1.

0 INTRODUCTION T25
2.0 BASIC GEOMETRY OF SPUR GEARS
2.1 Basic Spur Gear Geometry T25
2.2 The Law of Gearing T25
2.3 The Involute Curve T27
2.4 Pitch Circles T27
2.5 Pitch T28
2.5.1 Circular Pitch T28
2.5.2 Diametral Pitch T28
2.5.3 Relation of Pitches T28
3.0 GEAR TOOTH FORMS AND STANDARDS
3.1 Preferred Pitches T29
3.2 Design Tables T29
3.3 AGMA Standards T29
4.0 INVOLUTOMETRY
4.1.1 Gear Nomenclature T31
4.1.2 Symbols T37
4.2 Pitch Diameter and Center Distance T37
4.3 Velocity Ratio T38
4.4 Pressure Angle T38
4.5 Tooth Thickness 138
4.6 Measurement Over-Pins T39
4.7 Contact Ratio 144
4.8 Undercutting 144
4.9 Enlarged Pinions 145
4.10 Backlash Calculation 145
4.11 Summary of Gear Mesh Fundamentals T48
5.0 HELICAL GEARS
5.1 Generation of the Helical Tooth T52
5.2 Fundamental of Helical Teeth T53
5.3 Helical Gear Relationships T53
5.4 Equivalent Spur Gear T54
5.5 Pressure Angle T54
5.6 Importance of Normal Plane Geometry T54
5.7 Helical Tooth Proportions T55
5.8 Parallel Shaft Helical Gear Meshes T55
5.8.1 Helix Angle 155
5.8.2 Pitch Diameter T55
5.8.3 Center Distance T55
5.8.4 Contact Ratio T55
5.8.5 Involute Interference 156
5.9 Crossed Helical Gear Meshes 156
5.9.1 Helix Angle and Hands T56
5.9.2 Pitch 156

T21
 Catalog D190

5.9.3 Center Distance T57

5.9.4 Velocity Ratio T57
5.10 Axial Thrust of Helical Gears T57

6.0 RACKS T58

7.0 INTERNAL GEARS
7.1 Development of the Internal Gear T58
7.2 Tooth Parts of Internal Gear T59
7.3 Tooth Thickness Measurement T60
7.4 Features of Internal Gears T61
8.0 WORM MESH
8.1 Worm Mesh Geometry T61
8.2 Worm Tooth Proportions T62
8.3 Number of Threads T62
8.4 Worm and Wormgear Calculations T62
8.4.1 Pitch Diameters, Lead and Lead Angle T63
8.4.2 Center Distance of Mesh T63
8.5 Velocity Ratio T64
9.0 BEVEL GEARING
9.1 Development and Geometry of Bevel Gears T64
9.2 Bevel Gear Tooth Proportions T66
9.3 Velocity Ratio T66
9.4 Forms of Bevel Teeth T67
10.0 GEAR TYPE EVALUATION T68
11.0 CRITERIA OF GEAR QUALITY
11.1 Basic Gear Formats T68
11.2 Tooth Thickness and Backlash T70
11.3 Position Error (or Transmission Error) T70
11.4 AGMA Quality Classes T73
11.5 Comparison With Previous AGMA and International Standards T73
12.0 CALCULATION OF GEAR PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
12.1 Backlash in a Single Mesh T76
12.2 Transmission Error T77
12.3 Integrated Position Error T77
12.4 Control of Backlash T78
12.5 Control of Transmission Error T78
13.0 GEAR STRENGTH AND DURABILITY
13.1 Bending Tooth Strength T78
13.2 Dynamic Strength T82
13.3 Surface Durability T88
13.4 AGMA Strength and Durability Ratings T88

T22

file:///C|/A3/D190/HTML/D190T22.htm [9/27/2000 4:11:52 PM]

