm tia phn x trn mt thu tinh b
phn cc ton phn khi cc tia phn x hp vi cc tia ti mt gc = 97 0 . Xc nh chit
sut n2 ca cht lng.
p s: tgi = tgi B =
n1
n2
Theo iu kin u bi: i = i B =
n
tg = 1 n 2 =
2
2 n2
n1
97 0
tg
2
= 1,33 .
6. Mt bn thch anh c ct song song vi quang trc v c dy d = 1mm. Chiu nh

sng n sc c bc sng = 0,6m vung gc vi mt bn. Tnh hiu quang l v hiu
78

pha ca tia thng v tia bt thng truyn qua bn thch anh, bit rng chit sut ca bn
i vi tia thng v tia bt thng ln lt bng n0 = 1,544, ne = 1,535.
p s: Hiu quang l ca tia thng v tia bt thng truyn qua bn thch anh c gi tr
bng: L = (n 0 n e ).d = 0,009mm
Hiu pha ca tia thng v tia bt thng truyn qua bn thch anh c gi tr bng:
2
=
.L = 30 (rad)
7. Cho bit i vi nh sng n sc c bc sng = 0,545m th chit sut ca bn phn

t bc sng i vi tia thng v tia bt thng truyn trong bn c gi tr ln lt bng
n0 = 1,658 v ne = 1,488. Hi bn phn t bc sng c dy nh nht bng bao nhiu?
p s: L = (n 0 n e )d = (2k + 1) , k = 0,1, 2, 3,...

4
Bn phn t bc sng c dy nh nht khi k = 0.
Vy dmin = 800nm.
8. Mt bn na bc sng c dy nh nht bng dmin = 1,732m. Cho bit chit sut ca
bn i vi tia thng v tia bt thng ln lt bng n0 = 1,658 v ne = 1,488. Xc nh
bc sng ca nh sng truyn ti bn ny.
p s: L = (n 0 n e ).d = (2k + 1) , k = 0,1, 2, 3,...

2
Bn na bc sng c dy nh nht khi k = 0.
Vy d min =
= 2.d min (n 0 n e ) = 0,589m

2(n 0 n e )
9. Mt bn tinh th c ct song song vi quang trc v c dy d = 0,25mm. Ngi ta

dng bn tinh th ny lm bn phn t bc sng i vi nh sng c bc sng =
0,53m. Xc nh i vi nhng bc sng no trong vng quang ph thy c, bn tinh
th ny cng l bn phn t bc sng. Coi rng hiu s chit sut ca bn i vi tia bt
thng v tia thng khng i v bng ne n0 = 0,009 ng vi mi bc sng trong vng
quang ph thy c c gi tr t 0,4m n 0,76m.
p s: L = (n e n 0 )d = (2k + 1)
4d(n e n o )
9
, m 0,4 0,76, suy
=
2k + 1
2k + 1
ra 5,42 k 10,75, m k nguyn nn k = 6, 7, 8,9, 10.
Bc sng ca nh sng truyn ti bn: =
79

9
9
= 0,69m, k = 7 =
= 0,6m
2.6 + 1
2.7 + 1
9
9
k =8 =
= 0,53m, k = 9 =
= 0,47m
2 .8 + 1
2.9 + 1
9
k = 10 =
= 0,43m
2.10 + 1
k =6=
Vy bn tinh th cn l bn phn t bc sng i vi cc nh sng c bc sng

trn.
10. Mt bn thch anh c ct song song vi quang trc ca n vi dy khng vt qu
0,5mm. Xc nh dy ln nht ca bn thch anh ny chm nh sng phn cc phn
cc thng c bc sng = 0,589m sau khi truyn qua bn tho mn iu kin sau:
1. Mt phng phn cc b quay i mt gc no .
2. Tr thnh nh sng phn cc trn.
Cho bit hiu s chit sut ca tia thng v tia bt thng i vi bn thch anh
ne n0 = 0,009.
p s: 1. dmax = 0,49mm. 2.dmax = 0,47mm
11. Gia hai knh nicn song song ngi ta t mt bn thch anh c cc mt vung gc vi
quang trc. Khi bn thch anh c dy d1 = 2mm th mt phng phn cc ca nh sng
n sc truyn qua n b quay i mt gc 1 = 530. Xc nh dy d2 ca bn thch anh
ny nh sng n sc khng truyn qua c knh nicn phn tch.
p s: Khi truyn theo quang trc ca thch anh mt phng phn cc ca nh sng b quay
mt gc 1: 1 = .d1
nh sng n sc khng truyn qua c knh phn tch th bn thch anh phi c
dy d2 sao cho mt phng phn cc quay i mt gc 2 = 900, m 2 =.d2
d
2 = 2 d 2 = 3,4mm
d1 1
80
Chng 5: Thuyt tng i hp Einstein
CHNG V: THUYT TNG I HP EINSTEIN

Theo c hc c in (c hc Newton) th khng gian, thi gian v vt cht khng ph
thuc vo chuyn ng; khng gian v thi gian l tuyt i, kch thc v khi lng ca
vt l bt bin. Nhng n cui th k 19 v u th k 20, khoa hc k thut pht trin
mnh, ngi ta gp nhng vt chuyn ng nhanh vi vn tc c vn tc nh sng trong
chn khng (3.108 m/s), khi xut hin s mu thun vi cc quan im ca c hc
Newton: Khng gian, thi gian v khi lng ca vt khi chuyn ng vi vn tc gn bng
vn tc nh sng th ph thuc vo chuyn ng. Nm 1905, Einstein mi 25 tui
xut l thuyt tng i ca mnh. L thuyt tng i c xem l mt l thuyt tuyt p
v khng gian v thi gian. L thuyt ng vng qua nhiu th thch thc nghim
trong sut 100 nm qua. L thuyt tng i da trn hai nguyn l: nguyn l tng i v
nguyn l v s bt bin ca vn tc nh sng.
I. MC CH - YU CU
1. Hiu c ngha ca nguyn l tng i Einstein, nguyn l v tnh bt bin ca vn
tc nh sng.
2. Hiu v vn dng c php bin i Lorentz. Tnh tng i ca khng gian, thi gian.
3. Nm c khi lng, ng lng tng i tnh, h thc Einstein v ng dng.
II. NI DUNG
1. CC TIN EINSTEIN
1. Nguyn l tng i:
Mi nh lut vt l u nh nhau trong cc h qui chiu qun tnh.
Galileo tha nhn rng nhng nh lut ca c hc hon ton ging nhau trong
mi h qui chiu qun tnh. Einstein m rng tng ny cho ton b cc nh lut vt l
trong cc lnh vc in t, quang hc...
2. Nguyn l v s bt bin ca vn tc nh sng:
Vn tc nh sng trong chn khng u bng nhau i vi mi h qun tnh. N c
gi tr bng c = 3.108 m/s v l gi tr vn tc cc i trong t nhin.
81

2. NG HC TNG I TNH PHP BIN I LORENTZ
1. S mu thun ca php bin i Galileo vi thuyt tng i Einstein
Xt hai h qui chiu qun tnh K v K'. H K' chuyn ng thng u vi vn tc V
so vi h K, dc theo phng x. Theo php bin i Galileo, thi gian din bin mt qu
trnh vt l trong cc h qui chiu qun tnh K v K u nh nhau: t = t. Khong cch gia
hai im 1 v 2 no o c trong hai h K v K u bng nhau:
l = x 2 x1 = l = x 2 x1
trong h K/
trong h K
Vn tc v ca cht im chuyn ng trong h K bng tng cc vn tc v' ca cht im

trong h K v vn tc V ca h K' i vi h K:
v = v'+ V
Tt c cc kt qu trn y u ng i vi v << c. Nhng chng mu thun vi l
thuyt tng i ca Einstein. Theo thuyt tng i: thi gian khng c tnh tuyt i,
khong thi gian din bin ca mt qu trnh vt l ph thuc vo cc h qui chiu. c bit
khi nim ng thi ph thuc vo h qui chiu, tc l cc hin tng xy ra ng thi
trong h qui chiu qun tnh ny s khng xy ra ng thi trong h qui chiu qun tnh
khc. minh ha chng ta xt v d sau:
Hai h qui chiu qun tnh K v K vi
cc trc ta x, y, z v x, y, z. H K
chuyn ng thng u vi vn tc V so vi
h K theo phng x. T mt im A bt k,
trn trc x c t mt bng n pht tn hiu
sng theo hai pha ngc nhau ca trc x.
i vi h K bng n l ng yn v n
cng chuyn ng vi h K. Trong h K
cc tn hiu sng s ti cc im B v C
cch u A cng mt lc. Nhng trong h K,
im B chuyn ng n gp tn hiu sng,
cn im C chuyn ng ra xa khi tn hiu
sng, do trong h K tn hiu sng s n
im B sm hn n im C. Nh vy trong
h K, cc tn hiu sng ti im B v im C
khng ng thi.
Hnh 5-1. Th d minh ha khi nim
ng thi c tnh tng i
nh lut cng vn tc, h qu ca nguyn l tng i Galileo cng khng p dng

c. Theo nh lut ny th nh sng truyn n B vi vn tc c +V > c, cn nh sng
truyn n C vi vn tc c -V< c. iu ny mu thun vi nguyn l th 2 trong thuyt
tng i Einstein.
82

2. Php bin i Lorentz
Lorentz tm ra php bin i cc ta khng gian v thi gian khi chuyn t h
qun tnh ny sang h qun tnh khc, tha mn cc yu cu ca thuyt tng i Einstein.
Php bin i ny c gi l php bin i Lorentz. Php bin i Lorentz da trn hai
tin ca Einstein.
Xt hai h qui chiu qun tnh K v K. Ti t = 0, hai gc O, O trng nhau, K chuyn ng thng u so vi
K vi vn tc V theo phng x. Theo thuyt tng i thi gian khng c tnh cht tuyt i m ph thuc vo h qui
chiu, ngha l t t.
Gi s ta x l hm ca x v t theo phng trnh:
x = f(x,t)
(5-1)
tm dng ca phng trnh trn ta hy vit phng trnh chuyn ng ca hai gc ta O v O. i vi h K,

gc O chuyn ng vi vn tc V. Ta c:
x = Vt
hay
x Vt = 0
(5-2)
x l ta ca gc O trong h K. i vi h K, gc O ng yn, do ta x ca n s l:
x = 0
(5-3)
Phng trnh (5-1) cng phi ng i vi im O, iu c ngha l khi ta thay x = 0 vo phng trnh (5-1) th
phi thu c phng trnh (5-2), mun vy th:
x ' = ( x Vt )
(5-4)
trong l hng s. i vi h K, gc O chuyn ng vi vn tc V. Nhng i vi h K, gc O l ng yn.

Lp lun tng t nh trn ta c
x = ( x '+ Vt ' )
(5-5)
trong l hng s. Theo tin th nht ca Einstein th mi h qui chiu qun tnh u tng ng nhau, ngha
l t (5-4) c th suy ra (5-5) v ngc li bng cch thay V-V, x x, t t. Suy ra: = .
Theo tin hai:
x = ct
t = x/c
x = ct t = x/c
Thay t v t vo (5-4) v (5-5) ta c:

xV
x' = x
,
c
x' V
x = x '+
Nhn v vi v ca hai h thc trn, sau rt gn ta nhn c:

=
1
1
V2
c2
Thay vo cc cng thc trn ta nhn c cc cng thc ca php bin i Lorentz.
Php bin i Lorentz:
x' =
x Vt
1
V
c
x=
x '+ Vt '
1
83
c2
(5-6)
t
v
t' =
V
c2
V
c
t '+
x
2
t=
V
c2
x'
(5-7)
c2
V h K chuyn ng dc theo trc x nn y = y v z = z.

T kt qu trn ta nhn thy nu c (tng tc tc thi) hay khi V c 0 (s
gn ng c in khi V << c) th:
x = x Vt, y = y, z = z, t = t
x = x +Vt, y = y, z = z, t = t
ngha l chuyn v php bin i Galileo.
Khi V > c, ta x, t tr nn o, do khng th c cc chuyn ng vi vn tc
ln hn vn tc nh sng.
3. CC H QU CA PHP BIN I LORENTZ
1. Khi nim v tnh ng thi v quan h nhn qu
Gi s trong h qun tnh K c hai bin c A1(x1, y1, z1, t1) v bin c A2(x2, y2, z2,
t2) vi x1 x 2 . Chng ta hy tm khong thi gian t 2 t1 gia hai bin c trong h K'
chuyn ng u i vi h K vi vn tc V dc theo trc x. T cc cng thc bin i
Lorentz ta c
t '2 t '1 =
t 2 t1
V
c2
( x 2 x1 )
V
(5-8)
c2
T (5-8) ta suy ra rng nhng bin c xy ra ng thi trong h K (t1 = t2) s khng
ng thi trong h K v t '2 t '1 0 , ch c mt trng hp ngoi l l khi hai bin c xy
ra ng thi ti nhng im c cng gi tr ca x (y c th khc nhau). Nh vy khi nim
ng thi l mt khi nim tng i, hai bin c xy ra ng thi trong mt h qui chiu
qun tnh ny ni chung c th khng ng thi trong mt h qui chiu qun tnh khc.
Nhn vo cng thc (5-8) ta thy gi s trong h K: t2 - t1>0 (tc l bin c A1 xy ra
trc bin c A2), nhng trong h K: t2 - t1 cha chc ln hn 0, n ph thuc vo du
V
v ln ca
( x 2 x1 ) . Nh vy trong h K th t ca cc bin c c th bt k.
c2
Tuy nhin iu ny khng c xt cho cc bin c c quan h nhn qu vi nhau.
Mi quan h nhn qu l mi quan h c nguyn nhn v kt qu. Nguyn nhn bao gi
cng xy ra trc, kt qu xy ra sau. Nh vy: Th t ca cc bin c c quan h nhn
qu bao gi cng c m bo trong mi h qui chiu qun tnh. Th d: vin n c
84

bn ra (nguyn nhn), vin n trng ch (kt qu). Gi A1(x1, t1) l bin c vin n bn
ra v A2(x2, t2) l bin c vin n trng ch. Trong h K: t2 > t1. Gi u l vn tc vin n
v gi s x2 > x1, ta c x2 - x1 = u(t2-t1). Thay vo (5-8) ta c:
t '2 t '1 =
t 2 t1
V
c
.u ( t 2 t1 )
V
c
V.u
( t 2 t1 ) 1
c2
=
1
(5-9)
c2
Ta lun c u << c, do nu t2 > t1 th ta cng c t '2 > t1' . Trong c hai h K v K

bao gi bin c vin n trng ch cng xy ra sau bin c vin n c bn ra.
2. S co ca di (s co ngn Lorentz)
Xt hai h qui chiu qun tnh K v K'. H K' chuyn ng thng u vi vn tc V
so vi h K dc theo trc x. Gi s c mt thanh ng yn trong h K t dc theo trc x,
di ca n trong h K bng: l o = x ' 2 x '1 . Gi l l di ca thanh trong h K. T
php bin i Lorentz ta c:
x Vt 2
,
x '2 = 2
2
V
1
c2
x Vt1
x '1 = 1
V2
1
c2
Ta phi xc nh v tr cc u ca thanh trong h K ti cng mt thi im: t2 = t1, do :
x '2 x '1 =
x 2 x1
1
V2
l = lo 1
V2
c2
< lo
(5-10)
c2
H K' chuyn ng so vi h K, nu ta ng h K quan st th thy thanh chuyn

ng cng h K'. Chiu di ca thanh h K nh hn chiu di ca n trong h K'.
Vy: di (dc theo phng chuyn ng) ca thanh trong h qui chiu m thanh
chuyn ng ngn hn di ca thanh trong h m thanh ng yn.
Ni mt cch khc khi vt chuyn ng, kch thc ca n b co ngn theo phng
chuyn ng.
V d: mt vt c vn tc gn bng vn tc nh sng V=260000 km/s th
V2
0,5 khi l = 0,5 l o , kch thc ca vt s b co ngn i mt na. Nu quan

c2
st mt vt hnh hp vung chuyn ng vi vn tc ln nh vy ta s thy n c dng mt
hnh hp ch nht, cn mt khi cu s c dng hnh elipxoit trn xoay.
Nh vy kch thc ca mt vt s khc nhau tu thuc vo ch ta quan st n
trong h ng yn hay chuyn ng. iu ni ln rng khng gian c tnh tng i, n
85

ph thuc vo chuyn ng. Khi vt chuyn ng vi vn tc nh (V << c), t (5-10) ta c
l = l o , ta tr li kt qu ca c hc c in, khng gian c coi l tuyt i, khng ph
thuc vo chuyn ng.
3. S gin ca thi gian
Xt hai h qui chiu qun tnh K, K. H K chuyn ng u vi vn tc V so vi h
K dc theo trc x. Ta t mt ng h ng yn trong h K. Xt hai bin c xy ra ti cng
mt im A trong h K. Khong thi gian gia hai bin c trong h K l t ' = t '2 t '1 .
Khong thi gian gia hai bin c trong h K l t = t 2 t1 . T php bin i Lorentz ta
c:
t1 =
t '1 +
V
c
x '1
t2 =
V2
t = t 2 t1 =
c2
V2
c2
< t
x '2
V2
c2
t '2 t '1
1
t ' = t 1
c2
x '1 = x ' 2
hay
t '2 +
V2
c2
(5-11)
Nh vy: Khong thi gian t ca mt qu trnh trong h K chuyn ng bao gi

cng nh hn khong thi gian t ca qu trnh xy ra trong h K ng yn.
V d: nu con tu v tr chuyn ng vi vn tc V=260000 km/s th t=0,5.t, tc
l nu khong thi gian din ra mt qu trnh trn con tu v tr l 5 nm th mt t lc
thi gian tri qua l 10 nm. c bit nu nh du hnh v tr ngi trn con tu chuyn
ng vi vn tc rt gn vi vn tc nh sng V=299960 km/s trong 10 nm n mt
hnh tinh rt xa th trn tri t 1000 nm tri qua v khi nh du hnh quay tr v tri
t, ngi mi gi thm 20 tui, nhng trn tri t 2000 nm tri qua. C mt iu
cn ch l t c vn tc ln nh vy th cn tn rt nhiu nng lng, m hin nay
con ngi cha th t c. Nhng s tri chm ca thi gian do hiu ng ca thuyt
tng i th c thc nghim xc nhn.
Nh vy khong thi gian c tnh tng i, n ph thuc vo chuyn ng. Trng
hp vn tc chuyn ng rt nh V << c, t cng thc (5-11) ta c t ' t , ta tr li kt
qu ca c hc c in, y khong thi gian c coi l tuyt i, khng ph thuc vo
chuyn ng.
4. Php bin i vn tc
Gi s v l vn tc ca cht im i vi h qun tnh K, v' l vn tc ca cng cht
im i vi h qun tnh K'. H K' chuyn ng thng u vi vn tc V i vi h K
86

dc theo phng x. Ta hy tm nh lut tng hp vn tc lin h gia v v v'. Theo php
bin i Lorentz:
dx ' =
dx Vdt
1
v' x
dt
c2
v V
dx ' dx Vdt
=
= x
V
Vv x
dt '
dt
dx 1
c2
c2
V2
vy 1
V2
dx
V2
c2
(5-12)
V2
c2 =
c2
V
Vv x
dt dx
1
c2
c2
v' y =
c2
dy 1
dy = dy
dt ' =
(5-13)
V2
vz 1
2
c
c2
v' z =
=
(5-14)
dz = dz
V
Vv x
dt dx
1
c2
c2
Cc cng thc trn biu din nh l tng hp vn tc trong thuyt tng i. Nu V/c << 1
th v' x = v x V , v' y = v y , v' z = v z nh c hc c in.
dz 1
Nu v x = c v' x =
cV
=c
Vc
1
c2
iu chng minh tnh bt bin ca vn tc nh sng trong chn khng i vi cc h qui

chiu qun tnh.
4. NG LC HC TNG I
1. Phng trnh c bn ca chuyn ng cht im
Theo thuyt tng i, khi mt vt chuyn ng vi vn tc gn bng vn tc nh
sng th khi lng ca vt khng phi l mt hng s, m ph thuc vo vn tc theo biu
thc:
m=
mo
1
(5-15)
c2
87

trong mo l khi lng ca cht im trong h m n ng yn, c gi l khi
lng ngh. Khi lng c tnh tng i, n ph thuc h qui chiu.
dv
khng th m t
dt
chuyn ng ca cht im vi vn tc ln c. m t chuyn ng cn c phng
trnh khc tng qut hn. Theo thuyt tng i phng trnh c dng:
Nh vy, phng trnh biu din nh lut II Newton F = m
F=
d
( m v)
dt
(5-16)
Khi v << c , m = mo= const, phng trnh (5-16) s tr thnh phng trnh ca nh lut II
Newton.
2. ng lng v nng lng
ng lng ca mt vt bng:
p = mv =
mo
1
(5-17)
c2
Khi v << c ta thu c biu thc c in: p = m o v .

Ta hy tnh nng lng ca vt. Theo nh lut bo ton nng lng, tng nng
lng ca vt bng cng ca ngoi lc tc dng ln vt:
dE = dA = Fds
n gin ta gi s ngoi lc F cng phng vi chuyn di ds , khi :
m
v
d
o
ds
dE = Fds =
2
dt
v
1
c2
Sau khi bin i ta c:
dE =
m o v dv
2 3 / 2
v
1
c2
Mt khc t (5-15) ta c:
88
(5-18)
dm =
m o v dv
(5-19)
2 3 / 2
c 2 1
c2
So snh (5-18) v (5-19) ta rt ra:
dE = c 2 dm
E = mc 2 + C
hay
trong C l mt hng s tch phn. Do m = 0 th E = 0, ta rt ra C = 0. Vy:
E = mc 2
(5-20)
H thc (5-20) c gi l h thc Einstein.

ngha ca h thc Einstein: Khi lng l i lng c trng cho mc qun tnh
ca vt, nng lng c trng cho mc vn ng ca vt. Nh vy, h thc Einstein ni
lin hai tnh cht ca vt cht: qun tnh v mc vn ng. H thc cho ta thy r,
trong iu kin nht nh, mt vt c khi lng nht nh th cng c nng lng nht nh
tng ng vi khi lng .
3. Cc h qu
a. Nng lng ngh ca vt: l nng lng lc vt ng yn.
E = moc2
Lc chuyn ng vt c thm ng nng E:
mc 2 = m o c 2 + E
1
E = mc 2 m o c 2 = m o c 2
1
v2
1
c2
Khi v << c th:
1
1
v2
= 1
c2
2
v
1 / 2
1+
1 v2
+ ....
2 c2
c2
1
E m o c 1 +
2
mo v2
1 =
2
2
c
v2
y l biu thc ng nng trong c hc c in.

b. Nng lng v ng lng ca vt
89
(5-21)
E = mc 2 =
mo
1
c2
c2
Bnh phng hai v ta c: m o2 c 4 = E 2 1
v 2
c 2
Thay E = mc 2 v p = mv , ta c:
E 2 = m o2 c 4 + p 2 c 2
(5-22)
y l biu thc lin h gia nng lng v ng lng.
III. TM TT NI DUNG
C hc Newton ch ng dng cho cc vt th v m chuyn ng vi vn tc rt nh
so vi vn tc nh sng trong chn khng. Cc vt th chuyn ng vi vn tc ln vo c
vn tc nh sng th phi tun theo thuyt tng i hp Einstein.
1. Cc tin ca Einstein
* Nguyn l tng i: Mi nh lut vt l u nh nhau trong cc h qui chiu
qun tnh.
* Nguyn l v s bt bin ca vn tc nh sng: Vn tc nh sng trong chn khng
u bng nhau i vi mi h qun tnh. N c gi tr bng c = 3.108 m/s v l gi tr vn
tc cc i trong t nhin.
2. Php bin i Lorentz
l php bin i gia cc ta khng gian v thi gian trong hai h qui chiu
qun tnh K v K chuyn ng thng u vi nhau vi vn tc V (dc theo trc x):
V
x ' = ( x Vt ); y' = y; z' = z; t ' = t
c2
V
x = ( x '+ Vt ); y = y' ; z = z' ; t = t '+
x
2
c
trong : =
1
1
V2
c2
T php bin i Lorentz ta rt ra cc h qu:

* Khi vt chuyn ng, kch thc ca n co ngn theo phng chuyn ng:
l = lo 1
V2
c2
< lo
90

* ng h chuyn ng chy chm hn ng h ng yn:
t ' = t 1
V2
< t
c2
* i vi cc bin c khng c quan h nhn qu vi nhau, khi nim ng thi ch

c tnh tng i. Cn i vi cc bin c c quan h nhn qu, th t xy cc bin c c
m bo: nguyn nhn bao gi cng xy ra trc kt qu xy ra sau, iu ny khng ph
thuc h qui chiu.
3. ng lc hc tng i tnh
H thc Einstein:
E = mc2
trong :
m=
mo
1
v2
c2
mo l khi lng ngh ca vt (khi vt ng yn)

Nng lng ngh ca vt:
Eo = moc2
ng nng ca vt:
1
E = E E o = m o c 2
1
2 2
1 v / c
Nu v<<c, c th tnh gn ng:
1
v2
E m o c 2 1 +
1 = m o v 2
2c 2
2
Ta tm li c biu thc ng nng trong c hc c in.

Biu thc lin h gia nng lng v ng lng: E 2 = m o2 c 4 + p 2 c 2
IV. CU HI L THUYT
1. Nu gii hn ng dng ca c hc Newton.
2. Pht biu hai tin Einstein.
3. Vit cng thc ca php bin i Lorentz.
4. Gii thch s co ngn ca di v s gin ca thi gian.
5. Phn tch tnh tng i ca s ng thi gia cc bin c khng c quan h nhn qu
vi nhau.
6. Da vo php bin i Lorentz, chng t trt t k tip v thi gian gia cc bin c c
quan h nhn qu vi nhau vn c tn trng.
7. Chng t c hc Newton l trng hp gii hn ca thuyt tng i Einstein khi v << c
hay coi c ln v cng.
91

8. Vit biu thc chng t trong thuyt tng i Einstein, khi lng m ca mt vt tng
ln khi chuyn ng.
9. T cng thc cng vn tc trong thuyt tng i, tm li nh lut cng vn tc trong c
hc Newton.
10. Vit v nu ngha ca h thc Einstein v nng lng.
11. T h thc E = mc2, tm li biu thc ng nng ca mt vt chuyn ng vi vn tc
v<<c trong c hc c in.
V. BI TP
Th d 1: Vt chuyn ng phi c vn tc bao nhiu ngi quan st ng h qui
chiu gn vi tri t thy chiu di ca n gim i 25%.
Bi gii: Chiu di ca vt chuyn ng xc nh theo cng thc: l = l 0 1
v2
c2
, theo
u bi:
l0 l
l
= 0,25
= 0,75 1
l0
l0
v2
c2
= 0,75
v
= 1 0,75 2 = 0,6615 v = 198600 (km / s)
c
Th d 2: Tm vn tc ca ht mzn nng lng ton phn ca n ln gp 10 ln nng

lng ngh ca n.
Bi gii: Theo thuyt tng i:
E=
m0c2
1
v2
c2
E0
1
v2
E
=
E0
c2
1
1
v2
= 10
v
= 0,995
c
c2
Suy ra vn tc ca ht mzn l: v = 2,985.108 m / s

Bi tp t gii
1. Vt chuyn ng phi c vn tc bao nhiu kch thc ca n theo phng chuyn
ng trong h qui chiu gn vi tri t gim i 2 ln.
p s: l = l 0 1
v2
l
= 0 v = 2,59.10 8 m / s
2
c2
2. Khi lng ca electrn chuyn ng bng hai ln khi lng ngh ca n. Tm vn tc

chuyn ng ca electrn.
92

p s:
m0
m=
= 2m 0 v = 2,59.10 8 m / s
c2
3. Khi lng ca vt tng thm bao nhiu ln nu vn tc ca n tng t 0 n 0,9 ln

vn tc ca nh sng.
m0
p s: m =
v2
m
=
m0
c2
1
1
v2
c2
(0,9c) 2
= 2,3 ln
c2
4. Ht mzn trong cc tia v tr chuyn ng vi vn tc bng 0,95 ln vn tc nh sng.

Hi khong thi gian theo ng h ngi quan st ng trn tri t ng vi khong thi
gian sng mt giy ca ht mzn.
p s: t/ = 3,2s.
5. Ht electrn phi chu mt hiu in th tng tc U bng bao nhiu vn tc ca n
bng 95% vn tc nh sng.
p s: Sau khi tng tc nng lng ca electrn: mc 2 = m 0 c 2 + eU =
m 0c 2
1
theo u bi
, m
c2
v
= 95% U = 1,1.10 6 V
c
6. Tm hiu in th tng tc U m prtn vt qua cho kch thc ca n trong h qui

chiu gn vi tri t gim i hai ln. Cho mp = 1,67.10-27kg.
2
p s: m 0 c + eU =
m 0c 2
1
v2
, l = l0 1
v2
c2
, theo iu kin u bi
c2
l
v2 1
= 1
= U = 9.10 8 V
2
l0
2
c
7. Hi vn tc ca ht phi bng bao nhiu ng nng ca ht bng nng lng ngh.
p s: E + m 0 c 2 =
m 0c 2
1
, theo iu kin u bi:
c2
93

E = m 0 c 2
m 0c 2
1
v2
= 2m 0 c 2
v 86,6
=
v = 2,6.108 m / s
c 100
c2
8. Khi lng ca ht electrn chuyn ng ln gp hai ln khi lng ca n khi ng

yn. Tm ng nng ca ht.
p s: E + m 0 c 2 = mc 2 , theo iu kin u bi
m
= 2 E = 8,2.10-14J
m0
9. ng nng ca ht bng mt na nng lng ngh ca n th vn tc ca ht phi bng

bao nhiu?
1
v2 2
1
1 = m 0 c 2 1
p s: E = m 0 c 2
= v = 2,22.108 m / s
2
2
3
2
c
v
1 2
10. Khi nng lng ca vt bin thin 4,19J th khi lng ca vt bin thin bao nhiu?
p s: m =
E
c
4,65.10 17 kg
94
Chng 6: Quang hc lng t
CHNG VI: QUANG HC LNG T

Hin tng giao thoa, nhiu x nh sng l nhng hin tng chng t bn cht sng
ca nh sng. Nhng vo cui th k 19, u th k 20 ngi ta pht hin nhng hin
tng quang hc mi nh hin tng bc x nhit, hiu ng quang in, hiu ng
Compton. Nhng hin tng ny khng th gii thch c bng thuyt sng nh sng.
gii quyt nhng b tc trn, ngi ta phi da vo thuyt lng t ca Planck v thuyt
phtn ca Einstein, tc l phi da vo bn cht ht ca nh sng. Phn quang hc nghin
cu nh sng da vo hai thuyt trn gi l quang hc lng t. Trong chng ny chng ta
s nghin cu cc hin tng bc x nhit, hiu ng quang in, hiu ng Compton cng
vi thuyt lng t ca Planck v thuyt phtn ca Einstein.
I. MC CH - YU CU
1. Nm c hin tng bc x nhit. Cc nh lut pht x ca vt en tuyt i. S b tc
ca quang hc sng c in trong vic gii thch s bc x ca vt en tuyt i.
2. Nm c thuyt lng t ca Planck v thnh cng ca n trong vic gii thch cc nh
lut pht x ca vt en tuyt i.
3. Nm c thuyt phtn ca Einstein v gii thch cc nh lut quang in.
4. Gii thch hiu ng Compton.
II. NI DUNG
1. BC X NHIT
1. Bc x nhit cn bng
Bc x l hin tng cc vt b kch thch pht ra sng in t. C nhiu dng bc
x khc nhau do nhng nguyn nhn khc nhau gy ra: v d do tc dng nhit (ming st
nung , dy tc bng n chy sng), do tc dng ha hc (pht pho chy sng trong
khng kh), do bin i nng lng trong mch dao ng in t... Tuy nhin pht bc x
do tc dng nhit l ph bin nht v c gi l bc x nhit.
nh ngha: Bc x nhit l hin tng sng in t pht ra t nhng vt b kch thch bi
tc dng nhit.
Khi vt pht ra bc x, nng lng ca n gim v nhit ca n cng gim theo.
Ngc li nu vt hp th bc x, nng lng ca n tng v nhit ca n tng. Trong
trng hp nu phn nng lng ca vt b mt i do pht x bng phn nng lng vt thu
95

c do hp th, th nhit ca vt s khng i theo thi gian v bc x nhit ca vt
cng khng i. Bc x nhit trong trng hp ny c gi l bc x nhit cn bng v
trng thi ny c gi l trng thi cn bng nhit ng.
2. Cc i lng c trng ca bc x nhit cn bng
a. Nng sut pht x ton phn
Xt mt vt t nng c gi nhit T khng i
(hnh 6-1). Din tch dS ca vt pht x trong mt n v thi
gian mt nng lng ton phn dT . i lng
RT =
d T
dS
(6-1)
Hnh 6-1
c gi l nng sut pht x ton phn ca vt nhit T.

nh ngha: Nng sut pht x ton phn ca vt nhit T l mt i lng c gi tr
bng nng lng bc x ton phn do mt n v din tch ca vt pht ra trong mt
n v thi gian nhit T.
n v ca nng sut pht x ton phn RT trong h n v SI l ot trn mt vung
(W/m2).
b. H s pht x n sc
Bc x ton phn do vt pht ra nhit T ni chung bao gm nhiu bc x n
sc. Nng lng bc x phn b khng ng u cho tt c mi bc x c bc sng khc
nhau. V th nng lng pht x ng vi bc sng thay i trong khong n +d ch
l mt vi phn ca nng sut pht x ton phn . i lng
r, T =
dR T
d
(6-2)
c gi l h s pht x n sc ca vt nhit T ng vi bc sng . N ph thuc

vo bn cht v nhit ca vt v ph thuc bc sng ca bc x n sc do vt pht
ra.
n v ca h s pht x n sc: W/m3.
Bng thc nghim ta c th xc nh c r, T ng vi bc x n sc bc sng
ca vt pht ra nhit T, t ta s xc nh c nng sut pht x ton phn
R T = dR T = r, T d
(6-3)
c. H s hp th n sc
96

Gi s trong mt n v thi gian, chm bc x n sc c bc sng nm trong
khong t n +d gi ti mt n v din tch ca vt mt nng lng d , T nhng vt
ch hp th mt phn nng lng d ', T . Theo nh ngha, t s
a , T =
d ', T
(6-4)
d , T
c gi l h s hp th n sc ca vt nhit T ng vi bc sng . N ph thuc

vo bn cht v nhit ca vt, ph thuc vo bc sng ca chm bc x n sc gi
ti.
Thng thng vt khng hp th hon ton nng lng ca chm bc x gi ti, do
a , T < 1 . Nhng vt m a , T = 1 vi mi nhit T v mi bc sng c gi l
vt en tuyt i. Trong thc t khng c vt en tuyt i m ch c nhng vt c tnh cht
gn vi tnh cht ca vt en tuyt i, v d b hng, than bch kim... to ra vt en
tuyt i ngi ta dng mt ci bnh rng cch nhit, c khot mt l nh, mt trong ph
mt lp b hng. Khi tia bc x lt qua l vo bnh, n s b phn x nhiu ln trn thnh
bnh, mi ln phn x nng lng ca n li b bnh hp th mt phn. Kt qu c th coi l
tia bc x b hp th hon ton.
3. nh lut Kirchhoff
Gi s t hai vt c bn cht khc nhau trong mt bnh cch nhit. Cc vt ny s
pht x v hp th nhit. Sau mt thi gian trng thi cn bng nhit ng s c thit lp,
hai vt s cng mt nhit T nh trong bnh. trng thi cn bng th hin nhin vt
no pht x mnh th cng phi hp th bc x mnh. T nhn xt Kirchhoff a ra
nh lut mang tn ng nh sau:
T s gia h s pht x n sc r, T
v h s hp th n sc a , T ca mt vt bt
k trng thi bc x nhit cn bng khng
ph thuc vo bn cht ca vt , m ch ph
thuc vo nhit T ca n v bc sng ca
chm bc x n sc.
Ngha l
r, T
a , T
= f , T
(6-5)
Hnh 6-2. ng c trng ph pht x

ca vt en tuyt i
trong f , T l hm s chung cho mi vt nn c gi l hm ph bin. V vt en tuyt

i c h s hp th n sc bng 1 nn hm ph bin chnh l h s pht x n sc ca
vt en tuyt i. Lm th nghim vi m hnh ca vt en tuyt i ngi ta xc nh c
f , T bng thc nghim. Hnh 6-2 l th ca hm ph bin f , T theo bc sng nhit
97

T. ng cong ny c gi l ng c trng ph pht x ca vt en tuyt i. Nng
sut pht x ton phn ca vt en tuyt i c xc nh theo cng thc (6-3) s c tr s
bng ton b din tch gii hn bi ng c trng ph pht x v trc honh trn hnh
6-2.
2. CC NH LUT PHT X CA VT EN TUYT I
1. nh lut Stephan-Boltzmann
Hnh 6-3 biu din ng c trng ph
pht x ca vt en tuyt i cc nhit
khc nhau. Ta nhn thy khi nhit tng,
din tch gia ng c trng ph pht x v
trc honh cng tng theo. Nh vy nng
sut pht x ton phn ca vt en tuyt i
ph thuc vo nhit ca vt. Stephan (bng
thc nghim) v Boltzmann (bng l thuyt)
tm ra s ph thuc ny v thit lp
c nh lut Stephan-Boltzmann.
Hnh 6-3
nh lut Stephan-Boltzmann: Nng sut pht x ton phn ca vt en tuyt i t l

thun vi ly tha bc bn ca nhit tuyt i ca vt :
R T = T 4
(6-6)
trong c gi l hng s Stephan-Boltzmann, =5,6703.10-8 W/m2K4.

2. nh lut Wien
Nhn trn hnh 6-3 ta thy rng mi ng c trng ph pht x ca vt en tuyt
i mt nhit T nht nh u c mt cc i ng vi mt gi tr xc nh ca bc
sng c k hiu l max v khi nhit tng th bc sng max gim. i vi vt en
tuyt i th nhng bc x c bc sng ln cn gi tr ca max l bc x mang nhiu nng
lng nht. Nghin cu mi quan h nh lng gia bc sng max v nhit T ca vt
en tuyt i, nm 1817 Wien tm ra nh lut mang tn ng.
nh lut Wien: i vi vt en tuyt i, bc sng max ca chm bc x n sc mang
nhiu nng lng nht t l nghch vi nhit tuyt i ca vt .
max =
b
T
(6-7)
b = 2,898.10-3 m.K v c gi l hng s Wien.
98

3. S khng hong vng t ngoi
Xut pht t quan nim ca vt l c in coi cc nguyn t v phn t pht x hoc
hp th nng lng mt cch lin tc, Rayleigh-Jeans tm c mt cng thc xc nh
h s pht x n sc ca vt en tuyt i nh sau:
f , T =
2 2
kT
c2
(6-8)
trong k l hng s Boltzmann, T l nhit tuyt i, l tn s ca bc x n sc (tn

s v bc sng lin h vi nhau qua cng thc = c/).
Theo cng thc (6-8), f , T t l vi ly tha bc 2 ca , nn f , T s tng rt nhanh
khi tng (tc gim). Cng thc ny ch ph hp vi thc nghim vng tn s nh
(bc sng ln), cn vng tn s ln (bc sng nh), tc l vng sng t ngoi, n sai
lch rt nhiu. B tc ny tn ti sut trong khong thi gian di cui th k 19 v c gi
l s khng hong vng t ngoi.
Mt khc, t cng thc (6-8) ta c th tnh c nng sut pht x ton phn ca mt
vt en tuyt i nhit T:
R T = f , T d =
0
2kT 2
d =
c2 0
(6-9)
Nng lng pht x ton phn ca vt mt nhit T nht nh li bng v cng.

iu ny l sai. S d c kt qu v l l do quan nim vt l c in v s pht x v hp
th nng lng bc x mt cch lin tc. gii quyt nhng b tc trn, Planck ph
nh l thuyt c in v bc x v ra mt l thuyt mi gi l thuyt lng t nng
lng.
3. THUYT LNG T PLANCK V THUYT PHTN EINSTEIN
1. Thuyt lng t nng lng ca Planck
Pht biu: Cc nguyn t v phn t pht x hay hp th nng lng ca bc x in
t mt cch gin on, ngha l phn nng lng pht x hay hp th lun l bi s nguyn
ca mt lng nng lng nh xc nh gi l lng t nng lng hay quantum nng
lng. Mt lng t nng lng ca bc x in t n sc tn s , bc sng l:
= h =
hc
(6-10)
trong h l hng s Planck, h = 6,625.10-34Js, c l vn tc nh sng trong chn khng.

Xut pht t thuyt lng t, Planck tm ra cng thc ca hm ph bin, tc l h
s pht x n sc ca vt en tuyt i nh sau:
f , T =
2 2
c
h
e
h / kT
99
(6-11)

trong k l hng s Boltzmann, T l nhit tuyt i. Cng thc ny c gi l cng
thc Planck.
2. Thnh cng ca thuyt lng t nng lng
* Cng thc Planck cho php ta v c ng c trng ph pht x ca vt en tuyt i
ph hp vi kt qu thc nghim mi vng nhit v mi vng tn s khc nhau.
* T cng thc Planck ta c th suy c cng thc ca Rayleigh v Jeans v cc cng thc
th hin cc nh lut ca vt en tuyt i. Trong min tn s nh sao cho h << kT th
2 2
h
. Do cng thc Planck s thnh: f , T =
kT , ta li thu c
1
e
kT
c2
cng thc ca Rayleigh v Jeans.
h / kT
* T cng thc Planck ta tm c nh lut Stephan-Boltzmann:

Nng sut pht x ton phn ca vt en tuyt i ti mt nhit T no bng:
2 2
2
e h / kT 1
0 c
R T = f , T d =
(6-12)
t x = h/kT ta c
RT =
2k 4 T 4 x 3dx
c2h3
0e
2k 4 T 4 4
c 2 h 3 15
Cui cng ta c R T = T 4 trong =5,6703.10-8 W/m2.K4. y chnh l nh lut

Stephan-Boltzmann.
* T cng thc Planck ta tm c nh lut Wien
Nu ta ly o hm ca f,T theo v cho n trit tiu ri tm max (hay max) ti cc nhit
khc nhau, kt qu thu c l max T = 2,8978.10 -3 mK. y chnh l nh lut Wien.
3. Thuyt phtn ca Einstein
Thuyt lng t ca Planck nu ln quan im hin i v nng lng: nng lng
in t pht x hay hp th c nhng gi tr gin on, chng lun l bi nguyn ca lng
t nng lng . Ta ni rng nng lng in t pht x hay hp th b lng t ho.
Nhng thuyt lng t ca Planck cha nu c bn cht gin on ca bc x in t.
Nm 1905, Einstein da trn thuyt lng t v nng lng ca Planck a ra thuyt
lng t nh sng (hay thuyt phtn).
Ni dung thuyt phtn ca Einstein:
a. Bc x in t gm v s nhng ht rt nh gi l lng t nh sng hay phtn.
b. Vi mi bc x in t n sc nht nh, cc phtn u ging nhau v mang mt
nng lng xc nh bng
100
= h =
hc
(6-13)
c. Trong mi mi trng (v c trong chn khng) cc phtn c truyn i vi

cng vn tc c = 3.108 m/s.
d. Khi mt vt pht x hay hp th bc x in t c ngha l vt pht x hay hp
th cc phtn.
e. Cng ca chm bc x t l vi s phtn pht ra t ngun trong mt n v
thi gian.
Thuyt phtn ca Einstein gii thch c cc hin tng th hin bn cht ht
ca nh sng nh hin tng quang in, hiu ng Compton.
4. ng lc hc phtn
Nng lng ca phtn ng vi mt bc x in t n sc tn s l
= h
(6-14)
Khi lng ca phtn
m=
Theo thuyt tng i m =
c2
h
c2
mo
1-
v2
h
c
(6-15)
v2
, do m o = m 1 c2
c2
Vn tc ca phtn bng c, do phtn c khi lng ngh bng 0

ng lng ca phtn
p = mc =
h h
=
c
(6-16)
Nh vy ng lng ca phtn t l thun vi tn s v t l nghch vi bc sng ca bc

x in t.
4. HIN TNG QUANG IN

1. nh ngha:
Hiu ng bn ra cc electrn t mt tm kim loi khi ri vo tm kim loi mt bc
x in t thch hp c gi l hin tng quang in. Cc electrn bn ra c gi l
cc quang electrn.
nghin cu hin tng quang in ngi ta lm th nghim vi t bo quang
in nh sau:
101