14.0 GEAR MATERIALS
14.1 Ferrous Metals T91
14.1.1 Cast Iron T91
14.1.2 Steel T91
14.2 Non Ferrous Metals T92
14.2.1 Aluminum T92
14.2.2 Bronzes T92
14.3 Die Cast Alloys T92
14.4 Sintered Powder Metal T92
14.5 Plastics T92
14.6 Applications and General Comments T99
15.0 FINISH COATINGS
15.1 Anodize T99
15.2 Chromate Coatings T100
15.3 Passivation T100
15.4 Platings T100
15.5 Special Coatings T100
15.6 Application of Coatings T100
16.0 LUBRICATION
16.1 Lubrication of Power Gears T101
16.2 Lubrication of Instrument Gears T101
16.3 Oil Lubricants T101
16.4 Grease T103
16.5 Solid Lubricants T103
16.6 Typical Lubricants T103
17.0 GEAR FABRICATION
17.1 Generation of Gear Teeth T105
17.1.1 Rack Generation T105
17.1.2 Hob Generation T105
17.1.3 Gear Shaper Generation T105
17.1.4 Top Generating T106
17.2 Gear Grinding T106
17.3 Plastic Gears T107
18.0 GEAR INSPECTION
18.1 Variable-Center-Distance Testers T107
18.1.1 Total Composite Error T107
18.1.2 Gear Size T107
18.1.3 Advantages and Limitations of Variable-Center-Distance Testers... T107
18.2 Over-Pins Gaging T108
18.3 Other Inspection Equipment T108
18.4 Inspection of Fine-Pitch Gears T108
18.5 Significance of Inspection and Its Implementation T108

T23
19.0 GEARS, METRIC
19.1 Basic Definitions T109
19.2 Metric Design Equations T122
19.3 Metric Tooth Standards T124
19.4 Use of Strength Formulas T125
19.5 Metric Gear Standards T126
19.5.1 USA Metric Gear Standards T126
19.5.2 Foreign Metric Gear Standards T126
20.0 DESIGN OF PLASTIC MOLDED GEARS
20.1 General Characteristics of Plastic Gears T131
20.2 Properties of Plastic Gear Materials T132
20.3 Pressure Angles T139
20.4 Diametral Pitch T139
20.5 Design Equations for Plastic Spur, Bevel, Helical and Worm Gears T139
20.5.1 General Considerations T139
20.5.2 Bending Stress - Spur Gears T140
20.5.3 Surface Durability for Spur and Helical Gears T141
20.5.4 Design Procedure - Spur Gears T143
20.5.5 Design Procedure Helical Gears T146
20.5.6 Design Procedure - Bevel Gears T146
20.5.7 Design Procedure - Worm Gears T147
20.6 Operating Temperature T147
20.7 Eftect of Part Shrinkage on Gear Design T147
20.8 Design Specifications T150
20.9 Backlash T150
20.10 Environment and Tolerances T150
20.11 Avoiding Stress Concentration T150
20.12 Metal Inserts T151
20.13 Attachment of Plastic Gears to Shafts T151
20.14 Lubrication T152
20.15 Inspection T152
20.16 Molded vs Cut Plastic Gears T152
20.17 Elimination of Gear Noise T153
20.18 Mold Construction T153
20.19 Conclusion T158

T24
1.0 INTRODUCTION

This section presents a technical coverage of gear fundamentals. It is intended as a broad coverage written in a manner that is
easy to follow and to understand by anyone interested in knowing how gear systems function. Since gearing involves specialty
components it is expected that not all designers and engineers possess or have been exposed to all aspects of this subject
However, for proper use of gear components and design of gear systems it is essential to have a minimum understanding of gear
basics and a reference source for details.
For those to whom this is their first encounter with gear components, it is suggested this section be read in the order
presented so as to obtain a logical development of the subject. Subsequently, and for those already familiar with gears, this
material can be used selectively in random access as a design reference.

2.0 BASIC GEOMETRY OF SPUR GEARS

The fundamentals of gearing are illustrated through the spur-gear tooth, both because it is the simplest, and hence most
comprehensible, and because it is the form most widely used, particularly in instruments and control systems.