T bo quang in gm mt bnh chn
khng c hai bn cc lm bng kim loi: bn
cc dng ant A v bn cc m catt K. Catt
lm bng kim loi ta cn nghin cu. T bo
quang in c mc nh hnh v. Nh bin tr
ta c th thay i hiu in th U gia A v K
v ln v chiu.
Khi D n v tr C: UAK = 0
Khi D bn phi C: A+ , K-, UAK > 0
Khi D bn tri C: A- , K+, UAK < 0
Khi ri chm bc x in t n sc bc sng
thch hp vo catt K, chm nh sng ny
Hnh 6-4. Th nghim quang in
s gii phng cc electrn khi mt bn cc m K. Di tc dng ca in trng gia A v

K, cc quang electrn s chuyn ng v cc dng ant, to ra trong mch dng quang
in. in th G o cng dng quang in cn vn k V s o hiu in th UAK gia
A v K. Thay i UAK ta c th dng quang in nh hnh 6-5.
* UAK > 0: Khi UAK tng th I tng theo, khi UAK t n mt gi tr no cng
dng quang in s khng tng na v t gi tr Ibh, c gi l cng dng quang in
bo ha.
* Khi UAK= 0 cng dng quang in
vn c gi tr I 0 . iu chng t quang
electrn bn ra c sn mt ng nng ban
u.
* trit tiu dng quang in ta phi
t ln A-K mt hiu in th ngc Uc sao cho
cng cn ca in trng t nht phi bng
ng nng ban u cc i ca cc electrn b
bt khi bn K, ngha l:
eU c =
1
mv o2 max
2
Hnh 6-5. th I-V

(6-17)
Uc c gi l hiu in th cn.
2. Cc nh lut quang in v gii thch
T cc kt qu th nghim ngi ta tm ra ba nh lut sau y gi l ba nh lut
quang in. Cc nh lut ny ch c th gii thch c da vo thuyt phtn ca Einstein.
a. Phng trnh Einstein
Khi c mt chm nh sng thch hp ri n catt, cc electrn t do trong kim loi
hp th phtn. Mi electrn hp th mt phtn v s nhn c mt nng lng bng
h . Nng lng ny mt phn chuyn thnh cng thot Ath electrn ra khi kim loi, phn
102

cn li chuyn thnh ng nng ban u ca quang electrn. ng nng ban u cng ln
khi electrn cng gn mt ngoi kim loi, v i vi cc electrn su trong kim loi, mt
phn nng lng m n hp th c ca phtn s b tiu hao trong qu trnh chuyn ng
t trong ra mt ngoi kim loi. Nh vy ng nng ban u s cc i i vi cc electrn
st mt ngoi kim loi. Theo nh lut bo ton nng lng, Einstein a ra phng trnh
cho hiu ng quang in
h = A th +
mv o2 max
2
(6-18)
Phng trnh ny c gi l phng trnh Einstein.

b. nh lut v gii hn quang in
Pht biu: i vi mi kim loi xc nh, hin tng quang in ch xy ra khi bc sng
(hay tn s ) ca chm bc x in t ri ti nh hn (ln hn) mt gi tr xc nh o
( o ), o gi l gii hn quang in ca kim loi .
Gii hn quang in o ph thuc vo bn cht ca kim loi lm catt. nh lut ny
ni ln iu kin cn c th xy ra hin tng quang in. y cn nhn mnh rng,
nu chm sng ti c bc sng > o th d cng sng rt mnh, n cng khng th
gy ra hin tng quang in.
Gii thch: Trong phng trnh Einstein (6-15), v
mv o2 max
> 0 v t A th = h o nn
2
h > h o
> o
hc hc
>
o
< o
Ngha l chm nh sng gy ra hiu ng quang in phi c bc sng nh hn mt

gi tr xc nh o = hc/Ath ( < o ). o chnh l gii hn quang in v r rng n ch ph
thuc vo cng thot Ath, tc l ph thuc vo bn cht kim loi lm catt.
c. nh lut v dng quang in bo ho
Pht biu: Cng dng quang in bo ho t l vi cng ca chm bc x ri ti.
Gii thch: Cng dng quang in t l vi s quang electrn thot ra khi catt n
ant trong mt n v thi gian. Dng quang in tr nn bo ho khi s quang electrn
thot khi catt n ant trong n v thi gian l khng i. S quang electrn thot ra
khi catt t l vi s phtn b hp th. S phtn b hp th li t l vi cng ca
chm bc x. Do cng dng quang in bo ho t l thun vi cng chm bc
x ri ti.
Ne ~ Nph , Nph ~ Iph
Ne ~ Iph
Ibh ~ Ne
Ibh ~ Iph
103

d. nh lut v ng nng ban u cc i ca quang electrn
Pht biu: ng nng ban u cc i ca quang electrn khng ph thuc vo cng
chm bc x ri ti m ch ph thuc vo tn s ca chm bc x .
Gii thch:
1
1
h = A th + mv o2 max = h o + mv o2 max
2
2
1
mv o2 max = h ( - o )
2
eU c = h ( - o )
Ta thy r ng nng ban u cc i ca quang electrn ch ph thuc vo tn s

ca chm bc x in t, m khng ph thuc vo cng ca bc x .
Thuyt phtn gii thch c tt c cc nh lut quang in, n a ra mt
quan nim mi v bn cht nh sng. Theo Einstein, mi phtn c mt nng lng = h.
Tnh cht ht th hin nng lng gin on. Tnh cht sng th hin tn s (v bc
sng ) ca nh sng. Nh vy nh sng va c tnh sng, va c tnh ht. Ta ni rng nh
sng c lng tnh sng-ht.
5. HIU NG COMPTON
Hiu ng Compton l mt trong nhng hiu ng th hin bn cht ht ca cc bc
x in t, ng thi n chng minh s tn ti ng lng ca cc ht phtn.
1. Hiu ng Compton
Th nghim Compton: Cho mt chm tia X bc sng chiu vo graphit hay
paraphin...Khi i qua cc cht ny tia X b tn x theo nhiu phng. Trong ph tn x,
ngoi vch c bc sng bng bc sng ca chm tia X chiu ti cn c nhng vch
ng vi bc sng > (Hnh 6-6). Thc nghim chng t rng bc sng khng ph
thuc cu to ca cc cht c tia X ri n m ch ph thuc vo gc tn x . tng
ca bc sng = '- c xc nh bi biu thc:
= 2 c sin 2
(6-19)
trong c =2,426.10-12 m l mt hng s chung cho mi cht, c gi l bc sng

Compton.
Theo l thuyt sng th khi tia X truyn n thanh grapht n lm cho cc ht mang
in trong thanh ( y l electrn) dao ng cng bc vi cng tn s ca tia X, do
cc bc x tn x v mi phng phi c cng tn s vi bc x ti. Nh vy l thuyt sng
in t c in khng gii thch c hin tng Compton.
104
Hnh 6-6. Th nghim Compton
Hnh 6-7. Va chm n hi gia

phtn v electrn
2. Gii thch bng thuyt lng t nh sng

Chng ta c th coi hin tng tn x tia X nh
mt va chm hon ton n hi gia mt phtn v
mt electrn trong cht m tia X chiu ti (Hnh 6-7).
Trong ph tn x, nhng vch c bc sng bng
bc sng ca tia X chiu ti tng ng vi s tn x
ca tia X ln cc electrn su trong nguyn t, cc
electrn ny lin kt mnh vi ht nhn, cn vch c
bc sng
Hnh 6-8
> tng ng vi s tn x tia X ln
cc electrn lin kt yu vi ht nhn. Nng lng lin kt ca cc electrn ny rt nh so

vi nng lng ca chm tia X chiu ti, do cc electrn c th coi nh t do. V y
l va chm n hi gia phtn v electrn t do nn ta s p dng hai nh lut bo ton
nng lng v bo ton ng lng cho h kn tia X - e-". Gi thit trc va chm electrn
(e-) ng yn. Tia X c nng lng ln, khi tn x trn electrn t do tia X s truyn nng
lng cho electrn nn sau va chm vn tc ca electrn rt ln, do ta phi p dng hiu
ng tng i tnh trong trng hp ny. Chng ta xt ng lng, nng lng ca ht
phtn v electrn trc v sau va chm:
Trc va chm:
e- ng yn :
Nng lng : m o c 2
ng lng : 0
Phtn :
Nng lng : E = h
ng lng : p = mc =
Sau va chm:
h h
=
c
Phtn tn x: Nng lng : E ' = h

ng lng : p =
105
h h
=
c

e- :
Nng lng :
mo
1-
v2
c 2 = mc 2
c2
mo
ng lng : p e =
1-
v2
v = mv
c2
(mo l khi lng ngh ca e- )

Theo nh lut bo ton nng lng v ng lng:
h + m o c 2 = h + mc 2
(6-20)
p = p + p e
(6-21)
Gi l gc gia p v p' (hnh 6-8). Sau khi bin i cc biu thc (6-20) v (6-21) v s
dng cng thc lin h gia nng lng v ng lng trong c hc tng i tnh (5-22),
cui cng ta c:
m o c 2 ( - ' ) = h ' (1 - cos ) = 2h ' sin 2

Thay =
(6-22)
c
vo biu thc trn ta c:
'- = 2
trong c =
h
sin 2 = 2 c sin 2
moc
2
2
(6-23)
h
= 2,426.10 12 m l hng s chung cho mi cht, gi l bc sng
moc
Compton. i lng = '- l bin thin ca bc sng trong tn x, n ch ph

thuc vo gc tn x m khng ph thuc vo vt liu lm bia.
Khi phtn vo su trong nguyn t v va chm vi cc electrn lin kt mnh vi
ht nhn, ta phi coi va chm ny l va chm ca phtn vi nguyn t (ch khng phi vi
electrn), cng thc (6-23) vn ng nhng phi thay khi lng ca electrn bng khi
lng ca nguyn t, n ln hn nhiu ln so vi khi lng ca electrn. Do hu nh
khng c s thay i bc sng. Nh vy trong bc x tn x c mt nhng phtn vi
bc sng khng i.
Qua hiu ng Compton ngi ta chng minh c ht phtn c ng lng p= h / .
ng lng l mt c trng ca ht. Nh vy tnh cht ht ca nh sng c xc
nhn trn vn khi da vo thuyt phtn gii thch thnh cng hiu ng Compton.
III. TM TT NI DUNG
1. Hin tng bc x nhit
106

* Sng in t do cc vt pht ra gi chung l bc x. Dng bc x do cc nguyn t v
phn t b kch thch bi tc dng nhit c gi l bc x nhit. Nu phn nng lng ca
vt b mt i do pht x bng phn nng lng vt thu c do hp th th bc x nhit
khng i v c gi l bc x nhit cn bng.
* Cc i lng c trng cho bc x nhit :
- Nng sut pht x ton phn ca vt nhit T:
RT =
dT
dS
dT l nng lng do din tch dS ca vt pht x trong mt n v thi gian.

- H s pht x n sc nhit T, ng vi bc sng : r, T =
- H s hp th n sc nhit T, ng vi bc sng : a , T =
dR T
d
d ', T
d , T
d , T l nng lng ca bc x ti, d', T l nng lng vt hp th.

Thc t vt khng hp th hon ton bc x ti nn a,T < 1. Vt c a,T =1 vi mi nhit
T v mi bc sng gi l vt en tuyt i.
* nh lut Kirchhoff: T s ca h s pht x n sc v h s hp th n sc ca mt vt
trng thi cn bng nhit khng ph thuc vo bn cht ca vt m ch ph thuc vo
r, T
= f , T , trong f,T l hm s
nhit v bc sng ca chm bc x, ngha l
a , T
chung cho mi vt, nn c gi l hm ph bin. i vi vt en tuyt i: r,T = f,T
Nng sut pht x ton phn ca vt en tuyt i bng R T = dR T = f , T d

0
* Cc nh lut pht x ca vt en tuyt i

-
Stephan-Boltzmann thit lp c nh lut lin h gia RT v nhit T ca vt:
R T = T 4 . Hng s c gi l hng s Stephan-Boltzmann.

-
Wien tm c nh lut lin h gia bc sng m ca chm bc x mang nhiu

b
nng lng nht (f,T ln nht) vi nhit tuyt i T ca vt : m = , trong
T
b c gi l hng s Wien.
* Da vo quan nim c in coi cc nguyn t v phn t pht x v hp th nng lng

mt cch lin tc, Rayleigh-Jeans tm c mt cng thc xc nh h s pht x n
sc ca vt en tuyt i: f , T =
2 2
c2
kT
Nhng cng thc ny gp hai kh khn ch yu:
107

- Cng thc ny ch ph hp vi thc nghim vng tn s nh (bc sng di),
cn vng tn s ln (bc sng ngn), tc l vng sng t ngoi, n sai lch rt
nhiu. B tc ny c gi l s khng hong vng t ngoi.
- T cng thc ny ta c th tnh c nng sut pht x ton phn ca mt vt en
R T = f , T d =
tuyt i nhit T:
2kT 2
d =
c2 0
Nng lng pht x ton phn ca vt mt nhit T nht nh li bng v cng.

S d c kt qu v l l do quan nim vt l c in v s pht x v hp th nng
lng bc x mt cch lin tc. gii quyt nhng b tc trn Planck ph nh l
thuyt c in v bc x v ra mt l thuyt mi gi l thuyt lng t nng lng.
* Thuyt lng t ca Planck: cc nguyn t v phn t pht x hay hp th nng
= h = hc /
lng mt cch gin on
.
Xut pht t thuyt lng t, Planck tm ra cng thc ca hm ph bin, tc l h
s pht x n sc ca vt en tuyt i:
f , T =
2 2
2
h
h / kT
c e
1
Cng thc ca Planck khc phc c kh khn vng t ngoi, ng c trng
ph pht x ca vt en tuyt i tnh t cng thc ny ph hp vi kt qu thc nghim
mi vng nhit , mi vng tn s khc nhau. T cng thc Planck ta c th tm li c
cc cng thc Stephan-Boltzmann v cng thc Wien.
2. Hiu ng quang in
l hiu ng bn ra cc electrn t mt tm kim loi khi ri vo tm kim loi
mt bc x in t thch hp.
Ngi ta tm c ba nh lut quang in:
* nh lut v gii hn quang in: Hin tng quang in ch xy ra khi bc sng
ca nh sng ti phi tha mn:
< o hoc > o
o, o ty thuc vo tng kim loi v c gi l gii hn quang in ca kim loi .
* nh lut v dng quang in bo ha: Cng dng quang in bo ha t l vi
cng nh sng chiu ti kim loi.
* nh lut v ng nng ban u cc i: ng nng ban u cc i ca cc quang
electron khng ph thuc vo cng nh sng chiu ti m ch ph thuc bc sng ca
nh sng chiu ti v bn cht kim loi.
gii thch ba nh lut trn, Einstein a ra thuyt phtn. Thuyt ny cho rng
nh sng bao gm nhng ht phtn. Mi phtn mang nng lng = h = hc / , chuyn
ng vi vn tc c=3.108 m/s. Cng ca chm sng t l vi s phtn do ngun sng
pht ra trong mt n v thi gian.
108

Nh vy nh sng va c tnh cht sng va c tnh cht ht.
3. Hiu ng Compton
Chm nh sng (chm ht phtn) sau khi tn x ln cc ht electrn t do th bc
sng ca n tng ln
= 2 c sin 2
Thc nghim xc nh c tng bc sng ny. tng bc sng khng

ph thuc vt liu lm bia m ch ph thuc vo gc tn x. gii thch hiu ng
Compton, ngi ta da trn hai nh lut bo ton: bo ton nng lng (v va chm n
hi) v bo ton ng lng (v l h kn gm ht phtn v ht electrn). Qua hiu ng
ny ngi ta chng minh c ht phtn c ng lng p = mc = h / c = h / .
ng lng l mt c trng ca ht. Nh vy tnh cht ht ca nh sng c
xc nhn trn vn khi da vo thuyt phtn gii thch thnh cng hiu ng Compton.
IV. CU HI L THUYT
1. nh ngha bc x nhit cn bng.
2. Vit biu thc v nu ngha ca cc i lng: nng sut pht x ton phn, h s pht
x n sc, h s hp th n sc ca bc x nhit cn bng nhit T.
3. nh ngha vt en tuyt i.
4. Pht biu nh lut Kirchhoff. Nu ngha ca hm ph bin. V th ng c trng
ph pht x ca vt en tuyt i.
5. Pht biu cc nh lut pht x ca vt en tuyt i .
6. Nu quan nim c in v bn cht ca bc x. Vit cng thc ca Rayleigh-Jeans. Nu
nhng kh khn m cng thc gp phi i vi hin tng bc x nhit.
7. Pht biu thuyt lng t ca Planck. Vit cng thc Planck. Nu nhng thnh cng ca
thuyt lng t.
8. nh ngha hin tng quang in. Pht biu ba nh lut quang in.
9. Pht biu thuyt phtn ca Einstein. Vn dng thuyt phtn gii thch ba nh lut
quang in.
10. Trnh by ni dung hiu ng Compton. Trong hiu ng ny, chm tia X tn x ln
electrn t do hay lin kt ?
11. Gii thch hiu ng Compton.
12. Ti sao coi hiu ng Compton l mt bng chng thc nghim xc nhn trn vn tnh
ht ca nh sng.
109
IV. BI TP
Th d 1: Hi nhit ca l nung bng bao nhiu cho bit mi giy l pht ra mt nng
lng bng 8,28 calo qua mt l nh c kch thc bng 6,1cm2. Coi bc x c pht ra t
mt vt en tuyt i.
Bi gii: Nng sut pht x ton phn ca vt en tuyt i: R = T 4 , R l nng sut do
mt n v din tch pht ra trong mt n v thi gian, nn R lin h vi cng sut pht x
l: P = R.S
T=4
P
8,28.4,18
=4
= 1004 (K )
.S
5,67.10 8.6,1.10 4
Th d 2: Cng thot ca kim loi dng lm catt ca t bo quang in A = 5eV. Tm:

1. Gii hn quang in ca tm kim loi .
2. Vn tc ban u cc i ca cc quang electrn khi catt c chiu bng nh
sng n sc bc sng = 0,2m.
3. Hiu in th hm khng c mt electrn no n c ant.
Bi gii
1. Gii hn quang in ca catt: 0 =
hc 6,625.10 34.3.108
=
= 2,48.10 7 m
19
A
5.1,6.10
2. Vn tc ban u cc i ca cc electrn:
hc
1
2 hc
= A + m e v 02 max v 0 max =
A
2
me
v 0 max =
6,625.1034.3.108
5.1,6.1019 = 0,65.106 m / s
9,1.1031
0,2.106
3. Hiu in th hm:
1
hc
hc
1 6,625.1034.3.108
= A + eUh U h = ( A) =
5.1,6.1019
= 1,2 V
1,6.1019
e
0,2.106
Th d 3: Phtn mang nng lng 0,15MeV n tn x trn electrn t do. Sau khi tn x
bc sng ca chm phtn tn x tng thm = 0,015A0. Xc nh bc sng ca
phtn v gc tn x ca phtn.
Bi gii: =
hc
hc 6,625.10 34.3.108
=
=
= 8,28.10 12 m
13
0,15.1,6.10
= 2 c sin 2
sin 2 =
= 0,31 sin = 0,556 = 67 0 33
2
2 2 c
2
110

Bi tp t gii
1. Tm cng sut bc x ca mt l nung, cho bit nhit ca l bng t = 7270C, din tch
ca ca l bng 250cm2. Coi l l vt en tuyt i.
p s: P = T 4S = 1417,5 ( W )
2.Vt en tuyt i c dng mt qu cu ng knh d = 10cm nhit T khng i. Tm
nhit T, cho bit cng sut bc x nhit cho bng 12kcalo/pht.
p s: P =
12.10 3.4,18
= 836 ( W ) , T =
60
4
P
d
.4
2
= 828 (K )
3. Nhit ca si dy tc vonfram ca bng n in lun bin i v c t nng bng

dng in xoay chiu. Hiu s gia nhit cao nht v thp nht bng 800, nhit trung
bnh bng 2300K. Hi cng sut bc x bin i bao nhiu ln, coi dy tc bng n l vt
en tuyt i.
p s: Tmax Tmin = 80 K,
Tmax + Tmin
= 2300 K Tmax = 2340 K, Tmin = 2260 K
2
Pmax Tmax
=
Pmin Tmin
= 1,15
4. Nhit ca vt en tuyt i tng t 1000 K n 3000 K. Hi:

1. Nng sut pht x ton phn ca n tng bao nhiu ln?
2. Bc sng ng vi nng sut pht x cc i thay i bao nhiu ln?
4
T
R
p s: 1. 2 = 2 = 81 ln ,
R 1 T1
T
2. m1 = 2 = 3 ln
m 2 T1
5. Mt vt en tuyt i nhit T1 = 2900 K. Do vt b ngui i nn bc sng ng vi

nng sut pht x cc i thay i = 9m. Hi vt lnh n nhit bng bao nhiu?
p s: m1 =
1
bT1
1
b
b
, m2 =
= b
T2 =
= 290 (K )
T1
T2
T1 + b
T2 T1
6. Tm gii hn quang in i vi cc kim loi c cng thot 2,4eV, 2,3eV, 2eV.

p s: 01 =
03 =
hc
hc
= 5,18.10 7 m , 02 =
= 5,4.10 7 m ,
A1
A2
hc
= 6,21.10 7 m
A3
111

7. Gii hn quang in ca kim loi dng lm catt ca t bo quang in 0 = 0,5m. Tm:
1. Cng thot ca electrn khi tm kim loi .
p s: 1. 0 =
2.
hc
hc 6,625.10 34.3.108
A=
=
= 39,75.10 20 J
6
A
0
0,5.10
hc
1
2 hc
6
= A + me v02max v0 max =
A = 0,93.10 m / s
2
me
8. Chiu mt bc x in t n sc bc sng = 0,41m ln mt kim loi dng lm catt

ca t bo quang in th c hin tng quang in xy ra. Nu dng mt hiu in th hm
0,76V th cc quang electrn bn ra u b gi li.Tm:
1. Cng thot ca electrn i vi kim loi .
2. Vn tc ban u cc i ca cc quang electrn khi bn ra khi catt.
p s: 1.
hc
hc
= A + eU h A =
eU h = 36,32.10 20 J
2.
m e v 02 max
= eU h v 0 max =
2
2eU h
=
me
2.1,6.10 19.0,76
9,1.10
31
= 0,52.10 6 m / s
9. Cng thot ca kim loi dng lm catt ca t bo quang in A= 2,48eV. Tm:

1. Gii hn quan in ca tm kim loi .
2.Vn tc ban u cc i ca cc quang electrn khi catt c chiu bng nh sng
n sc bc sng = 0,36m.
p s: 1. 0 =
hc 6,625.10 34.3.108
=
= 0,5.10 6 m
19
A
2,48.1,6.10
2.
hc
1
= A + m e v 02 max v 0 max =
2
3.
hc
= A + eU h U h == 0,97 V
2
me
hc
6
A = 0,584.10 m / s
10. Khi chiu mt chm nh sng c bc sng = 0,234m vo mt kim loi dng lm
catt ca t bo quang in th c hin tng quang in xy ra. Bit tn s gii hn ca
catt 0= 6.1014Hz. Tm:
1. Cng thot ca electrn i vi kim loi .
112

3. Vn tc ban u cc i ca cc quang electrn.
p s: 1. A = h 0 = 39,75.10 20 J ,
2.
hc
hc
1
= A + eU h U h = ( A) = 2,83V
3.
1
m e v 02 max = eU h v 0 max =
2
2eU h
= 10 6 m / s
me
11. Khi chiu mt chm nh sng vo mt kim loi dng lm catt ca t bo quang in
th c hin tng quang in xy ra. Nu dng mt hiu in th hm 3V th cc quang
electrn bn ra u b gi li. Bit tn s gii hn ca catt 0= 6.1014Hz. Tm:
1. Cng thot ca electrn i vi tm kim loi .
2. Tn s ca nh sng chiu ti.
3. Vn tc ban u cc i ca cc quang electrn khi bn ra t catt.
p s: 1. A = h0 = 39,75.10-20J,
2. h = A + eU h =
3.
v0max =
A + eU h
= 13,25.1014 z ,
h
2
(h - A) =106 m / s
me
12. Cng thot ca kim loi dng lm catt ca t bo quang in A = 2,15eV. Tm:
1. Gii hn quang in ca tm kim loi .
p s: 1. 0 =
2.
3.
hc 6,625.10 34.3.108
=
= 0,578.10 6 m
19
A
2,15.1,6.10
hc
1
= A + m e v 02 max v 0 max =
2 hc
6
A = 0,37.10 m / s
me
hc
hc
1
= A + eU h U h = ( A) = 0,39 V
13. Tm ng lng, khi lng ca phtn c tn s = 5.1014Hz.

p s: p =
m=
h h 6,625.10 34.5.1014
=
=
= 1,1.10 27 kg.m/s
8
c
3.10
h
c
6,625.10 34.5.1014
16
9.10
= 3,7.10 36 kg
113

14. Tm nng lng v ng lng ca phtn ng vi bc sng = 0,6m.
hc 6,625.10 34.3.108
=
=
= 3,3.10 19 J
6
0,6.10
p s:
p=
h 6,625.10 34
=
= 1,1.10 27 kg.m/s
6
0,6.10
15. Tm nng lng v ng lng ca phtn ng vi bc sng = 10-12m.
hc 6,625.10 34.3.10 8
=
= 19,88.10 14 J
p s: =
12
10
p=
h 6,625.10 34
=
= 6,62.10 22 kg.m/s
12
10
16. Phtn c nng lng 250keV bay n va chm vi mt electrn ng yn v tn x

Compton theo gc 1200. Xc nh nng lng ca phtn tn x.
p s: =
hc
= 5.10 12 m , = 2c sin2 = 8,64.1012 m
Nng lng ca phtn tn x: =
hc 6,625.10 34.3.108
=
= 2,3.10 14 J
12
8,64.10
17. Phtn ban u c nng lng 0,8MeV tn x trn mt electrn t do v thnh phtn
ng vi bc x c bc sng bng bc sng Compton. Tnh:
1. Gc tn x.
2. Nng lng ca phtn tn x.
hc
= 0,8.1,6.10 13 = 1,553.10 12 m ,
= 2 c sin 2 = 50 011
2
p s: 1.
2. =
hc
= 8,19.10 14 J = 0,2MeV
18. Tnh nng lng v ng lng ca phtn tn x khi phtn c bc sng ban u
= 0,05.10-10m n va chm vo electrn t do v tn x theo gc 600, 900.
p s: 1.Bc sng ca phtn tn x:
= 2c sin2 = 5.1012 + 2.2,426.1012.0,25 = 6,213.1012 m

2
hc 6,625.10 34.3.108
=
= 3,2.10 14 J
12
6,213.10
114

ng lng ca phtn tn x: p =
h 6,625.10 34
=
= 10 22 kgm / s
12
6,213.10
2. Bc sng ca phtn tn x:
2
= 2c sin
12
= 5.10
12
2
+ 2.2,426.10 . = 7,426.1012m
2
hc 6,625.10 34.3.108
=
= 2,68.10 14 J
12
7,426.10
ng lng ca phtn tn x: p =
h 6,625.10 34
=
= 0,89.10 22 kgm / s
7,426.10 12
19. Trong hin tng tn x Compton, bc x Rngen c bc sng n tn x trn

electrn t do. Tm bc sng , cho bit ng nng cc i ca electron bn ra bng
0,19MeV.
1
1
p s: ng nng ca electrn: E = m e c 2 m 0e c 2 = m 0e c 2
v2
1 2
Theo
nh
= 2 c sin 2
,
2
lut
bo
ng
ton
nng
lng:
cc
nng
hc hc
1
1
= hc
,

+
khi
sin 2 = 1 .
Do
2
E =
2m 0 c 2
=
1+
1 = 0,037 A 0
m 0e c
E
20. Tm ng lng ca electrn khi c phtn bc sng = 0,05A0 n va chm v tn

x theo gc = 900. Lc u electrn ng yn.
r r r
r
r r
p s: Theo nh lut bo ton ng lng: p = p + pe pe = p p
pe2 = p 2 + p 2 p e =
h2
2
h2
1,6.10 22 kg.m / s
115
Chng 7: C hc lng t
CHNG VII: C HC LNG T

C hc lng t l mn c hc nghin cu s vn ng ca vt cht trong th gii
ca cc phn t, nguyn t (kch thc 10-9 - 10-10 m, gi l th gii vi m, cc ht trong
gi l vi ht). C hc lng t cung cp cho ta kin thc hiu cc hin tng xy ra
trong nguyn t, ht nhn, vt rn...
I. MC CH - YU CU
1. Nm c gi thuyt de Broglie v lng tnh sng - ht ca vi ht. T i n biu
thc ca hm sng v phng trnh Schrodinger.
2. Hiu v vn dng c h thc bt nh Heisenberg.
3. Hiu v vn dng phng trnh Schrodinger gii mt s bi ton c hc lng t n
gin nh ht trong ging th, hiu ng ng ngm, dao ng t iu ha lng t.
II. NI DUNG
1. LNG TNH SNG HT CA VI HT
1. Lng tnh sng ht ca nh sng
Nh chng trc chng ta thy nh sng va c tnh sng va c tnh ht: hin
tng giao thoa, nhiu x th hin tnh cht sng, cn hiu ng quang in, hiu ng
Compton th hin tnh cht ht ca nh
sng. Lng tnh sng ht ca nh sng
c Einstein nu trong thuyt phtn:
nh sng c cu to bi cc ht
phtn, mi ht mang nng lng
h
E = h v ng lng p = . Ta thy
cc i lng c trng cho tnh cht

ht (E,p) v cc i lng c trng
cho tnh cht sng ( , ) lin h trc
tip vi nhau. Chng ta s thit
Hnh 7-1. S truyn sng phng nh sng
lp hm sng cho ht phtn.

Xt chm nh sng n sc, song song. Mt sng l cc mt phng vung gc vi
phng truyn sng. Nu dao ng sng ti O l
116
Chng 7: C hc lng t
x ( t ) = A cos 2 t
(7-1)
th biu thc dao ng sng ti mi im trn mt sng i qua im M cch mt sng i qua
O mt on d l:
d
d
d
x ( t - ) = A cos 2 ( t - ) = A cos 2( t - )
c
c
2 d
= A cos( t )
(7-2)
trong c l vn tc nh sng trong chn khng, l bc sng nh sng trong chn

c
khng: = cT = , vi T l chu k , l tn s ca sng nh sng. T hnh 7-1 ta c:
d = r cos = r.n
(7-3)
n : vect php tuyn n v. Thay (7-3) vo (7-2) ta nhn c:
d
r.n
x ( t ) = A cos 2 ( t )
c
(7-4)
l hm sng phng n sc. S dng k hiu cho hm sng v biu din n di

dng hm phc ta c
r.n
= o exp 2 i t
Nu thay =
(7-5)
E
h
h
, p = v h =
vo (7-5) ta c:
h
= o exp Et p r
h
(7-6)
2. Gi thuyt de Broglie (bri)

Trn c s lng tnh sng ht ca nh sng, de Broglie suy ra lng tnh sng ht
cho electrn v cc vi ht khc.
Gi thuyt de Broglie:
Mt vi ht t do c nng lng, ng lng xc nh tng ng vi mt sng phng
n sc. Nng lng ca vi ht lin h vi tn s dao ng ca sng tng ng thng qua
h thc: E = h hay E = h . ng lng ca vi ht lin h vi bc sng ca sng tng
h
ng theo h thc: p = hay p = h k .
k l vect sng, c phng, chiu l phng, chiu truyn sng, c ln k =

de Broglie l sng vt cht, sng ca cc vi ht.
117
2
. Sng
Chng 7: C hc lng t
3. Thc nghim xc nhn tnh cht sng ca cc ht vi m
a. Nhiu x ca electrn qua khe hp:
Cho chm electrn i qua mt khe hp. Trn mn hunh quang ta thu c hnh nh
nhiu x ging nh hin tng nhiu x ca nh sng qua mt khe hp. Nu ta cho tng
electrn ring bit i qua khe trong mt thi gian di s electrn i qua khe ln, ta
vn thu c hnh nh nhiu x trn mn hunh quang. iu ny chng t mi ht electrn
ring l u c tnh cht sng.
Hnh 7-2. Nhiu x ca electrn qua mt khe hp

b. Nhiu x ca electrn trn tinh th
Th nghim ca Davisson v Germer quan st c hin tng nhiu x ca electrn
trn mt tinh th Ni (hnh 7-3). Khi cho mt chm electrn bn vo mt tinh th Ni, chm es tn x trn mt tinh th Ni di cc gc khc nhau. Trn mn hnh ta thu c cc vn
nhiu x. Hin tng xy ra ging ht hin tng nhiu x ca tia X trn mt tinh th Ni.
Tinh th Ni nh mt cch t nhiu x. Hin tng electrn nhiu x trn cch t chng t
bn cht sng ca chng. Thay Ni bng cc tinh th khc, tt c cc th nghim u xc
nhn chm electrn gy hin tng nhiu x trn tinh th. Cc vi ht khc nh ntrn,
prtn cng gy hin tng nhiu x trn tinh th.
Cc kt qu th nghim trn
u xc nhn tnh cht sng ca vi
ht v do chng minh s ng n
ca gi thuyt de Broglie.
Cui cng, ta phi nhn mnh
v ni dung gii hn ca gi thit de
Broglie. Bc sng de Broglie t l
nghch vi khi lng ca ht:
Hinh 7-3. Nhiu x ca electrn trn tinh th
h
h
=
p mv
118
Chng 7: C hc lng t
do i vi nhng ht thng thng m khi lng rt ln, thm ch l v cng ln so vi
khi lng ca electrn chng hn th bc sng de Broglie tng ng c gi tr v cng b
v khng cn ngha m t tnh cht sng na. Nh vy, khi nim lng tnh sng ht
thc s ch th hin cc ht vi m m thi v sng de Broglie c bn cht c th lng
t, n khng tng t vi sng thc trong vt l c in nh sng nc hay sng in t...
2. H THC BT NH HEISENBERG
Do c lng tnh sng ht nn qui lut vn ng ca vi ht trong th gii vi m khc
vi qui lut vn ng ca ht trong th gii v m. Mt trong nhng im khc bit l h
thc bt nh Heisenberg. tm h thc chng ta xt hin tng nhiu x ca chm vi
ht qua mt khe hp c b rng b.
Sau khi qua khe ht s b
nhiu x theo nhiu phng khc
nhau, tu theo gc nhiu x , mt
ht nhiu x trn mn s cc i
hoc cc tiu. Xt ta ca ht
theo phng x, nm trong mt
phng khe v song song vi b
rng khe. Ta x ca ht trong
khe s c gi tr trong khong t 0
n b ( 0 x b ). Ni cch khc,
v tr ca ht trong khe c xc
nh vi bt nh x b .
Hnh 7-4
Sau khi ht qua khe, ht b nhiu x, phng ng lng p thay i. Hnh chiu ca
p theo phng x s c gi tr thay i trong khong 0 p x p sin , ngha l sau khi i

qua khe, ht c th ri vo cc i gia hoc cc i ph v p x c xc nh vi mt
bt nh no . Xt trng hp ht ri vo cc i gia p x p sin 1 , 1 l gc ng vi
cc tiu th nht: sin 1 =
. Do ta c:
b
x.p x b.p sin 1 = p.
Theo gi thuyt de Broglie p =
h
. Thay vo biu thc trn ta nhn c h thc bt
nh Heisenberg:
x.p x h
L lun tng t:
y.p y h
(7-7)
z.p z h
119
Chng 7: C hc lng t
H thc bt nh Heisenberg l mt trong nhng nh lut c bn ca c hc lng
t. H thc ny chng t v tr v ng lng ca ht khng c xc nh chnh xc mt
cch ng thi. V tr ca ht cng xc nh th ng lng ca ht cng bt nh v ngc
li.
V d: Trong nguyn t e- chuyn ng trong phm vi 10-10 m. Do bt nh v
vn tc l:
v x =
Ta thy
p x
h
6,625.10 34
=
= 7.10 6 m / s
me
m e x 9.10 31.10 10
v x kh ln cho nn e- khng c vn tc xc nh, ngha l e- khng chuyn
ng theo mt qu o xc nh trong nguyn t. iu ny chng t rng trong th gii vi

m khi nim qu o khng c ngha.
Ta xt ht trong th gii v m khi lng ca ht m = 10-15 kg, bt nh v v tr
x = 10 8 m . Do bt nh v vn tc l
v x
h
6,625.10 34
=
= 6,6.10 11 m / s
15
8
m.x 10 .10
Nh vy i vi ht v m x v v x u nh, ngha l v tr v vn tc c th c
xc nh chnh xc ng thi.
Theo c hc c in, nu bit c to v ng lng ca ht thi im ban u
th ta c th xc nh c trng thi ca ht cc thi im sau. Nhng theo c hc lng
t th to v ng lng ca vi ht khng th xc nh c ng thi, do ta ch c
th on nhn kh nng vi ht mt trng thi nht nh. Ni cch khc vi ht ch c th
mt trng thi vi mt xc sut no . Do qui lut vn ng ca vi ht tun theo qui
lut thng k.
Ngoi h thc bt nh v v tr v ng lng, trong c hc lng t ngi ta cn
tm c h thc bt nh gia nng lng v thi gian:
E.t h
(7-8)
ngha ca h thc bt nh gia nng lng v thi gian: nu nng lng ca h

mt trng thi no cng bt nh th thi gian h tn ti trng thi cng ngn v
ngc li, nu nng lng ca h mt trng thi no cng xc nh th thi gian tn ti
ca h trng thi cng di. Nh vy trng thi c nng lng bt nh l trng thi
khng bn, cn trng thi c nng lng xc nh l trng thi bn.
3. HM SNG
1. Hm sng:
Do lng tnh sng ht ca vi ht ta khng th xc nh ng thi c ta v
ng lng ca vi ht. xc nh trng thi ca vi ht, ta phi dng mt khi nim mi
l hm sng.
120
Chng 7: C hc lng t
Theo gi thuyt de Broglie chuyn ng ca ht t do (tc l ht khng chu mt tc
dng no ca ngoi lc) c m t bi hm sng tng t nh sng nh sng phng n
sc
[ (
= o exp Et pr = o exp i t k r
h
Trong E = h; p = h k v
)]
(7-9)
o l bin c xc nh bi:
2
o2 = = *
(7-10)
* l lin hp phc ca .
Nu ht vi m chuyn ng trong trng th, th hm sng ca n l mt hm phc
tp ca to r v thi gian t
(r, t ) = (x, y, z, t )
2. ngha thng k ca hm sng
Xt chm ht phtn truyn trong
khng gian. Xung quanh im M ly th
tch V bt k (hnh 7-5)
*Theo quan im sng: Cng
sng ti M t l vi bnh phng bin
dao ng sng ti M: I ~ o2
Hnh 7-5. Chm ht phtn truyn qua

th tch V
*Theo quan im ht: Cng sng ti M t l vi nng lng cc ht trong n v

th tch bao quanh M, ngha l t l vi s ht trong n v th tch .T y ta thy rng
s ht trong n v th tch t l vi o2 . S ht trong n v th tch cng nhiu th kh
2
nng tm thy ht trong cng ln. V vy c th ni bnh phng bin sng
ti
M c trng cho kh nng tm thy ht trong n v th tch bao quanh M . Do
mt xc sut tm ht v xc sut tm thy ht trong ton khng gian l dV . Khi tm

V
ht trong ton khng gian, chng ta chc chn tm thy ht. Do xc sut tm ht trong
ton khng gian l 1:
2
(7-11)
dV = 1
y chnh l iu kin chun ho ca hm sng.

Tm li:
121
Chng 7: C hc lng t
-
m t trng thi ca vi ht ngi ta dng hm sng .
khng m t mt sng thc trong khng gian. Hm sng mang tnh cht thng
biu din mt xc sut tm thy ht trng thi .
k, n lin quan n xc sut tm ht.

3. iu kin ca hm sng
-
Hm sng phi hu hn. iu ny c suy ra t iu kin chun ho, hm sng

phi hu hn th tch phn mi hu hn.
Hm sng phi n tr, v theo l thuyt xc sut: mi trng thi ch c mt gi tr
xc sut tm ht.
2
Hm sng phi lin tc, v xc sut
o hm bc nht ca hm sng phi lin tc.
khng th thay i nhy vt.
4. PHNG TRNH SCHRODINGER

Hm sng de Broglie m t chuyn ng ca vi ht t do c nng lng v ng
lng xc nh:
trong
i
(r, t ) = o exp Et pr = (r ) exp Et
h
(7-12)
i
(r ) = o exp p r
h
(7-13)
l phn ph thuc vo ta ca hm sng. Ta c th biu din ( r ) trong h ta

cc nh sau:
(r ) = o exp (p x x + p y y + p z z)
h
(7-14)
Ly o hm / x , ta c:
= p x ( r )
x h
Ly o hm bc hai ca theo x:
2
x 2
p2
p 2x (r ) = x (r )
h2
h2
i2
Ta cng thu c kt qu tng t cho cc bin y v z.