2.1 Basic Spur Gear Geometry

The basic geometry and nomenclature of a spur-gear mesh is shown in Figure 1.1. The essential features of a gear mesh are:

1. center distance
2. the pitch circle diameters (or pitch diameters)
3. size of teeth (or pitch)
4. number of teeth
5. pressure angle of the contacting involutes

Details of these items along with their interdependence and definitions are covered in subsequent paragraphs.

2.2 The Law of Gearing

A primary requirement of gears is the constancy of angular velocities or proportionality of position transmission, Precision
instruments require positioning fidelity. High speed and/or high power gear trains also require transmission at constant angular
velocities in order to avoid severe dynamic problems.
Constant velocity (i.e. constant ratio) motion transmission is defined as conjugate action of the gear tooth profiles. A
geometric relationship can be derived (1,7)* for the form of the tooth profiles to provide cojugate action, which is summarized as
the Law of Gearing as follows:
A common normal to the tooth profiles at their point of contact must, in all positions of the contacting teeth, pass through a
fixed point on the line-of-centers called the pitch point.
Any two curves or profiles engaging each other and satisfying the law of gearing are conjugate Curves.
___________
*Numbers in parenthesis refer to references at end of text.

T25
T26
2.3 The Involute Curve

There are almost an infinite number of curves that can be developed to satisfy the law of gearing, and many different curve forms
have been tried in the past. Modem gearing (except for clock gears) based on involute teeth. This is due to three major
advantages of the involute curve:

1. Conjugate action is independent of changes in center distance.

2. The form of the basic rack tooth is straight-sided, and therefore is relatively simple and can be accurately made; as a
generating tool ft imparts high accuracy to the cut gear tooth.
3. One cutter can generate all gear tooth numbers of the same pitch.

The involute curve is most easily understood as the trace of a point at the end of a taut string that unwinds from a cylinder. It is
imagined that a point on a string, which is pulled taut in a fixed direction, projects its trace onto a plane that rotates with the
base circle. See Figure 1.2. The base cylinder, or base circle as referred to in gear literature, fully defines the form of the involute
and in a gear it is an inherent parameter, though invisible.
The development and action of mating teeth can be visualized by imagining the taut string as being unwound from one
base circle and wound on to the other, as shown in Figure 1.3a Thus, a single point on the string simultaneously traces an
involute on each base circles rotating plane. This pair of involutes is conjugate, since at all points of contact the common normal
is the common tangent which passes through a fixed point on the line-of-centers. It a second winding/unwinding taut string is
wound around the base circles in the opposite direction, Figure 1 .3b, oppositely curved involutes are generted which can
accommodate motion reversal. When the involute pairs are properly spaced the result is the involute gear tooth, Figure 1.3c.

2.4 Pitch Circles

Referring to Figure 1.4 the tangent to the two base circles is the line of contact, or line-of-action in gear vernacular. Where this
line crosses the line-of-centers establishes the pitch point, P. This in turn sets the size of the pitch circles, or as commonly called,
the pitch diameters. The ratio of the pitch diameters gives the velocity ratio:

Velocity ratio of gear 2 to gear 1 = Z = D1 (1)

D2

T27
2.5 Pitch

Essential to prescribing gear geometry is the size, or spacing of the teeth along the pitch circle. This is termed pitch and there are
two basic forms.
2.5.1 Circular pitch A naturally conceived linear measure along the pitch circle of the tooth spacing. Referring to Figure
1.5 it is the linear distance (measured along the pitch circle ar between corresponding points of adjacent teeth. it is equal to the
pitch-circle circumference divided by the number of teeth:
pc = circular pitch = pitch circle circumference = D (2)
number of teeth N
2.5.2 Diametral pitch A more popularly used pitch measure, although geometrically much less evident, is one that is a
measure of the number of teeth per inch of pitch diameter. This is simply: expressed as:
Pd = diametral pitch = N (3)
D
Diametral pitch is so commonly used with fine pitch gears that it is usually contracted simply to "pitch" and that it is diametral is
implied.
2.5.3 Relation of pitches: From the geometry that defines the two pitches it can be shown that they are related by the
product expression:

Pd x Pe = (4)
This relationship is simple to remember and permits an easy transformation from one to the other.

T28
3.0 GEAR TOOTH FORMS AND STANDARDS

involute gear tooth forms and standard tooth proportions are specified in terms of a basic rack which has straight-sided teeth for
involute systems. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA)
have jointly established standards for the USA. Although a large number of tooth proportions and pressure angle standards have
been formulated, only a few are currently active and widely used. Symbols for the basic rack are given in Figure 1.6 and
pertinent standards for tooth proportions in Table 1.1.
Note that data in Table 1.1 is based upon diametral pitch equal to one. To convert to another pitch divide by diametral pitch.

3.1 Preferred Pitches

Although there are no standards for pitch choice a preference has developed among gear designers and producers. This is given
in Table 1.2. Adherence to these pitches is very common in the fine- pitch range but less so among the coarse pitches.

3.2 Design Tables

For the preferred pitches it is helpful in gear design to have basic data available as a function of the number of teeth on each
gear, Table 1.3 lists tooth proportions common to a given diametral pitch, as well as the diameter of a measuring wire. Table 1.6
lists pitch diameters and the over-wires measurement as a function of tooth number (which ranges from 18 to 218) and various
diametral pitches, including most of the preferred fine pitches. Both tables are for 20 pressure-angle gears.

3.3 AGMA Standards

In the United States most gear standards have been developed and sponsored by the AGMA. They range from general and basic
standards, such as those already mentioned for tooth form, to specialized standards. The list is very long and only a selected few,
most pertinent to fine pitch gearing, are listed in Table 1.4. These and additional standards can be procured from the AGMA by
contacting the headquarters office at 1500 King Street; Suite 201; Alexandria, VA 22314 (Phone: 703-684-0211).

a = Addendum
b = Dedendum
c = Clearance
hk = Working Depth
ht = Whole Depth
Pc = Circular Pitch
rf = Fillet Radius
t = circular Tooth Thickness
= Pressure Angle

Figure 1.6 Extract from AGMA 201.02 (ANSI B6.1 1968)

T29
 TABLE 1.1 TOOTH PROPORTIONS OF BASIC RACK FOR
STANDARD INVOLUTE GEAR SYSTEMS
Symbol 14-1/2 20 20 20
in Full Depth Full Depth Coarse-Pitch Fine-Pitch
Tooth Parameter
Rack involute involute involute involute
Fig. 1.6 System System Spur Gears System
1. System Sponsors ANSI & AGMA ANSI AGMA ANSI & AGMA
2. Pressure Angle 14-1/2 20 20 20
3. Addendum a 1/P 1/P 1.000/P 1.000/P
4. Dedendum b 1.157/P 1.157/P 1.250/P 1.200/P + 0.002
5. Whole Depth ht 2.157/P 2.157/P 2.250/P 2.200/P + 0.002
6. Working Depth hk 2/P 2/P 2.000/P 2.000/P
7. Clearance. C 0.157/P 0.157/P 0250/P 0.200/P + 0.002
8. Basic Circular Tooth t 1 5708/P 1.5708/P /2P 1.5708/P
Thickness on Pitch Line
9. Fillet Radius In rf 1-1/3 x 1-112 X 0.300/P not standardized
Basic Rack
10. Diametral Pitch Range -- not specified not specified not specified not specified
11. Governing Standard:
ANSI -- B6.1 B6.1 -- B6.7
AGMA -- 201.02 -- 201.02 207.06

TABLE 1.2 PREFERRED DIAMETRAL PITCHES

Class Pitch Class Pitch Class Pitch Class Pitch

20
24
1/2
32
1
12 48
2 150
Medium- 14 64
Coarse 4 Fine Ultra-Fine 180
Coarse 16 72
6 200
18 80
8
96
10
120
128

TABLE 1.3 BASIC GEAR DATA FOR 20 P.A. FINE-PITCH GEARS

Diameter Pitch 32 48 64 72 80 96 120 200
Diameter of
.0540 .0360 .0270 .0240 .0216 .0180 .0144 .0086
Measuring Wire*
Circular Pitch .09817 .06545 .04909 .04363 .03927 .03272 .02618 .01571
Circular Thickness .04909 .03272 .02454 .02182 .01963 .01638 .01309 .00765
Whole Depth .0708 .0478 .0364 .0326 .0295 .0249 .0203 .0130
Addendum .0313 .0208 .0156 .0139 .0125 .0104 .0083 .0050
Dedendum .0395 .0270 .0208 .0187 .0170 .0145 .0120 .0080
clearance .0083 .0062 .0051 .0048 .0045 .0041 .0037 .0030
Note: Outside Diameter for N number of teeth equals the Pitch Diameter far (N+2) number at teeth.
*For 1.7290 wire diameter basic wire system.