Theo nh ngha ca ton t Laplace trong h to cc :
122
(7-15)
Chng 7: C hc lng t
2
2
2
(r ) =
+
+
(r )
x 2 y 2 z 2
(7-16)
ta c:
(r ) =
p 2x + p 2y + p 2z
h2
Gi E l ng nng ca ht, ta vit c:
mv 2 p 2
E =
=
2
2m
(r ) =
hay
p2
h2
(r )
(7-17)
p2 =2mE
Thay p2 vo (7-17) v chuyn sang v tri ta thu c:
(r ) +
2m
E d (r ) = 0
(7-18)
h2
Phng trnh (7-18) c gi l phng trnh Schrodinger cho vi ht chuyn ng t do.
M rng phng trnh cho vi ht khng t do, ngha l vi ht chuyn ng trong mt trng
lc c th nng U khng ph thuc thi gian. Nng lng ca vi ht E = E + U. Thay
E = E - U vo (7-18) ta c:
(r ) +
2m
h2
[E U(r)] (r) = 0
(7-19)
Bit dng c th ca U( r ), gii phng trnh Schrodinger ta tm c (r ) v E,

ngha l xc nh c trng thi v nng lng ca vi ht. Ta gii hn ch xt h l kn hay
t trong trng ngoi khng bin thin theo thi gian. Nng lng ca h khi khng i
v trng thi ca h c gi l trng thi dng. Phng trnh (7-19) c gi l phng
trnh Schrodinger cho trng thi dng.
Cho n nay ta vn xt ht chuyn ng vi vn tc v << c, do phng trnh (7-9)
m t chuyn ng ca vi ht phi tng i tnh, c khi lng ngh khc khng. Phng
trnh Schrodinger m t s vn ng ca vi ht, n c vai tr tng t nh phng trnh ca
cc nh lut Newton trong c hc c in. Mt im cn ch l, phng trnh
Schrodinger khng c chng minh hay rt ra t u. N c xy dng trn c s hm
sng phng n sc ca nh sng v gi thuyt sng-ht de Broglie, do c coi nh mt
tin . Vic m rng phng trnh Schrodiger cho ht t do sang trng hp ht chuyn
ng trong trng th cng c coi l mt s tin ha. Di y l nhng ng dng
phng trnh Schrodinger trong nhng bi ton c th nh ht trong ging th, hiu ng
ng ngm...
123
Chng 7: C hc lng t
5. NG DNG CA PHNG TRNH SCHRODINGER
1. Ht trong ging th nng
Trong nhng bi ton thc t, ta thng
gp nhng trng hp ht ch chuyn ng
trong mt phm vi gii hn bi mt hng ro
th nng c chiu cao kh ln, v d nh
electrn trong mng tinh th hay nucln trong
ht nhn bn, khi ta ni rng ht trong
ging th nng.
Hnh 7-6. Ging th nng
Ta hy xt trng hp ht nm trong
ging th nng c thnh cao v hn v chuyn ng theo mt phng x bn trong ging th

(hnh 7-6). Th nng U c xc nh theo iu kin:
0 khi 0 < x < a

U=
khi x 0 , x a
Nh vy bn trong ging th ht chuyn ng t do v khng th vt ra ngoi ging.
Phng trnh Schrodinger ca ht trong ging th (U = 0) mt chiu (chiu x) c dng:
d 2
dx
t k 2 =
2mE
h2
2mE
h2
=0
(7-20)
, ta c:
d 2
2
+ k 2 = 0
(7-21)
dx
Nghim ca phng trnh (7-21) c dng
( x ) = A sin kx + B cos kx
(7-22)
A, B l nhng hng s c xc nh t iu kin ca hm sng. Theo u bi th ht ch

trong ging th, do xc sut tm ht ti vng ngoi ging th bng khng v hm sng
trong cc vng cng bng 0. T iu kin lin tc ca hm sng ta suy ra:
(0) = 0, (a ) = 0 Thay iu kin ny vo (7-22) ta c
(0) = A sin(0) + B = 0 B = 0
v
(a ) = A sin(ka ) = 0
B = 0 nn A phi khc 0 (v nu A = 0 th lun bng 0 l mt nghim tm thng). Do

ta c:
sin ka = 0 = sin n
vi n = 1,2,...
T rt ra:
124
Chng 7: C hc lng t
k=
n
a
(7-23)
Nh vy ta c mt dy nghim hm sng c dng:
n ( x ) = A sin
n
x
a
(7-24)
tha mn iu kin bin ca min. Hng s A c xc nh t iu kin chun ha (7-11)

ca hm sng. V ht khng th ra khi ging nn xc sut tm thy ht trong ging l chc
chn:
a
2
( x ) dx = 1
Tnh gi tr tch phn:

a
2
2
A sin
n
A2 a
2n
A 2a
xdx =
(
1
cos
x
)
dx
=
=1
a
2 0
a
2
Ta tm c:
A=
2
a
Nh vy hm sng c xc nh hon ton:
n (x) =
2
n
sin x
a
a
(7-25)
Nng lng ca ht trong ging th cng c tm thy khi ta thay biu thc (7-23) vo
2mE
k2 =
:
h2
En =
2h 2
2ma
n2
(7-26)
T cc kt qu trn ta rt ra mt s kt lun sau:

a. Mi trng thi ca ht ng vi mt hm sng n ( x )
b. Nng lng ca ht trong ging ph thuc vo s nguyn n, ngha l bin thin gin
on. Ta ni rng nng lng b lng t ha.
Vi n = 1 ta c mc nng lng cc tiu E1 =
2h 2
2ma 2
0 ng vi hm sng
2
sin x , m t trng thi chuyn ng c bn ca ht. Hm sng 1 ( x ) khc
a
a
khng ti mi im trong ging, ch c th bng 0 ti cc v tr bin (Hnh 7-7).
1 =
125
Chng 7: C hc lng t
Khong cch gia hai mc nng lng k tip nhau ng vi cc s nguyn n v n+1
bng:
E n = E n +1 E n =
2h 2
2ma 2
(2n + 1)
(7-27)
E n cng ln khi a v m cng nh. iu c ngha l trong phm vi th gii vi

m, s lng t ha cng th hin r rt. C th, nu xt ht electrn m = 9,1.10-31kg, a ~
5.10-10m th E ~ 1eV, khong cch gia En+1 v En tng i ln, nng lng b lng t
ha. Nhng nu xt mt phn t c m ~10-26kg chuyn ng trong min a ~ 10cm th
khong cch gia cc mc nng lng E~ 10-20eV kh nh. Trong trng hp ny c th
coi nng lng ca phn t bin thin lin tc.
c. Mt xc sut tm ht trong ging:
n
2 2
n ( x ) = sin 2
x
a
a
ti:
(7-28)
n
Mt xc sut cc i khi: sin
x = 1 . Do xc sut tm thy ht ln nht
a
a
x = (2m + 1)
<a
m = 0,1....
2n
Hnh 7-7. Ht trong ging th nng mt chiu, cao v hn

V d: Khi n = 1, xc sut tm thy ht im x =
tm thy ht im x =
a
l ln nht. Khi n = 2 xc sut
2
a
3a
v x =
l ln nht...
4
4
n
Mt xc sut cc tiu khi: sin
x = 0 . Do xc sut tm thy ht nh nht ti
a
x=
ma
<a
n
126
Chng 7: C hc lng t
Kt qu c biu din trn hnh 7-7.
2. Hiu ng ng ngm
Ta xt ht mang nng lng E, chuyn ng theo phng x t tri sang phi p vo
hng ro th nng nh hnh 7-8. Theo quan im ca c hc c in, nu E < Uo ht khng
th vt qua hng ro. Theo quan im ca c hc lng t ta s thy ht vn c kh nng
xuyn qua hng ro th nng. Hin tng xuyn qua hng ro th nng nh vy c gi l
hiu ng ng ngm.
Chng ta s nghin cu trng hp hng ro th nng dng n gin nh hnh 7-8:
0
U = U o
0
x0
0<x<a
xa
(7-29)
Phng trnh Schrodiger i vi cc min

nh sau:
Min I:
d 2 1
Min II:
Min III:
2mE
+ k12 1= 0 vi k12 =
dx 2
h2
d 2 2
dx
k 22 2 = 0
d 2 3
2
vi k 22 =
2m
h2
Hnh 7-8. Hng ro th hnh ch nht
( U 0 E)
(7-30)
+ k12 3= 0
dx
Trong min I c c sng ti v sng phn x. Nghim 1 trong min ny c dng:
1 ( x ) = A1e ik1x + B1e ik1x
(7-31)
S hng th nht ca v phi biu din sng ti truyn t tri sang phi. S hng th hai ca
v phi biu din sng phn x trn mt hng ro th nng, truyn ngc tr li t phi
sang tri.
Nghim tng qut trong min II l:
2 (x) = A 2e k 2 x + B2e k 2 x
Nghim tng qut trong min III c dng:
(7-32)
3 ( x ) = A 3eik1 ( x a ) + B3e ik1 ( x a )
(7-33)
S hng th nht ca phng trnh (7-33) biu din sng xuyn qua hng ro v truyn t
tri sang phi. S hng th hai biu din sng phn x t v cc v, nhng sng ny khng
c, nn ta c th cho B3 = 0.
127
Chng 7: C hc lng t
H s truyn qua hng ro D c nh ngha l t s gia s ht xuyn qua c
hng ro v s ht i ti hng ro. V s ht li t l vi bnh phng ca bin sng.
Bin sng ti hng ro l A1 v bin sng xuyn qua hng ro l A3, do ta c
D=
A3
A1
(7-34)
H s phn x R c nh ngha l t s gia s ht phn x v s ht i ti hng

ro, do ta c:
R=
B1
A1
(7-35)
trong B1 l bin sng phn x trn mt hng ro. Do iu kin bo ton s ht, ta phi
c A 3
+ B1 = A1 , do :
D+R=1
(7-36)
tnh c h s D v R ta phi tnh c cc bin sng. Mun vy ta da vo

iu kin lin tc ca hm sng v o hm ca n ti cc v tr bin (x = 0 v x = a). T
cc iu kin bin:
1 (0) = 2 (0)
1 (0) = 2 (0)
(7-37)
2 ( a ) = 3 (a )
2 (a ) = 3 (a )
ta rt ra cc h thc sau
A1 + B1 = A 2 + B 2
(7-38)
ik1 (A1 B1 ) = k 2 (A 2 B 2 )
(7-39)
A 2e k 2 a + B 2 e k 2 a = A 3
(7-40)
k 2 (A 2 e k 2 a B 2 e k 2 a ) = ik1A 3
(7-41)
T (7-40) v (7-41) ta c th biu th A2, B2 qua A3:
A2 =
1 in
A 3e k 2 a
2
(7-42)
B2 =
1 + in
A 3e k 2 a
2
(7-43)
Trong :
k
n= 1 =
k2
E
U0 E
128
Chng 7: C hc lng t
V 1 in = 1 + in , nn ta suy ra A 2 >> B 2 . Do , c th t B2=0. T (7-38) v (7-39)
ta rt ra c A1 theo A2, sau s dng (7-42) ta tnh c:
1 in i + n
k a
A1 =
A 3 e 2
2
2
n
(7-44)
T y ta thu c h s truyn qua:
D=
Nu
16n 2
(1 + n )
2 2
A3
A1
16n 2
2 2
(1 + n )
e 2k 2 a
(7-45)
vo c 1 (U0 vo c 10E) th c th vit:
D e 2k 2 a
2a
D exp
2m(U 0 E )
h
hay
(7-46)
T (7-46) ta nhn thy rng, ngay khi nng lng E ca ht nh hn th nng ca ro

(E<U0) th D vn lun lun khc khng, ngha l vn c ht xuyn qua ro. Nu D ln, ht
xuyn qua ro nhiu v ngc li, nhng lun khc 0.
V d ht electrn m = 9,1.10-31kg. Nu U0-E ~ 1,3.10-31J, ta c c s ph thuc
ca D vo b rng ca hng ro th nng theo bng sau:
a[m]
10-10
1,5.10-10
2.10-10
5.10-10
0,1
0,03
0,008
5.10-7
H s D c gi tr ng k khi a nh, ngha l hiu ng ng ngm ch xy ra r rt

trong kch thc vi m. Hiu ng ng ngm l mt hin tng th hin r tnh cht sng
ca vi ht, iu ny khng th c i vi ht v m.
Hiu ng ng ngm cho php ta gii thch nhiu hin tng gp trong t nhin. V
d hin tng pht electrn lnh, hiu ng phn r ht ...
Hin tng pht electrn lnh:
electrn mun thot ra khi kim loi cn
c nng lng thng cng cn, vt
qua hng ro th nng Uo, nh vy ta cn
phi nung nng kim loi. Tuy nhin, v c
hiu ng ng ngm, nn ngay nhit
thng, d E < Uo, vn c kh nng
electrn thot ra ngoi kim loi. Hin
tng ny c gi l hin tng pht
electrn lnh.
Hnh 7-9. Hin tng phn r
Hin tng phn r cng c

129
Chng 7: C hc lng t
gii thch tng t. Ht nhn nguyn t gm c cc ht prtn (p) v ntrn (n). Trong ht
nhn cc ht p v n tng tc vi nhau bng lc ht nhn, cho nn c th xem nh chng
nm trong ging th nng. Ht gm hai ht p v hai ht n, mc d nng lng ca ht
nh hn cao ro th nhng do hiu ng ng ngm, ht p v n ca ht vn c th bay
ra khi ht nhn, hin tng ny gi l hin tng phn r (hnh 7-9).
3. Dao ng t iu ha lng t
Mt vi ht thc hin dao ng nh iu ha xung quanh v tr cn bng l mt v d
v dao ng t iu ha lng t. Dao ng ca nguyn t trong phn t, dao ng ca cc
in xung quanh nt mng tinh th... u l nhng v d v dao ng t iu ha. Dao ng
t iu ha l mt hin tng rt quan trng ca vt l ni chung v c hc lng t ni
ring.
Ta xt vi ht dao ng (mt chiu) trong trng th nng. Trong phn dao ng ta
bit th nng ca dao ng iu ha mt chiu bng:
1
m2 x 2
U = kx 2 =
2
2
(7-47)
trong m l khi lng ca vi ht, l tn s gc ca dao ng. Phng trnh

Schrodinger cho dao ng t iu ha c dng:
d 2
dx 2
2m
m 2 x 2
E
=0
2
h 2
(7-48)
C hc lng t gii phng trnh (7-48) v tm c biu thc nng lng ca

dao ng t iu ha
E n = h n +
2
vi n = 0,1,2...
(7-49)
Ta thy nng lng ca dao ng t ch ly nhng gi tr gin on, c ngha rng nng
lng ca dao ng t b lng t ha. Nng lng thp nht ca dao ng t iu ha
ng vi n = 0.
Eo =
h
2
Nng lng ny c gi l nng lng khng. Nng lng khng lin quan n
dao ng khng ca dao ng t, ngha l khi T = 0K, dao ng t vn dao ng. iu
ny c thc nghim xc nhn trong th nghim tn x tia X. Tia X b tn x l do cc
dao ng nguyn t trong mng tinh th gy ra. Theo c hc c in, khi nhit cng
gim, bin dao ng ca cc nguyn t gim n khng, do s tn x ca nh sng
phi bin mt. Nhng thc nghim chng t, khi nhit gim, cng tn x tin ti
mt gi tr gii hn no . iu c ngha rng, ngay c khi T 0, s tn x nh sng
vn xy ra v cc nguyn t trong mng tinh th vn dao ng, tng ng vi mt nng
lng Eo no . Nh vy thc nghim xc nhn s ng n ca c hc lng t.
130
Chng 7: C hc lng t
S tn ti ca nng lng khng cng ph hp vi h thc bt nh Heisenberg.
Thc vy, nu mc nng lng thp nht ca dao ng t bng 0, nh th c ngha l ht
ng yn v vn tc v ta ca vi ht c xc nh ng thi (u bng 0), iu ny
mu thun vi h thc bt nh. S tn ti ca mc nng lng khng ca dao ng t
iu ha l mt trong nhng biu hin c trng nht ca lng tnh sng-ht ca vi ht.
III. TM TT NI DUNG
1. Lng tnh sng ht ca vi ht
Trn c s lng tnh sng ht ca nh sng, de Broglie m rng ra cho cc vi ht.
Theo gi thuyt ny, mi vi ht t do c nng lng xc nh, ng lng xc nh tng
ng vi sng phng n sc. Lng tnh sng ht ca cc vi ht c biu din bng cc
h thc:
E = h v p = mv = h /.
Ngoi ra, theo thuyt tng i Einstein, mi ht vt cht c khi lng m u mang
nng lng bng
E = mc2
m=
trong
mo
1 v2 / c2
mo l khi lng ngh ca ht (khi v = 0).

2. Hm sng
Hm sng ca vi ht t do c dng ca hm sng phng:
[ (
= o exp Et pr = o exp i t k r
h
)]
trong = h/2 gi l hng s Planck rt gn v k = 2 / c gi l s sng.

Hm sng khng nhng m t nhng tnh cht ca h ti mt thi im no , m
n cn xc nh c ng thi ca h nhng thi im tip theo. Hm sng c ngha
2
thng k. l mt xc sut tm thy ht ti mt im no i vi mt trng thi

lng t ang xt. Nh vy, hm sng khng m t mt sng thc, m m t sng xc
sut. Do hm sng phi tha mn ba iu kin: hm sng phi lin tc, hu hn v n
tr. iu kin chun ha ca hm sng l
dV = 1
3. Nguyn l bt nh Heisenberg
Nguyn l ny thu c t lng tnh sng ht ca vi ht, c biu din qua h thc
di y khi xt v tr x v ng lng p ca vi ht
x.p x h
Nu x cng nh (v tr cng xc nh) th px cng ln (ng lng cng bt nh)
v ngc li. Nh vy i vi vi ht, v tr v ng lng khng c xc nh chnh xc
131
Chng 7: C hc lng t
ng thi. Do , trong th gii vi m khi nim qu o khng c ngha. Nu ta bit
c v tr x thi im t, th n thi im t + dt ta ch c th xc nh v tr ht vi mt
xc sut no thi. i vi cc vi ht khi nim qu o c thay th bng khi nim xc
sut tm thy ht ti mt v tr no trng thi lng t ang xt.
Ngoi h thc gia v tr v ng lng, vi ht cn tun theo h thc bt nh cho
nng lng
E.t h
ngha ca h thc bt nh gia nng lng v thi gian: nu nng lng ca h
mt trng thi no cng bt nh th thi gian h tn ti trng thi cng ngn v
ngc li, nu nng lng ca h mt trng thi no cng xc nh th thi gian tn ti
ca h trng thi cng di.
4. Phng trnh Schrodinger v ng dng
T biu thc ca hm sng, Schrodiger a ra phng trnh c bn ca c hc
lng t mang tn ng cho vi ht.
(r ) +
i vi vi ht t do:
(r ) +
2m
h2
2m
E d (r ) = 0
E U(r ) (r ) = 0
h2
Cn ch rng cc phng trnh Schrodinger thu c trn c s ca gi thuyt de
Broglie, thuyt lng t ca Planck v thuyt phtn ca Einstein, do cng c coi l
cc tin .
i vi vi ht trong trng th
H thc bt nh Heisenberg v phng trnh Schrodinger l nhng nguyn l c bn

ca c hc lng t.
ng dng ca phng trnh Schrodinger:
- Phng trnh Schrodinger c p dng gii mt s bi ton n gin ca c hc
lng t nh tm nng lng v hm sng ca vi ht khi lng m trong ging th nng, c
b rng a v thnh cao v hn. Kt qu ta c nng lng ca vi ht trong ging th b lng
t ha:
En =
2h 2
2ma
n2
Mi gi tr ca nng lng En tng ng vi mt trng thi lng t
n (x) =
2
n
sin
x
a
a
T y ta tm c xc sut tm thy ht ti cc im khc nhau trong ging ng vi

mi trng thi lng t.
- Vn dng phng trnh Schrodinger, ta xt chuyn ng ca vi ht qua hng ro th
Uo. T pht hin hiu ng ng ngm. l hiu ng mt vi ht c nng lng E < Uo
132
Chng 7: C hc lng t
vn c xc sut vt qua c ro th Uo. y l hiu ng thun ty lng t, v trong c
hc c in mt ht c nng lng E < Uo th khng th vt qua c hng ro th nng.
- Mt ng dng na hay gp ca c hc lng t l dao ng t iu ha. l mt
vi ht thc hin cc dao ng nh bc nht quanh v tr cn bng. Chuyn ng nhit ca
mng tinh th cng c biu din di dng tp hp ca cc dao ng t iu ha tuyn
tnh. Thay biu thc th nng U ca dao ng t iu ha vo phng trnh Schrodinger, ta
tm c cc mc nng lng ca dao ng t:
E n = h n +
2
h
. Eo
2
c gi l nng lng khng. Kt qu ny c thc nghim xc nhn. N ni ln
rng cc nguyn t ca mng tinh th khng bao gi ng yn. Suy rng ra, s vn ng
ca vt cht khng bao gi b tiu dit. l c s khoa hc ca trit hc duy vt bin
chng.
Nu n = 0, ta tm c mc nng lng thp nht ca dao ng t
Eo =
IV. CU HI L THUYT
1. Pht biu gi thuyt de Broglie v lng tnh sng ht ca vi ht.
2. Vit biu thc hm sng cho vi ht v nu ngha ca cc i lng c trong biu thc
.
3. Vit phng trnh Schrodinger cho vi ht t do v vi ht chuyn ng trong trng lc
th. Nu ngha cc i lng c trong phng trnh.
4. Hy nu bn cht v ngha thng k ca hm sng. Cc iu kin ca hm sng.
5. Pht biu v nu ngha ca h thc bt nh Heisenberg cho v tr v ng lng.
6. Pht biu v nu ngha ca h thc bt nh cho nng lng.
7. Phn tch ti sao trong c hc lng t khi nim qu o ca vi ht khng cn c
ngha. Khi nim qu o ca vi ht c thay th bng khi nim g ?
8. Hy tm biu thc ca hm sng v nng lng ca vi ht trong ging th nng mt
chiu, c chiu cao v cng.
9. nh ngha dao ng t iu ha lng t. Vit phng trnh Schrodinger v biu thc
nng lng ca dao ng t iu ha. T rt ra biu thc ca nng lng khng, nu
ngha ca biu thc ny.
V. BI TP
Th d 1: Electrn chuyn ng tng i tnh vi vn tc 2.108m/s. Tm:
1. Bc sng de Broglie ca electrn.
2. ng lng ca electrn.
133
Chng 7: C hc lng t
Bi gii
1. p dng c hc tng i tnh:
h
;m =
mv
h 1-
m 0e
1-
v2
v2
c2
= 2,72.10 12 m
m 0e v
c2
2. ng lng ca electrn: p =
h
= 2,44.10 22 kg.m / s
Th d 2: ng nng ca electrn trong nguyn t hir c gi tr vo c 10eV. Dng h

thc bt nh hy nh gi kch thc nh nht ca nguyn t.
Bi gii: Theo h thc bt nh Heisenberg: x.p x h
Gi s kch thc ca nguyn t bng l , vy v tr ca electrn theo phng x xc
l
l
nh bi: 0 x , ngha l x
2
2
T h thc bt nh:
2h
l
p x h l
2
p x
Mt khc p x p m p = 2m e E , trong E l ng nng.

Vy gi tr nh nht ca kch thc nguyn t: l min =
2h
2m e E
= 1,24.10 10 m
Bi tp t gii
1. Electrn phi c vn tc bng bao nhiu ng nng ca n bng nng lng ca
phtn c bc sng = 5200A0.
m e v 2 hc
=
v=
p s:
2
2hc
= 9,2.10 5 m / s
me
2. Tm vn tc ca electrn ng lng ca n bng ng lng ca phtn c bc

sng = 5200A0.
p s: p = m e v =
h
h
v=
= 1400m / s
.m e
3. Tm ng lng ca electrn chuyn ng vi vn tc v = 0,8c

p s: p dng c hc tng i tnh:
134
Chng 7: C hc lng t
p = mv =
m0v
1
= 3,64.10 22 kg.m / s
c2
4. Tm bc sng de Broglie ca:

1. Electrn c tng tc bi hiu in th 1V, 100V, 1000V.
2. Electrn ang chuyn ng tng i tnh vi vn tc 108m/s.
p s:
1. =
m v2
h
6,625.1034
h
1 =
=
= 12,25.1010 m
; eU = e
31
19
2
me v
2me eU1
2.9,1.10 .1,6.10
2 =
2. =
h
2m e eU 2
= 1,225.10 10 m , 3 =
m 0e
h
;m =
=
mv
v2
1c2
h 1-
h
2m e eU 3
= 0,338.10 10 m
v2
c2
= 0,69.10 11 m
m 0e v
5. Xc nh bc sng de Broglie ca electrn c ng nng
1. E = 100eV.
2. E= 3MeV
p s:
1. Nng lng ngh ca electrn E0 = 0,51MeV
Khi E = 100eV nh hn rt nhiu so vi nng lng ngh ca electrn, do p dng c
hc phi tng i tnh:
me v2
=
E =
2
6,625.10 34
2.1,6.10 17.9,1.10 31
= 1,23.10 10 m
2. Khi E = 3MeV ln hn nng lng ngh ca electrn, do p dng c hc tng i

tnh:
p=
m0v
1
v2
c2
, E = m 0 c 2
1
1 2
1 2
m0v
E
h
= = 0,62.10 10 m
p = 2 m 0 E 1 +
2
2m c
p
0
135
Chng 7: C hc lng t
6. Electrn c bc sng de Broglie = 6.10-10m. Tm vn tc chuyn ng ca electrn.
p s: =
h
h
v=
= 0,12.10 7 m / s
mev
me
7. Electrn khng vn tc ban u c gia tc bi mt hiu in th U. Tnh U bit rng

sau khi gia tc ht chuyn ng ng vi bc sng de Broglie 10-10m.
me v2
h
h2
; eU =
U=
= 150V
p s: =
mev
2
2m e e2
8. Mt ht mang in c gia tc bi hiu in th U = 200V, c bc sng de Broglie
= 0,0202.10-8m v in tch v tr s bng in tch ca electrn. Tm khi lng ca ht
.
mv 2
h2
h
, E =
= eU m =
= 1,67.10 27 kg
2
2
2mE
2eU
p s: =
9. Electrn c ng nng E = 15eV, chuyn ng trong mt git kim loi kch thc
d = 10-6m. Xc nh bt nh v vn tc ca ht .
p s: v =
h
2h
2h
v
=
=
=
m.x m.d
v
m.v.d
2h
2m.d.E
= 0,06%
10. Ht vi m c bt nh v ng lng bng 1% ng lng ca n. Xc nh t s

gia bc sng de Broglie v bt nh v to ca ht.
p s:
h 100h
x
p
h
= 100
= 1%, x =
=
, =
p
p
p
p
11. Vit phng trnh Schrodinger i vi ht vi m:
kx 2
1. Chuyn ng mt chiu trong trng th U =
2
Ze 2
2. Chuyn ng trong trng tnh in Coulomb U =
4 0 r
2m
kx 2
2m
Ze 2
E
E+
p s: 1.
= 0 , 2. +
=0
+
2
4 0 r
dx 2 h 2
h 2
d 2
12. Dng ht c nng lng E xc nh chuyn ng theo phng x t tri sang phi n
gp mt hng ro th nng xc nh bi:
0 khi x 0
U=
U 0 khi x 0, U 0 E
Xc nh h s phn x v h s truyn qua hng ro th i vi electrn .
136
Chng 7: C hc lng t
p s:
Gii phng trnh Schrodinger hai min
I v II. Trong min I hm sng 1 (x ) tho
d 2 1
mn:
t
dx
2m e
2m e
h2
E1 = 0
E = k 2 , nghim ca phng
trnh: 1 (x ) = Aeikx + Be ikx

S hng Aeikx m t sng truyn t tri sang phi (sng ti), s hng Be-ikx m t sng
truyn t phi sang tri (sng phn x trong min I).
Trong min II, hm sng 2 (x ) tho mn:
t
2m e
(E U 0 ) = k12 ,
d 2 2
dx
2m e
h2
(E U 0 ) 2
=0
phng trnh c nghim tng qut: 2 = Ce ik1x + De ik1x .
Trong min II ch c sng truyn t tri sang phi nn D = 0. Vy 2 = Ce ik1x .

tm A, B, C ta vit iu kin lin tc ca hm sng v ca o hm cp 1 ca hm sng:
d1 (0 ) d 2 (0 )
1 (0) = 2 (0),
=
dx
dx
Ta c: A + B = C, k (A B) = k1C
k k1
=
H s phn x: R =
2
k + k1
A
B
A+B k
B k k1
=
=
,
A B k1 A k + k1
1 1
k
=
k1
1+
k
2
U
1 1 0
E
=
U
1 + 1 0
k k1
4kk1
=
H s truyn qua: D = 1 R = 1
(k + k1 )2
k + k1
137
Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t
CHNG VIII: VT L NGUYN T

Nm 1911 da trn kt qu th nghim v s tn x ca cc ht qua l kim loi
mng, Rutherford a ra mu hnh tinh nguyn t. Theo mu ny, nguyn t gm mt
ht nhn mang gn nh ton b khi lng nguyn t nm tm, xoay quanh c cc
electrn chuyn ng. Ht nhn tch in dng, in tch m ca cc electrn c gi tr
bng gi tr in tch dng ca ht nhn. Nhng theo thuyt in t c in, khi electrn
chuyn ng c gia tc xung quanh ht nhn tt yu s phi bc x nng lng v cui cng
s ri vo ht nhn. Nh vy nguyn t s khng tn ti. l mt kh khn m mu
nguyn t ca Rutherford gp phi. Thm vo , khi nghin cu quang ph pht sng ca
nguyn t Hir, ngi ta thu c quang ph vch. Cc s kin vt l c in khng th
gii thch c.
Da trn nhng thnh cng ca l thuyt lng t ca Planck v Einstein, nm 1913
Bohr ra mt l thuyt mi v cu trc nguyn t, khc phc nhng mu thun ca mu
hnh tinh nguyn t ca Rutherford. Tuy nhin, bn cnh nhng thnh cng r rt, thuyt
Bohr cng bc l nhng thiu st v hn ch khng sao khc phc ni. Thuyt Bohr c
vn dng thnh cng gii thch qui lut ca quang ph nguyn t Hir, nhng nhiu c
trng quan trng khc ca ph v i vi nhng nguyn t c nhiu electrn th l thuyt
ca Bohr khng th gii quyt c. chnh l tin cho s ra i ca c hc lng t,
nn tng ca mt l thuyt hon ton mi c kh nng gii quyt ng n v chnh xc mi
hin tng v quy lut ca th gii vi m v Bohr tr thnh mt trong nhng ngi
t nn mng cho mn c hc mi khi ng bc nhp cu gia hai th gii vt l: th gii
v m v th gii vi m.
Trong chng ny chng ta s vn dng nhng kt qu ca c hc lng t nghin
cu ph v c tnh ca cc nguyn t.
I. MC CH - YU CU
1. Vn dng c hc lng t nghin cu nhng tnh cht ca nguyn t hir v cc
nguyn t kim loi kim. T rt ra nhng kt lun c bn.
2. Gii thch c hiu ng Zeeman.
3. Hiu c khi nim spin ca electrn v vai tr ca n trong vic tch vch quang ph.
4. Gii thch c qui lut phn b cc electrn trong bng tun hon Mendeleev.
138
II. NI DUNG
1. NGUYN T HIR
1. Chuyn ng ca electrn trong nguyn t hir
Nguyn t Hir gm c ht nhn mang
in tch +e v mt electrn mang in tch -e. Ht
nhn c coi l ng yn, cn electrn quay
xung quanh. Ta ly ht nhn lm gc O ca h to
v r l khong cch t electrn n ht nhn
(hnh 8-1). Tng tc gia ht nhn v electrn l
tng tc Coulomb (Culng). Th nng tng tc
l:
U=
e2
4 o r
Hnh 8-1
Do phng trnh Schrodinger c dng:
2m e
e 2
E+
=0
4 o r
h 2
(8-1)
V bi ton c tnh i xng cu, thun tin ta gii n trong h to cu vi ba bin l r,

, . Hm sng trong h ta cu s l = (r, , ) . Bin i t h to cc sang
h to cu (hnh 8-1) ta c: x = r sin cos , y = r sin sin , z = r cos .
Ton t Laplace trong h to cu:

1
1
1 2
2
+
sin
r
+
r 2 sin 2 2
r 2 r r r 2 sin
(8-2)
Thay (8-2) vo (8-1) ta c phng trnh Schrodinger trong to cu:

1 2
1

1
2 2m e
+
r
+
sin
+
r r 2 sin
r 2 sin 2 2
h2
r 2 r
E + e
= 0
4 o r
(8-3)
Phng trnh ny c gii bng phng php phn li bin s. Ta t :
(r, , ) = R (r )Y(, )
trong hm xuyn tm R(r) ch ph thuc ln ca r, cn hm Y(,) ph thuc vo cc
gc ,. Gii phng trnh Schrodinger ngi ta nhn c biu thc ca nng lng v
hm sng.
Biu thc nng lng ca electrn trong nguyn t Hir:
139
En =
1
2
mee4
2 2
n 2(4 o ) h
Rh
(8-4)
n2
R l hng s Rydberg (Rittbe), R = 3,27.1015 s-1, c thc nghim kim chng, n c gi

tr nguyn dng, c gi l s lng t chnh.
Hm xuyn tm R(r) = Rn l ph thuc hai s lng t n, l . S nguyn l c gi l
s lng t qu o. Hm Y(,) ph thuc vo hai s lng t l v m. S nguyn m c
gi l s lng t t. Nh vy hm sng ca electrn c dng :
= n , l, m (r,,) = Rn l (r)Y l m(,)

trong
(8-5)
s lng t chnh n ly cc gi tr n = 1, 2, 3...

s lng t qu o ly cc gi tr l = 0, 1, 2,..., n-1
s lng t t m ly cc gi tr
m = 0, 1, 2,..., l .
Dng ca Rn l v Y l m rt phc tp. Di y, ta nu mt s dng c th ca cc hm
Y0,0 =
Y1,1 =
1
4
Y1,0 =
3
sin e i
8
R1,0 = 2a 3 / 2 e r / a
trong
a=
4 o h 2
mee
3
cos
4
Y1,1 =
3
sin e i
8
1
r
R 2,0 = a 3 / 2 (2 )e r / 2a ....
8
a
= 0,53.10 10 m , a bng bn knh Bohr.
T cc kt qu trn ta thu c mt s kt lun sau y.

2. Cc kt lun
a. Nng lng ca electrn trong nguyn t hir ch ph thuc vo s nguyn n (cng
thc 8-4). ng vi mi s nguyn n c mt mc nng lng, nh vy nng lng bin thin
gin on, ta ni nng lng b lng t ho. En lun m, khi n E 0 . Nng lng
tng theo n.
Mc nng lng thp nht E1 ng vi n = 1 c gi l mc nng lng c bn. Cc
mc nng lng ln lt tng theo th t E2 < E3 < E4 ... S cc mc nng lng trong
nguyn t hir c biu din trong hnh 8-2. Cng ln cao, cc mc nng lng cng
xch li v khi n nng lng bin thin lin tc. Trong vt l nguyn t ngi ta k hiu
E1: mc K, E2 : mc L, E3 : mc M...
b. Nng lng ion ho ca nguyn t Hir
l nng lng cn thit electrn bt ra khi nguyn t, c ngha l electrn s
chuyn t mc nng lng c bn E1 sang mc nng lng E:
140
E = E E1 = 0 ( Rh ) = 13,5eV
Gi tr ny cng ph hp vi thc nghim.
c. Gii thch cu to vch ca quang ph
Hir
Khi khng c kch thch bn ngoi electrn
bao gi cng trng thi c bn (ng vi
mc E1). Di tc dng ca kch thch,
electrn nhn nng lng chuyn ln trng
thi kch thch ng vi mc nng lng En
cao hn. Electrn ch trng thi ny trong
thi gian rt ngn (~10-8s), sau tr v
mc nng lng En thp hn. Trong qu
trnh chuyn mc t En En electrn bc x
nng lng di dng sng in t, ngha l
pht ra phtn nng lng h . Theo nh
lut bo ton nng lng:
hay
Hnh 8-2: S ph hir: a. Dy Lyman,

b. Dy Balmer, c. Dy Paschen
Rh Rh
h nn ' = E n E n ' =
+
n 2 n '2
(8-6)
1
1
nn ' = R
n '2 n 2
(8-7)
y chnh l tn s ca vch quang ph c pht ra.

Khi n=1 ta c:
1
1
n1 = R
2
n2
1
n = 2,3,4...
Cc vch quang ph tun theo cng thc ny hp thnh mt dy c bc sng trong vng
t ngoi, gi l dy Lyman.
Khi n= 2, n = 3,4,5... ta c cc vch nm trong dy Balmer, c bc sng trong vng nhn
thy:
1
1
n 2 = R
2
n2
2
Khi n= 3, n = 4,5,6... ta c cc vch nm trong dy Paschen, c bc sng trong vng hng
ngoi:
1
1
n 3 = R
32 n 2
Tip n l dy Bracket, Pfund trong vng hng ngoi. S cc dy c cho trn
hnh 8-2.
141
d. Trng thi lng t ca electrn
Trng thi ca electrn c m t bi hm sng:
nlm (r, , ) = R nl (r )Ylm (, )

trong
(8-8)
n: s lng t chnh, n = 1, 2...
l : s lng t qu o, l = 0, 1, 2...(n-1).
m: s lng t t, m = 0, 1,2,...,l .
Hm sng ph thuc vo cc s lng t n, l , m. Do , nu t nht mt trong ba ch
s n, l , m khc nhau ta c mt trng thi lng t khc. Ta thy ng vi mi gi tr ca
n, l c n gi tr khc nhau v ng vi mi gi tr ca l ta c 2 l +1 gi tr khc nhau ca m,
do vi mi gi tr ca n ta c s trng thi lng t bng:
n 1
(2l + 1) =
l=0
[1 + (2n 1)] n = n 2
(8-9)
Nh vy ng vi mt s lng t n, tc l vi mi mc nng lng En,, ta c n2 trng

thi lng t nlm khc nhau.
V d:
n
S trng thi
100
200
-1
211
210
211
Nng lng E1 (mc nng lng thp nht) c mt trng thi lng t. Trng thi
lng t mc E1 c gi l trng thi c bn. En c n2 trng thi lng t, ta ni En suy
bin bc n2. Cc trng thi lng t cc mc nng lng ln hn E1 c gi l trng thi
kch thch.
Trng thi lng t c k hiu theo cc s lng t, c th bng nx, n l s lng
t chnh, cn x ty thuc vo s lng t qu o l nh sau:
V d: trng thi 2s l trng thi c n = 2 v l = 0.

e. Xc sut tm electrn trong th tch dV mt trng thi no
V nlm
ta cu l:
l mt xc sut, nn xc sut tn ti ca electrn trong th tch dV
142
2
nlm dV = R nl Ylm r 2 dr sin d d
(8-10)
trong phn R n2l r 2 dr ch ph thuc khong cch r, biu din xc sut tm electrn ti
mt im cch ht nhn mt khong r, cn Ylm
sin dd biu din xc sut tm
electrn theo cc gc (,).

Ta xt trng thi c bn (n = 1). Khi n = 1, l = 0, hm xuyn tm trng thi c
bn l R1,0. Xc sut cn tm w1,0 bng
w1,0 = R12,0 r 2 = 4a 3e 2r / a r 2
Hnh 8-3 biu din s ph thuc ca w1,0 theo r. tm bn knh r ng vi xc sut
cc i ta ly o hm ca w1,0 theo r, ri cho o hm bng 0. Kt qu ta tm c w1,0 c
cc tr ti r=0 v r = a. Gi tr r = 0 b loi, v ht electrn khng th ri vo ht nhn. Vy
xc sut cc i ng vi bn knh r = a = 0,53.10-10 m. Khong cch ny ng bng bn
knh ca nguyn t hir theo quan nim c in. T kt qu trn ta i n kt lun:
electrn trong nguyn t khng chuyn ng theo mt qu o nht nh m bao quanh ht
nhn nh m my, m my ny dy c nht khong cch ng vi xc sut cc i.
Kt qu ny ph hp vi lng tnh sng ht ca vi ht.
Electrn cng phn b theo gc. trng thi s ( l =0, m = 0) xc sut tm thy
electrn:
w lm = w 00 = Y0,0
1
4
khng ph thuc gc, nh vy phn b c tnh i xng cu. Hnh 8-4 biu din phn b
xc sut ph thuc gc ng vi cc trng thi s, p.
Hnh 8-3: S ph thuc r ca xc sut

tm ht trng thi c bn
Hnh 8-4: Phn b electrn theo gc i vi

trng thi s ( l =0) v p ( l =1)
143
2. NGUYN T KIM LOI KIM
1. Nng lng ca electrn ha tr trong nguyn t kim loi kim
Cc nguyn t kim loi kim (Li, Na, K,...) ha tr mt. Trong mu v nguyn t, lp
ngoi cng ca cc nguyn t ny ch c mt electrn ha tr, lin kt yu vi ht nhn. Nu
kim loi kim c Z electrn th (Z-1) electrn cc lp trong v ht nhn to thnh li
nguyn t c in tch +e, cn electrn ha tr in tch -e chuyn ng trong trng
Coulomb gy bi li nguyn t, ging nh chuyn ng ca electrn trong nguyn t hir.
Do cc tnh cht ha hc ca kim loi kim v c bn ging tnh cht ca nguyn t
hir. Cc nguyn t kim loi kim l nhng nguyn t ng dng hir, tuy nhin khng
ging hon ton. Trong nguyn t kim loi kim, ngoi nng lng tng tc gia ht nhn
v electrn ha tr, cn c nng lng ph gy ra bi tng tc gia electrn ha tr vi cc
electrn khc. Do nng lng ca electrn ha tr trong nguyn t kim loi kim c khc
cht t so vi nng lng ca electrn trong nguyn t hir.
Hnh 8-5. Mu v nguyn t ca cc kim loi kim

Khi tnh thm tng tc ny, c hc lng t a ra biu thc nng lng ca
electrn ha tr i vi kim loi kim:
E nl =
mee4
(8-11)
(n + l ) 2 2(4 o ) 2 h 2
trong l l s hiu chnh ph thuc vo s lng t qu o l . S hiu chnh ny c

gi tr khc nhau ng vi cc trng thi khc nhau. Bng 1 s cho cc gi tr ca s hiu
chnh cho mt s nguyn t kim loi kim cc trng thi khc nhau.
Bng 1
Z
Nguyn t
kim loi kim
Li
-0,412
-0,041
-0,002
-0,000
11
Na
-1,373
-0,883
-0.010
-0,001
19
-2,230
-1,776
-0,146
-0,007
37
Rb
-3,195
-2,711
-1,233
-0,012
55
Cs
-4,131
-3,649
-2,448
-0,022
144
Nh vy, nng lng ca electrn ha tr ca kim loi kim ph thuc vo s lng
t chnh n v s lng t qu o l . S ph thuc ca mc nng lng vo l l s khc
bit gia nguyn t kim loi kim v nguyn t hir. Trong Vt l nguyn t mc nng
lng c k hiu bng nX, n l s lng t chnh, cn X ty thuc vo s lng t l nh
l = 0
sau:
1
2
3
X=
V d: mc 2D l mc nng lng ng vi n = 2, l = 2. Bng 2 a ra cc mc nng lng

cho cc lp K, L, M.
Bng 2
n
Trng thi
Mc nng lng
Lp
1s
1S
2s
2S
2p
2P
3s
3S
3p
3P
3d
3D
2. Quang ph ca nguyn t kim loi kim

Tng t nh nguyn t hir,
khi c kch thch bn ngoi, electrn
ha tr chuyn t trng thi ng vi
mc nng lng thp ln trng thi ng
vi mc nng lng cao hn. Nhng
electrn trng thi kch thch ny
khng lu (10-8s), n li chuyn v
trng thi ng vi mc nng lng thp
hn v pht ra phtn c nng lng
h. Vic chuyn mc nng lng phi
tun theo qui tc la chn:
l = 1
(8-12)
V d, nguyn t Li gm 3
electrn: 2 electrn gn ht nhn
chim mc nng lng 1S, cn electrn
ha tr khi cha b kch thch chim
mc nng lng 2S (n = 2, l = 0).
l mc thp nht ca n.
Hnh 8-6. S quang ph ca Li
145
a. Dy chnh
b. Dy ph II
c. Dy ph I
d. Dy c bn
Theo qui tc la chn, electrn ho tr mc cao chuyn v mc:
-
2S ( l = 0), th mc cao hn ch c th l mc nP ( l = 1, n = 2,3,4...)

2P ( l = 1), th mc cao hn ch c th l mc nS ( l = 0, n = 3,4...) hay mc nD
( l =2, n = 3,4...)
Tn s ca bc x in t pht ra tun theo cng thc:

h = 2S nP
cc vch ny to thnh dy chnh
h = 2P nS
cc vch ny to thnh dy ph II
h = 2P nD
cc vch ny to thnh dy ph I
h = 3D nF
cc vch ny to thnh dy c bn
Cc kt qu ny c tm thy t trc bng thc nghim. T l thuyt ngi ta

cn tm thy dy h = 3D nP v sau c thc nghim xc nhn. S cc vch quang
ph ca Li c biu din trn hnh 8-6.
3. MMEN NG LNG V MMEN T CA ELECTRN
1. Mmen ng lng qu o
Tng t nh trong c hc c in, electrn chuyn ng quanh ht nhn nn c
mmen ng lng L . Nhng v electrn quay quanh ht nhn khng theo qu o xc
nh, do mi trng thi vect L khng c hng xc nh. Tuy nhin, vect mmen
ng lng li c gi tr xc nh. C hc lng t chng minh rng gi tr ca n bng
L = l(l + 1) h
(8-13)
trong l c gi l s lng t qu o ( l = 0,1,2,...,n-1). Nh vy s lng t qu o

lin quan n mmen ng lng qu o.
r
3 kh nng nh hng ca L
r
5 kh nng nh hng ca L
Hnh 8-7. S lng t ho khng gian ca L .
146
C hc lng t cn chng minh rng hnh chiu ca mmen ng lng qu o L
ln mt phng z bt k lun c xc nh theo h thc:
L z = mh
(8-14)
trong m l s nguyn gi l s lng t t, c cc tr s m = 0,1,2,3,...,l , ngha l

vi mi tr s cho trc ca l c 2 l + 1 tr s ca m.
V d: Khi l = 1, m = 0, 1 th L = 2h v L c 3 s nh hng sao cho hnh chiu ca
0
1
1
n trn z (k hiu Lm
z ) c cc gi tr: L z = 0 , L z = h , L z = h (hnh 8-7).
Khi l = 2, m = 0, 1, 2 th L =
6 h v L c 5 s nh hng sao cho hnh chiu
ca n trn z c cc gi tr: L0z = 0 , L1z = h , Lz1 = h , L2z = 2h , Lz2 = 2h (hnh 8-7).

2. Mmen t
Electrn quay quanh ht nhn to thnh mt dng
in i, c chiu ngc vi chiu chuyn ng ca
electrn. Dng in ny c mmen t = iS , trong S
l vect din tch. Theo c hc c in, electrn chuyn
ng trn ng trn bn knh r vi tn s f, ta c cng
dng in i = ef v ln ca mmen t s bng
= iS = efr 2
Hnh 8-8.
Mmen ng lng qu o:
L = mevr = mer2 = me2fr2.
Do ta thy mmen t t l vi mmen ng lng qu o. Electrn mang in tch

m, s dng qui tc bn tay phi ta thy vect mmen ng lng qu o v vect mmen
t cng phng vung gc vi mt phng qu o nhng ngc chiu nhau, do :
e
L
2m e
(8-15)
Tnh ton theo c hc lng t ta cng nhn c biu thc (8-15). V L khng c
hng xc nh, do cng khng c hng xc nh. Hnh chiu ca mmen t ln
phng z bt k bng:
z =
e
Lz
2m e
(8-16)
Thay (8-14) vo (8-16) ta c:
z = m
eh
= m B
2m e
147
(8-17)
vi B =
eh
= 10 23 Am 2 gi l manhtn Bohr.
2m e
Nh vy: Hnh chiu mmen t ca electrn quay quanh ht nhn ln mt phng z

bt k bao gi cng bng s nguyn ln manhtn Bohr, ngha l b lng t ha. Thng
ngi ta chn phng z bt k l phng ca t trng ngoi B , do s nguyn m c
gi l s lng t t.
C hc lng t cng chng minh c rng khi electrn chuyn trng thi th s
bin i ca m phi tun theo qui tc la chn:
m = 0, 1
(8-18)
Hin tng lng t ha mmen t c xc nhn trong th nghim v hin tng

Zeeman m chng ta s xt di y.
3. Hin tng Zeeman
Th nghim: t ngun kh hir pht sng vo gia hai cc ca nam chm in
(hnh 8-9). Nu quan st cc bc x pht ra theo phng vung gc vi vect t trng B
th thy mi vch quang ph ca nguyn t hir b tch thnh ba vch st nhau. Hin tng
tch vch quang ph khi nguyn t pht sng t trong t trng c gi l hin tng
Zeeman.
Hin tng Zeeman c gii thch nh sau: V
electrn c mmen t nn khi nguyn t hir c
t trong t trng B , mmen t c khuynh hng sp
xp theo phng song song vi B do electrn c thm
nng lng ph:
E = B
(8-19)
Chn phng z l phng ca t trng B , ta c
E = z B = m B B
Nh vy khi nguyn t hir t trong t trng,
nng lng E ca electrn cn ph thuc vo s lng t
t m:
Hnh 8-9. Hiu ng Zeeman
E ' = E + m B B
(8-20)
trong E l nng lng ca electrn khi nguyn t hir khng t trong t trng. Nu
electrn dch chuyn t trng thi ng vi nng lng E '2 sang trng thi ng vi nng
lng E1' thp hn th n s pht ra bc x in t. Tn s vch quang ph bng:
' =
E '2 E1' E 2 E1 (m 2 m1 ) B B
=
+
h
h
h
148
(8-21)
E 2 E1
= l tn s ca vch quang ph hir khi nguyn t hir
h
khng t trong t trng, do :
S hng th nht
' = +
(m 2 m1 ) B B
h
(8-22)
Theo qui tc la chn i vi s lng t m: m = 0, 1 , ta thy tn s ' c th c

ba gi tr:
BB
' =
BB
+
h
(8-23)
Ngha l mt vch quang ph (khi khng c t trng) c tch thnh ba vch quang ph
(khi c t trng), trong vch gia trng vi vch c.
4. SPIN CA ELECTRN
1. S tn ti spin ca electrn
L thuyt c hc lng t gii quyt kh trn vn bi ton cu trc nguyn t hir
nh trnh by trn. Trng thi lng t ca electrn c m t bi ba s lng t n,
l , m. Tuy nhin c nhiu s kin thc nghim khc chng t vic m t trng thi lng t
nh trn l cha . y chng ta xt hai hin tng: s tch vch quang ph ca kim
loi kim v th nghim Einstein de Haas.
a. S tch vch quang ph kim loi kim:
Nh c nhng my quang ph c nng sut phn gii cao, ngi ta pht hin thy cc
vch quang ph khng phi l vch n m l vch gm rt nhiu vch nh nt hp thnh.
V d vch vng ca nguyn t Na c cu to bi hai vch st nhau c bc sng 5890
v 5896 . Vch nh vy c gi l vch kp i. Theo hiu ng Zeeman, s tch mt
vch thnh ba vch ch xy ra khi c t trng ngoi, cn vch kp i trong quang ph
kim loi kim quan st thy ngay c khi khng c t trng ngoi. S tch vch nh vy
chng t rng mc nng lng ca nguyn t kim loi kim khng ch ph thuc vo hai s
lng t n v l , m cn ph thuc vo mt i lng no na lm thay i cht t
nng lng ca mc. i lng ny c ln rt nh. C th on nhn rng electrn phi
c thm mt bc t do na nh hng n qu trnh bc x. Nu k hiu s lng t tng
ng vi bc t do ny l s, gi l spin, th mc nng lng s phi ph thuc vo ba s
lng t n, l , s.
b. Th nghim Einstein v de Haas
Einstein v de Haas lm th nghim sau. Treo mt thanh st t vo mt si dy
thch anh. Thanh st s c t ha nh dng in chy qua cun dy bao quanh thanh
149
(hnh 8-10). Khi cha c dng in chy trong cun dy, cc vect mmen t ca cc
nguyn t st t c nh hng mt cch ngu nhin, do tc dng t ca chng b
trit tiu tt c mi im bn ngoi thanh st. Khi c dng in chy qua cun dy, cc
vect mmen t nguyn t s sp xp thng hng theo hng ca t trng ngoi lm cho
cc mmen ng lng nguyn t cng xp thng hng nhng theo hng ngc li. V
thanh st c c lp vi bn ngoi (h kn) nn mmen ng lng c bo ton v c
thanh st phi quay i.
Nu dng in thay i, mmen t cng thay i,
do mmen ng lng L cng thay i. Dy treo s b
xon li. o gc xon ny ta c th xc nh c L v
kim nghim t s / L. i vi electrn t s ny phi m
v in tch ca electrn l e. iu c thc
nghim xc nhn, s t ha ca st t gy bi chuyn
ng ca electrn. Nhng th nghim li cho kt qu ca t
s / L khng bng e/2me nh cng thc (8-15) m bng
e/ me. Nu tha nhn s t ha cht st t khng phi do
chuyn ng qu o ca electrn m do spin electrn th
ngi ta nhn c t s / L phi bng e/me, ph hp
Hnh 8-10
vi kt qu thc nghim.
T cc kt qu thc nghim trn, ngi ta i n kt lun l ngoi chuyn ng quanh
ht nhn, electrn cn tham gia chuyn ng ring lin quan ti s vn ng ni ti ca
electrn, chuyn ng ny c c trng bi mmen c ring, gi l spin, k hiu S . C
hc lng t chng minh rng, tng t nh mmen ng lng qu o L , mmen c
ring S cng ly nhng gi tr gin on:
S = s(s + 1) h
trong s =
(8-24)
1
3
, gi l s lng t spin, do S =
h.
2
2
Ta thy cng thc (8-24) c dng ging

cng thc (8-13). Ch khc l spin c mt gi tr
duy nht, trong khi mmen ng lng qu o c
th nhn nhiu gi tr khc nhau. V s lng t
spin bng 1/2 nn thng gi tt spin ca electrn
bng 1/2 hoc electrn c spin bn nguyn. Hnh
chiu ca mmen spin S theo phng z bt k
bng :
Sz = m s h =
h
2
Hnh 8-11. S lng t ha

khng gian ca spin
(8-25)
150
trong ms gi l s lng t t ring (hay s lng t hnh chiu spin), n ch c hai gi
tr 1/2. Hnh 8-11 trnh by hai s nh hng ca mmen spin. Ch rng spin l mt
khi nim thun ty lng t, trong trng hp c in n hon ton khng c.
ng vi mmen ng lng qu o L , electrn c mmen t qu o . Tng t,
ng vi mmen c ring spin S , electrn c mmen t ring s . Theo th nghim Einsteinde Haas:
s =
e
S
me
v hnh chiu ca mmen t ring trn trc z :
sz =
e
eh
= m B
Sz = m
me
2m e
(8-26)
2. Trng thi v nng lng ca electrn trong nguyn t

Do c mmen spin nn mmen ng lng ton phn J ca electrn bng:
J = L+S
(8-27)
C hc lng t chng minh c gi tr ca J bng:
J=
j( j + 1)h
(8-28)
trong j l s lng t ton phn c xc nh bi:
j= l
1
2
(8-29)
Do c xt n spin nn trng thi lng t ca electrn ph thuc vo bn s lng

t: n, l , m, ms hay n, l , m, j. Hai trng thi lng t c coi l khc nhau, nu t nht mt
trong bn s lng t n, l , m, ms khc nhau. Trn y ta tnh c: ng vi mi s
lng t chnh c n2 trng thi lng t khc nhau. Nu k n spin th do ms c 2 gi tr :
1/2 nn ng vi s lng t chnh n , c 2n2 trng thi lng t khc nhau:
n 1
2 (2l + 1) = 2n 2
l=0
(8-30)
S c mt mmen t spin ca electrn cho php gii thch vch kp i trong quang
ph ca kim loi kim. Cc electrn chuyn ng quanh ht nhn to ra mt t trng c
trng bi mmen t qu o ca cc electrn. Mmen t spin ca electrn tng tc vi t
trng , tng tc ny c gi l tng tc spin-qu o. Do tng tc ny, s c mt
nng lng ph b sung vo biu thc nng lng ca electrn. Nng lng ph ny ph
thuc vo s nh hng ca mmen spin v nh vy nng lng cn ph thuc vo s
lng t ton phn j. Ni cch khc, nng lng ton phn ca electrn ph thuc vo ba s
lng t n, l , v j: En l j. T (8-29) ta nhn thy mi mc nng lng xc nh tch thnh
hai mc j = l -1/2 v j = l +1/2, tr mc S, ch c mt mc, v khi l bng 0. Khong
151
cch gia hai mc nng lng ny rt nh. Cu trc nh vy gi l cu trc t vi ca cc
mc nng lng.
Trong vt l nguyn t, trng thi ca electrn c k hiu bng nxj, mc nng lng
ca electrn k hiu bng n 2 X j , trong n l s lng t chnh, X = S, P, D, F... ty thuc
l = 0, 1, 2, 3,... Ch s 2 pha trn bn tri ch X ch cu to bi kp ca mc nng lng.

Bng 3 nu cc trng thi lng t v mc nng lng kh d ca electrn ha tr trong
nguyn t hir v kim loi kim.
Bng 3
n
Trng thi ca electrn ha tr
Mc nng lng
1/2
1s1/2
1 2S1/2
1/2
2s1/2
2 2S1/2
1/2
2p1/2
2 2P1/2
3/2
2p3/2
2 2P3/2
1/2
3s1/2
3 2S1/2
1/2
3p1/2
3 2P1/2
3/2
3p3/2
3 2P3/2
3/2
3d3/2
3 2D3/2
5/2
3d5/2
3 2D5/2
3. Cu to bi ca vch quang ph
Trn c s cu trc t vi ca mc
nng lng ta c th gii thch c cu
to bi ca vch quang ph.
Do nng lng ca electrn trong
nguyn t ph thuc vo ba s lng t
n, l , j, nn khi electrn chuyn t mc
nng lng cao sang mc nng lng
thp hn, ngoi qui tc la chn i vi
l , electrn cn phi tun theo qui tc
la chn i vi j:
Hnh 8-12.
a. Vch quang ph khi cha xt n spin
b. Vch kp khi c xt n spin.
j = 0, 1
(8-31)
C th, ta xt s tch vch ca quang ph kim loi kim. Khi cha xt n spin, vch
n c tn s ng vi chuyn mc:
h = 2S 3P
Khi xt n spin, ta c vch kp:
h1 = 2 2S1/2 3 2P1/2
( l = 1, j = 0)
152
h2 = 2 2S1/2 3 2P3/2
( l = 1, j = 1)
5. BNG H THNG TUN HON MENDELEEV

Nm 1869, Mendeleev xy dng nn h thng tun hon ca cc nguyn t ha
hc v thit lp nn bng tun hon trc khi c hc lng t ra i. H thng tun hon
ny cho php rt ra cc tnh cht vt l v ha hc c bn ca cc nguyn t, ng thi cng
gip Mendeleev tin on ra nhiu nguyn t m v sau thc nghim mi pht hin c.
Da trn c s ca c hc lng t, chng ta c th gii thch qui lut phn b cc
electrn trong bng h thng tun hon.
S phn b cc electrn trong bng tun hon da trn hai nguyn l: nguyn l cc
tiu nng lng v nguyn l loi tr Pauli.
Nguyn l cc tiu nng lng: Mi h vt l u c xu hng chim trng thi c nng
lng cc tiu. Trng thi l trng thi bn.
Nguyn l loi tr Pauli: Mi trng thi lng t xc nh bi 4 s lng t n, l , m, ms
ch c ti a mt electrn.
Cu hnh electrn l s phn b cc electrn trong nguyn t theo cc trng thi vi cc s
lng t n, l khc nhau.
Khi cha n spin ca electrn th vi mi tr s ca n c n2 trng thi lng t.
Khi n spin th vi mi tr s ca n ta c th c 2n2 trng thi lng t. Theo nguyn
l loi tr Pauli th s c ti a 2n2 electrn. Tp hp cc electrn c cng s lng t chnh
n to thnh lp ca nguyn t. Cc lp ca nguyn t c k hiu bng nhng ch K, L,
M... theo bng sau:
S lng t n
K hiu lp
S e- ti a
18
32
50
Theo nguyn l cc tiu nng lng, cc electrn bao gi cng c khuynh hng chim
mc nng lng thp nht (n nh nht).
V d: Nguyn t H c 1 electrn lp K
Nguyn t He c 2 electrn lp K ( s electrn)
Nguyn t Li c 2 electrn lp K v 1 electrn lp L,...
Mi lp li chia thnh lp con ng vi cc gi tr khc nhau ca l . Mi lp con c
2(2 l +1) electrn.
V d: Lp L (n = 2) c 2 lp con:
- Lp con S ( l = 0) c ti a 2 (2 l + 1) = 2 electrn,
- Lp con P ( l =1) c ti a 6 electrn.
Lp M (n = 3) c 3 lp con:
153
- Lp con S c ti a 2 electrn,
- Lp con P c ti a 6 electrn,
- Lp con D c ti a 10 electrn.
Bng 4 l bng phn b electrn i vi mt vi nguyn t.
Bng 4
Lp
Lp con
Nguyn t
H
He
Li
Be
B
C
N
O
F
Ne
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar
1S
2S
2P
3S
3P
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
3D
Da theo bng tun hon Mendeleev, ta vit c cu hnh electrn cho cc nguyn
t. V d:
C : 1s22s22p2
F : 1s22s22p5
N : 1s22s22p3
Ne : 1s22s22p6
O : 1s22s22p4
Al : 1s22s22p63s23p1
V d i vi Neon (Ne) c 2 electrn trng thi 1s, 2 electrn trng thi 2s, 6
electrn trng thi 2p. Nh vy, cc electrn lp y cc lp con. i vi Cacbon (C)
cc electrn cha lp kn ht cc lp con v lp con P c th cha ti a 6 electrn, trong
khi lp con P C mi ch c 2 electrn.
154
III. TM TT NI DUNG
1. Nguyn t hir
Chng ta nghin cu chuyn ng ca electrn trong nguyn t hir trn c s
phng trnh Schrodinger, phng trnh c bn ca c hc lng t
2m e
( E U ) = 0
h2
trong U l th nng tng tc gia ht nhn v electrn. Bi ton t ra l tm nng
lng ca electrn v hm sng ca n. Gii phng trnh Schrodinger trong h ta cu,
ta thu c mt s kt lun sau:
a. Nng lng ca electrn trong nguyn t hir ph thuc vo s nguyn n, gi l s
Rh
En =
lng t chnh:
n2
trong R l hng s Rydberg. Ta ni rng nng lng b lng t ha.
b. Nng lng ion ha l nng lng cn thit bt electrn ra khi nguyn t
E = E E1 = Rh = 13,5eV
c. Khi khng c kch thch bn ngoi, electrn trng thi nng lng thp nht, gi l
trng thi c bn. l trng thi bn. Khi c kch thch bn ngoi, electrn thu thm nng
lng v nhy ln mc nng lng cao hn gi l mc kch thch. Nhng electrn ch
trng thi ny trong mt thi gian ngn (10-8s), sau tr v trng thi nng lng En thp
hn v pht ra bc x in t mang nng lng h, ngha l pht ra vch quang ph c tn
s :
1
1
nn ' = R
2
n2
n'
Vi n =1, n = 2,3,4... ta c dy Lyman nm trong vng t ngoi.
Vi n =2, n = 3,4...... ta c dy Balmer trong vng nh sng nhn thy.
Vi n = 3, n = 4,5..... ta c dy Paschen nm trong vng hng ngoi....
d. ng vi mt s lng t n, tc l vi mi mc nng lng En, ta c n2 trng thi lng
t khc nhau khi cha xt n spin, ta ni En suy bin bc n2.
e. Hm sng ca electrn trong nguyn t H
n l m(r,,) = Rn l (r)Y l m(,)
trong n l s lng t chnh, l l s lng t qu o v m l s lng t t.
T biu thc ca hm sng ta tm c xc sut tm thy electrn theo khong cch
v theo gc , ng vi cc trng thi lng t khc nhau.
Tnh ton cho thy xc sut tm electrn trong nguyn t H ti khong cch tnh t
tm r = a = 0,53 c gi tr ln nht. Gi tr ny trng vi bn knh c in ca nguyn t
H. T y ngi ta hnh dung electrn chuyn ng quanh ht nhn nguyn t H nh mt
m my. m my ny dy c nht khong cch ng vi xc sut tn ti electrn cc
155
i. Khi nim qu o c thay th bng khi nim xc sut tm ht. Nguyn nhn l do
lng tnh sng ht ca electrn.
2. Nguyn t kim loi kim
Nguyn t kim loi kim ha tr mt v kh d dng b in ha. Chng c mt
electrn vng ngoi cng, electrn ny chuyn ng trong trng th hiu dng to bi
li nguyn t (gm ht nhn v (Z-1) electrn cc vng trong). Tnh cht ha hc ca kim
loi kim v c bn ging ca nguyn t H, nhng nng lng ca electrn ha tr ph
thuc thm c vo s lng t l :
E nl =
Rh
(n + l ) 2
Trong vt l nguyn t trang thi lng t c k hiu bng nx, cn mc nng lng
l nX, n l s lng t chnh, cn x v X ty thuc s lng t qu o:
0
x=
X=
l=
S chuyn mc nng lng tun theo qui tc: l = 1

V d i vi Na, tn s bc x tun theo cc cng thc:
h = 3S nP
n = 4,5, 6... v l = 1
h = 3P nS
n = 4,5, 6... v l = -1
3. Mmen ng lng qu o v mmen t

Electrn quay quanh ht nhn khng theo qu o xc nh, do mi trng thi
vect L khng c hng xc nh, nhng c ln xc nh: L = l(l + 1) h v hnh
chiu ca mmen ng lng qu o L ln mt phng z bt k lun c xc nh theo
h thc: L z = mh , trong m l s nguyn gi l s lng t t, c cc tr s
m = 0,1,2,3,...,l , ngha l vi mi tr s cho trc ca l c 2 l + 1 tr s ca m.

Electrn quay quanh ht nhn to thnh dng in, gia mmen t v mmen ng lng
qu o c mi lin h
=
e
L
2m e
v hnh chiu ln phng z bt k:
z =
e
L z = m B
2m e
B = eh / 2m e l manhtn Bohr. Khi electrn chuyn trng thi th m phi tun theo qui
tc la chn: m = 0,1.
156
4. Hiu ng Zeeman:
Hin tng tch vch quang ph khi nguyn t pht sng t trong t trng c
gi l hin tng Zeeman.
Gii thch: Khi nguyn t H t trong t trng ngoi, electrn c thm nng lng ph
E = z B = m B B
Nng lng E ca electrn lc ny cn ph thuc vo s lng t t m:
E ' = E + m B B
Khi electrn chuyn trng thi, tn s vch quang ph pht ra bng:
' =
E '2 E1' E 2 E1 (m 2 m1 ) B B
+
=
h
h
h
m2 m1 = m = 0, 1, do s c th c ba gi tr tng ng vi s to thnh ba vch

quang ph.
5. Spin:
Ngoi chuyn ng quay quanh ht nhn electrn cn tham gia thm chuyn ng do
vn ng ni ti, c c trng bi spin, k hiu S . ln ca S v hnh chiu ca n ln
phng z c xc nh theo cc h thc:
S = s(s + 1) h
Sz = m s h
trong s l s lng t spin (s=1/2), cn ms l s lng t hnh chiu spin. Khc vi s

lng t t ms ch ly hai gi tr 1/2.
Spin l i lng thun ty lng t, n khng c s tng ng c in. Da
vo khi nim spin, ngi ta gii thch c vch kp i ca quang ph Na v cu to bi
ca cc vch quang ph.
6. Trng thi v nng lng ca electrn trong nguyn t
Do c spin nn mmen ng lng ton phn J ca electrn bng: J = L + S
vi gi tr ca J bng: J =
j( j + 1)h
trong j l s lng t ton phn c xc nh bi: j = l
1
2
Do c xt n spin nn trng thi lng t ca electrn ph thuc vo bn s lng

t: n, l , m, ms hay n, l , m, j. Hai trng thi lng t c coi l khc nhau nu t nht mt
trong bn s lng t n, l , m, ms khc nhau. Trn y ta tnh c: ng vi mi s
lng t chnh c n2 trng thi lng t khc nhau. Nu k n spin th do ms c 2 gi tr :
1/2 nn ng vi s lng t chnh n , c 2n2 trng thi lng t khc nhau:
n 1
2 (2l + 1) = 2n 2
l=0
157
S c mt mmen t spin ca electrn cho php gii thch vch kp i trong quang
ph ca kim loi kim. Cc electrn chuyn ng quanh ht nhn to ra mt t trng c
trng bi mmen t qu o ca cc electrn. Mmen t spin ca electrn tng tc vi t
trng , tng tc ny c gi l tng tc spin-qu o. Do tng tc ny, s c mt
nng lng ph b sung vo biu thc nng lng ca electrn. Nng lng ph ny ph
thuc vo s nh hng ca mmen spin v nh vy nng lng cn ph thuc vo s
lng t ton phn j. Ni cch khc, nng lng ton phn ca electrn ph thuc vo ba s
lng t n, l v j: En l j. Mi mc nng lng xc nh tch thnh hai mc j = l -1/2 v
j = l +1/2, tr mc S ch c mt mc, v khi l = 0. Khong cch gia hai mc nng
lng ny rt nh. Cu trc nh vy gi l cu trc t vi ca cc mc nng lng.
Khi chuyn t mc nng lng cao sang mc nng lng thp, cc s lng t l , j
phi tun theo qui tc la chn: l = 1 v j = 0, 1
Da vo cc qui tc la chn trn, ta gii thch c cc vch kp i v bi ba khi c
xt n spin.
7. Gii thch bng tun hon Mendeleev
Da trn c s ca c hc lng t, chng ta c th gii thch qui lut phn b cc
electrn trong bng h thng tun hon. S phn b cc electrn trong bng tun hon da
trn hai nguyn l: nguyn l cc tiu nng lng v nguyn l loi tr Pauli. Cu hnh
electrn l s phn b theo cc trng thi vi cc s lng lng t n, l khc nhau.
Tp hp cc electrn c cng s lng t chnh n to thnh lp ca nguyn t. V d :
Lp K ng vi n = 1, lp L ng vi n = 2... S electrn ti a c trong mt lp bng 2n2
(theo nguyn l Pauli). Nng lng lp K nh hn lp L. Cc electrn s lp y lp K
trc ri mi n lp L.
Mi lp li chia nh thnh nhng lp con vi l khc nhau. Tp hp cc electrn c
cng gi tr l to thnh mt lp con. Trong mi lp con c ti a 2(2 l +1) electrn. V d:
Lp con S ( l = 0) c ti a 2(0 + 1) = 2eLp con P ( l = 1) c ti a 2(2 + 1) = 6e-...
Da vo bng Mendeleev, ta vit c cu hnh electrn trong nguyn t. V d cu
hnh electrn ca nguyn t C: 1s22s22p2 (c 2e- lp 1S, 2e- lp 2S v 2e- lp 2P, cc
e- cha xp kn lp con P, v lp con ny c th cha ti a 6e).
IV. CU HI L THUYT
1. Hy nu cc kt lun ca c hc lng t trong vic nghin cu nguyn t Hir v:
a. Nng lng ca electrn trong nguyn t Hir.
b. Cu to vch ca quang ph Hir.
c. suy bin ca mc En.
158
2. Nu s khc nhau gia nguyn t Hir v nguyn t kim loi kim v mt cu to. Vit
biu thc nng lng ca electrn ha tr trong nguyn t Hir v nguyn t kim loi
kim. Nu s khc nhau gia hai cng thc .
3. Vit qui tc la chn i vi s lng t qu o l . Vn dng qui tc ny vit cc dy
vch chnh v dy vch ph ca nguyn t Li.
4. Vit biu thc mmen ng lng qu o L ca electrn quanh ht nhn v hnh chiu
Lz ca n ln phng z. Nu ngha ca cc i lng trong cc cng thc . Vit qui tc
la chn cho m. Biu din bng s cc i lng L v Lz trong cc trng hp l =1 v
l =2.
5. Vit biu thc mmen t ca electrn quay quanh ht nhn v hnh chiu ca n theo
phng z.
6. Trnh by v gii thch hin tng Zeeman.
7. Trnh by nhng s kin thc nghim ni ln s tn ti ca spin electrn.
8. Vit biu thc xc nh mmen spin electrn v hnh chiu ca n trn phng z. T
da vo th nghim Einstein v de Haas, vit biu thc ca mmen t s v biu din hnh
chiu ca s qua manhtn Bohr.
9. Hy chng t rng, nu xt n spin th ng vi mc nng lng En ca electrn trong
nguyn t H, c th c 2n2 trng thi lng t khc nhau t nht mt trong bn s lng
t n, l , m, sz.
10. nh ngha cu hnh electrn.
11. S phn b cc electrn trong bng tun hon Mendeleev tun theo nhng nguyn l
no?
12. Vit cu hnh electrn cho cc nguyn t O, Al... Gii thch cch vit v nu ngha.
V. BI TP
Th d 1: Xc nh bc sng ca vch quang ph th hai, th ba trong dy Paschen trong
quang ph hir.
Bi gii: Bc sng ca vch th hai trong dy Paschen:
c
=
c
1
1
R
2
52
3
= 1,3.10 6 m
Bc sng ca vch th ba trong dy Paschen:
c
=
c
1
1
R
2
62
3
= 1,1.10 6 m
159
Th d 2: Tm s b chnh Rydberg i vi s hng 3P ca nguyn t Na, bit rng th kch
thch i vi trng thi th nht bng 2,1V v nng lng lin kt ca electrn ho tr
trng thi 3S bng 5,14eV.
Bi gii:
Theo bi:
Rh
= 5,14 eV,
(3 + s )2
Rh
(3 + s )2
Rh
(3 + p )
= 2,1 eV
Rh
(3 + p )2
= 3,04 eV
Thay R v h ta tm c: p = 0,88
Bi tp t gii
1. Xc nh ng nng, th nng v nng lng ca electrn trong nguyn t hir chuyn
ng trn qu o Bohr th nht. Cho bn knh qu o Bohr th nht r1= 0,53.10-10m.
p s:
E=
Rh
n2
3,27.1015.6,625.10 34
= 21,66.10 19 J
1
ke 2
9.10 9 1,6.10 19
Et =
=
r1
0,53.10 10
)2 = 43,47.10 19 J
E = E Et = 21,81 J
2. Xc nh bc sng ln nht v nh nht trong dy Paschen trong quang ph hir.
p s:
c
1
1
R
2
n2
3
max =
= 1,88.10 6 m
1
1
R
2
42
3
c
min =
= 0,83.10 6 m
1
1
32 2
3. Xc nh bc sng ca vch quang ph th hai, th ba trong dy Balmer trong quang

ph hir.
p s: Bc sng ca vch th hai trong dy Balmer:
42 =
c
1
1
R
22 42
= 0,49.10 6 m
Bc sng ca vch th ba trong dy Balmer:
52 =
c
1
1
R
22 52
= 0,437.10 6 m
160
4. Xc nh bc sng ca vch quang ph th hai v th ba trong dy Lyman trong quang
ph hir.
p s: Bc sng ca th hai trong dy Lyman:
31 =
c
1
1
R
12 3 2
= 0,103.10 6 m
Bc sng ca vch quang ph th ba trong dy Lyman:
41 =
c
1
1
R
12 4 2
= 0,98.10 7 m
5. Electrn trong nguyn t hir chuyn t mc nng lng th ba v mc nng lng th

nht. Xc nh bc sng ca bc x in t do n pht ra.
p s: E 3 E1 =
c
hc
Rh
Rh
; E3 =
; E1 =
=
= 1,03.107 m
2
1
3
R1
9
6. Xc nh bc sng ln nht v nh nht trong dy Lyman trong quang ph hir.

p s:
c
1
1
R
12 n 2
max =
= 1,22.10 7 m
1
1
R
12 2 2
c
min =
= 0,92.10 7 m
1
1
R
2
2
1
7. Xc nh gi tr ln nht v gi tr nh nht ca nng lng phtn pht ra trong quang

ph t ngoi ca nguyn t hir (dy Lyman).
1
1
1
= 10,2 (eV), h max = Rh. = 13,5 (eV)
p s: h min = Rh
12
12 2 2
8. Xc nh cc gi tr kh d ca mmen ng lng qu o ca electrn trong nguyn t

hir b kch thch, cho bit nng lng kch thch bng E = 12eV.
p s: Mmen ng lng qu o ca electrn:
L = l(l + 1)h , trong
l = 0,1, 2,..., n 1 , do cn tm n. Nng lng electrn trng thi n : E n =
Rh
, nng
n2
lng kch thch E = 12eV chnh l nng lng m electrn hp th nhy t trng thi c
161
bn ln trng thi En En E1 = 12eV
: L = 0,
2h ,
Rh

= 12 n = 3. Vy l = 0,1, 2 , do
n2 1
Rh
6h
9. Phtn c nng lng 16,5eV lm bt electrn ra khi nguyn t ang trng thi c
bn. Tnh vn tc ca electrn khi bt ra khi nguyn t.
p s: ng nng ca electrn khi bt ra khi nguyn t:
mev2
= h E1 = 16,5 13,5 = 3 (eV) v = 10 6 m / s
2
10. Nng lng lin kt ca electrn ho tr trong nguyn t Liti trng thi 2s bng
5,59eV, trng thi 2p bng 3,54eV. Tnh cc s b chnh Rydberg i vi cc s hng
quang ph s v p ca liti.
p s:
Rh
(2 + s )
= 5,39 eV,
Rh
(2 + p )2
= 3,54 eV s = 0,41, p = 0,04
11. Tm bc sng ca cc bc x pht ra khi nguyn t Li chuyn trng thi 3S 2S cho

bit cc s b chnh Rydberg i vi nguyn t Li: s = 0,41, p = 0,04
p s: Khng c s chuyn mc trc tip t 3S n 2S v vi phm qui tc la chn. S
chuyn trng thi c thc hin nh sau:
1.3S 2P, pht ra ra bc x 0,82m.
2.2P 2S, pht ra bc x 0,68m
12. Nguyn t Na chuyn t trng thi nng lng 4S 3S. Tm bc sng ca cc bc x
pht ra. Cho s b chnh Rydberg i vi Na bng s = 1,37, p = 0,9
p s: 1. 4S 3P, = 5890A0, 2. 3P 3S, = 11400A0
13. Bc sng ca vch cng hng ca nguyn t kali ng vi s chuyn di 4P 4S
bng 7665A0. Bc sng gii hn ca dy chnh bng 2858A0. Tm s b chnh Rydberg s
v p i vi kali.
p s:
(4 + s )
(4 + s )
(4 + p )
c
7665.10 10
c
2858.10 10
s = 2,23, p = 1,915
14. Tnh ln ca m men ng lng qu o v gi tr hnh chiu ca mmen ng

lng qu o ca electrn trong nguyn t trng thi f.
162
p s: Trng thi f ng vi l = 3 . Cc gi tr ca m = 0, 1, 2, 3. Ga tr hnh chiu
mmen ng lng qu o LZ = 0, h, 2h, 3h . ln mmen ng lng qu o:
L = l(l + 1)h = 2 3h
15. Nguyn t hir trng thi c bn hp th phtn mang nng lng 10,2eV v nhy
ln trng thi kch thch n. Tm bin thin mmen ng lng qu o ca electrn, bit
trng thi kch thch ca electrn trng thi p.
p s: Trng thi c bn s c l = 0 , trng thi kch thch p c l = 1 . T cng thc
L = l(l + 1)h L = 2h
163
Ph lc
PH LC
MT S HNG S VT L C BN
K hiu
Ga tr
Vn tc nh sng trong chn khng
3.108m/s
in tch nguyn t
1,6.10-19C
Khi lng electrn
me
9,11.10-31kg = 5,49.10-4u
Khi lng prtn
mp
1,67.10-27kg = 1,0073u
Khi lng ntrn
mn
1,68.10-27kg = 1,0087u
Hng s Placnk
6,625.10-34J.s
Bc sng Compton ca electrn
2,426.10-12m
Hng s Avogadro
NA
6,023.1023mol-1
Hng s Boltzman
1,38.10-23J/K
Hng s Stephan Boltzman
5,67.10-8 W/m2K4
Hng s Wien
2,868.10-3 m.K
Hng s Rydberg
3,29.1015s-1
Bn knh Bohr
rB
Manhtn Bohr
Hng s
0,529.10-10m
164
9,27.10-24J/T
Ti liu tham kho
TI LIU THAM KHO

1.Vt l i cng, tp I, II, III - Lng Duyn Bnh, Ng Ph An, L Bng Sng v
Nguyn Hu Tng. Nh xut bn Gio dc - 2003.
2. C s Vt l, Tp VI - Halliday, Resnick, Walker. Nh xut bn Gio dc 1998.
3. Vt l i cng, tp I, II, III - ng Quang Khang v Nguyn Xun Chi. Nh xut
bn i hc Bch khoa H Ni - 2001.
4. Bi tp Vt l i cng tp I, II, III - Lng Duyn Bnh. Nh xut bn Gio dc 1999.
165
Mc lc
MC LC
LI NI U .......................................................................................................................3
U
Chng I: DAO NG IN T ......................................................................................5

I. MC CH - YU CU................................................................................................5
U
II. NI DUNG:...................................................................................................................5
1. DAO NG IN T IU HO.......................................................................5
2. DAO NG IN T TT DN .......................................................................8
3. DAO NG IN T CNG BC ................................................................10
4. S TNG HP DAO NG...............................................................................12
III. TM TT NI DUNG..............................................................................................17
IV. CU HI L THUYT..............................................................................................19
V. BI TP......................................................................................................................19
Chng II: GIAO THOA NH SNG .............................................................................24
I. MC CH - YU CU..............................................................................................24
U
II. NI DUNG..................................................................................................................24
1. C S CA QUANG HC SNG .....................................................................24
2. GIAO THOA NH SNG ...................................................................................28
3. GIAO THOA GY BI BN MNG.................................................................31
4. NG DNG HIN TNG GIAO THOA.........................................................34
III. TM TT NI DUNG..............................................................................................36
IV. CU HI L THUYT..............................................................................................38
V. BI TP......................................................................................................................38
Chng III: NHIU X NH SNG ...............................................................................45
I. MC CH - YU CU..............................................................................................45
U
II. NI DUNG..................................................................................................................45
1. NHIU X NH SNG CA SNG CU........................................................45
U
2. NHIU X NH SNG CA SNG PHNG ..................................................49

III. TM TT NI DUNG..............................................................................................54
IV. CU HI L THUYT..............................................................................................56
V. BI TP......................................................................................................................56
Chng IV: PHN CC NH SNG ..............................................................................61
I. MC CH - YU CU..............................................................................................61
U
166
Mc lc
II. NI DUNG................................................................................................................. 61
1. NH SNG PHN CC .................................................................................... 61
2. PHN CC DO LNG CHIT ....................................................................... 65
3. KNH PHN CC............................................................................................... 66
4. NH SNG PHN CC ELIP ........................................................................... 68
5. S QUAY MT PHNG PHN CC .............................................................. 71
III. TM TT NI DUNG............................................................................................. 73
IV. CU HI L THUYT............................................................................................. 76
V. BI TP..................................................................................................................... 77
Chng V: THUYT TNG I HP EINSTEIN ................................................... 81
I. MC CH - YU CU ............................................................................................. 81
U
II. NI DUNG................................................................................................................. 81
1. CC TIN EINSTEIN .................................................................................. 81
2. NG HC TNG I TNH PHP BIN I LORENTZ .................... 82
3. CC H QU CA PHP BIN I LORENTZ ............................................ 84
4. NG LC HC TNG I........................................................................ 87
III. TM TT NI DUNG............................................................................................. 90
IV. CU HI L THUYT............................................................................................. 91
V. BI TP..................................................................................................................... 92
Chng VI: QUANG HC LNG T......................................................................... 95
I. MC CH - YU CU ............................................................................................. 95
U
II. NI DUNG................................................................................................................. 95
1. BC X NHIT .................................................................................................. 95
2. CC NH LUT PHT X CA VT EN TUYT I ........................... 98
3. THUYT LNG T PLANCK V THUYT PHTN EINSTEIN............ 99
4. HIN TNG QUANG IN.......................................................................... 101
5. HIU NG COMPTON .................................................................................... 104
III. TM TT NI DUNG........................................................................................... 106
IV. CU HI L THUYT........................................................................................... 109
IV. BI TP ................................................................................................................. 110
Chng VII: C HC LNG T .............................................................................. 116
I. MC CH - YU CU ........................................................................................... 116
U
II. NI DUNG............................................................................................................... 116

1. LNG TNH SNG HT CA VI HT....................................................... 116
2. H THC BT NH HEISENBERG ............................................................. 119
3. HM SNG ....................................................................................................... 120
167
Mc lc
4. PHNG TRNH SCHRODINGER..................................................................122
5. NG DNG CA PHNG TRNH SCHRODINGER..................................124
III. TM TT NI DUNG............................................................................................131
IV. CU HI L THUYT............................................................................................133
V. BI TP....................................................................................................................133
Chng VIII: VT L NGUYN T .............................................................................138
I. MC CH - YU CU............................................................................................138
U
II. NI DUNG................................................................................................................139
1. NGUYN T HIR ........................................................................................139
2. NGUYN T KIM LOI KIM .......................................................................144
3. MMEN NG LNG V MMEN T CA ELECTRN .....................146
4. SPIN CA ELECTRN .....................................................................................149
5. BNG H THNG TUN HON MENLEEV ..........................................153
III. TM TT NI DUNG............................................................................................155
IV. CU HI L THUYT............................................................................................158
V. BI TP....................................................................................................................159
PH LC ...........................................................................................................................164
TI LIU THAM KHO ................................................................................................165
MC LC ..........................................................................................................................166
168

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HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG

HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG

TS. L TH MINH THANH

Xt mt mch in gm mt t in c in dung C, mt cun dy c h s t

Hnh 1-1. Mch dao ng in t

Ta xt chi tit hn qu trnh dao ng ca mch trong mt chu k T. Ti thi im

Cho t phng in qua cun cm L. Dng in do t phng ra tng t ngt t

Hnh 1-2. Qu trnh to thnh dao ng in t ring

c tch nng lng ri li gii phng nng lng, t C li c tch in v n cui

V khng c s mt mt nng lng trong mch, nn nng lng in t ca mch

Ly o hm c hai v ca (1-3) theo thi gian ri thay dq / dt = i , ta thu c:

Ly o hm c hai v ca (1-4) theo thi gian ri thay dq/dt =i, ta c:

trong I0 l bin ca cng dng in, l pha ban u ca dao ng, 0 l tn

T tm c chu k dao ng ring

Cui cng ta nhn xt rng in tch

Hnh 1-3. ng biu din dao ng

Trong mch dao ng by gi c thm mt in

Do trong mch c in tr R, nn trong thi gian dt phn nng lng to nhit

Ly o hm c hai v ca (1-12) theo thi gian v thay dq/dt = i, ta thu c:

tt nh sao cho 0 > hay

th nghim tng qut ca phng trnh

trong I0, l hng s tch phn ph thuc vo iu kin ban u, cn l tn s gc

Chu k ca dao ng in t tt dn:

Nh vy, chu k dao ng tt dn ln hn chu k dao ng ring trong mch.

trong = R / 2L , r rng l nu R cng

ln th cng ln v dao ng tt cng

Hnh 1-5. ng biu din dao ng

hn ca mch. Nu R R0 trong mch

duy tr dao ng in t trong mch dao

Hnh 1-6. Mch dao ng in

Lc u dao ng trong mch l chng cht ca

Thc hin php ly vi phn v thay E= E0sint ta c:

Phng trnh vi phn (1-23) c nghim l tng ca hai nghim:

trong l tn s gc ca ngun in kch thch, I0 l bin , l pha ban u ca

ca mch dao ng, Z L = L v Z C =

Hnh 1-7. ng biu din dao

Cng thc trn chng t bin I0 ca dng in cng bc ph thuc vo gi tr

ta thy gi tr ny ca ng bng tn s gc ca mch dao ng ring:

Hin tng bin dng in ca mch dao

Hnh1-8. ng biu din cng

bc theo tn s gc ca ngun xoay chiu kch thch.

Gi s c mt cht im tham gia ng thi hai dao ng iu ho cng phng

Hai dao ng ny cng phng Ox v cng tn s gc 0, nhng khc bin v pha

Hnh 1-9. Tng hp hai dao ng iu ho cng phng, cng tn s.

bnh hnh OM1MM2 gi nguyn dng khi n quay quanh im O. Do , thi im t,

Nh vy, tng hp hai dao ng iu ho x1 v x2 cng phng, cng tn s gc

- Nu (2 1) = 2k , vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th cos(2 1 ) = 1 v bin A

Trong trng hp ny, hai dao ng x1 v x2 cng phng, cng chiu v c gi l

Gi s mt cht im tham gia ng thi hai dao ng iu ho x v y c phng

Tng t, ln lt nhn (1-38) v (1-39) vi sin 2 v

Bnh phng hai v (1-40) , (1-41) ri cng v vi v:

Phng trnh (1-42) chng t qu o chuyn ng tng hp ca hai dao ng iu ho

Phng trnh (1-43) chng t cht

- Nu ( 2 1 ) = (2k + 1) , vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th (1-42) tr thnh:

Phng trnh (1-44) chng t cht

Hnh 1-12. Qu o ca cht im

, vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th (1-42) tr thnh:

Hnh 1-13: Qu o ca cht im khi

Trong trng hp ny, qu o ca cht im l ng trn c tm ti gc to O v bn

Nu ( 2 1 ) c cc gi tr khc vi cc gi tr nu trn th cht im s

3/2 < 2 1 <2

Hnh 1.14. Cc dng qu o ca cht im khi 2 1= 0 2 v A1 = A2

2. Dao ng in t tt dn: Trong mch dao ng LC c thm in tr R, do c s

Gi s c mt cht im tham gia ng thi hai dao ng iu ho cng phng