T30
 TABLE 1.4 SELECTED LIST OF AGMA STANDARDS
AGMA 390
Gear Classification Handbook
General AGMA
Gear Classification And Inspection Handbook
2000-A88
spurs And AGMA 201 Tooth portions For Coarse-Pitch Involute Spur Gears
Helicals AGMA 207 Tooth Proportions For Fine-Pitch Involute Spur Gears And Helical Gears
AGMA Design-Manual For Bevel Gears
2005-B88
Non-Spur
AGMA 203 Fine-Pitch On-Center Face Gears For 20 Involute Spur Pinions
AGMA 374 Design For Fine-Pitch Worm Gearing

4.0 INVOLUTOMETRY

Basic calculations for gear systems are included in this section for ready reference in design. More advanced calculations are
available in the listed references.

4.1.1 GEAR NOMENCLATURE*

ACTIVE PROFILE is that part of the gear tooth profile which actually comes in contact with the profile of its mating tooth along the
line of action.

ADDENDUM (a) is the height by which a tooth projects beyond the pitch circle or pitch line; also, the radial distance between the
pitch circle and the addendum circle (Figure 1.1); addendum can be defined as either nominal or operating.

AXIAL PITCH (pa) is the circular pitch in the axial plane and in the pitch surface between corresponding sides of adjacent teeth, in
helical gears and worms. The term axial pitch is preferred to the term linear pitch. (Figure 1.7)

AXIAL PLANE of a pair of gears is the plane that contains the two axes. In a single gear, an axial plane may be any plane
containing the axis and a given point.

BASE DIAMETER (Db = gear, and db = pinion) is the diameter of the base cylinder from which involute tooth surfaces, either
straight or helical, are derived. (Figure 1.1); base radius (Rb = gear, rb = pinion) is one half of the base diameter.

BASE PITCH (pb) in an involute gear is the pitch on the base circle or along the line-of-action. Correspcndng sides of involute
gear teeth are parallel curves, and the base pitch is the constant and fundamental distance between them along a common
normal in a plane of rotation. (Figure 1.8)

BASIC RACK is a rack that is adopted as the basis for a system of interchangeable gears.

BACKLASH (B) is the amount by which the width of a tooth space exceeds the thickness of the engaging tooth on the pitch
circles. As actually indicated by measuring devices, backlash may be
______________
*Portions of this section are repented with permission from the Barber-Colman Co., Rockford, Ml.

T31
determined variously in the transverse, normal, or axial planes, and either in the direction of the pit circles or on the
line-of-action. Such measurements should be corrected to corresponding values a transverse pitch circles for general
comparisons. (Figure 1.9)

CENTER DISTANCE (C), Distance between axes of rotation of mating spur or helical gears.

CHORDAL ADDENDUM (ac) is the height from the top of the tooth to the chord subtending the circular-thickness arc. (Figure
1.10)

CHORDAL THICKNESS (tc) is the length of the chord subtending a circular-thickness arc. (Figure 1.10)

CIRCULAR PITCH (pc) is the distance along the pitch circle or pitch line between corresponding profiles of adjacent teeth. (Figure
1.1)

CIRCULAR THICKNESS (t) is the length of arc between the two sides of a gear tooth on the p4 circle, unless otherwise specified.
(Figure 1.10)

CLEARANCE-OPERATING (c) is the amount by which the dedendum in a given gear exceeds addendum of its mating gear. (Figure
1.1)

CONTACT RATIO (Spur) is the ratio of the length-of-action to the base pitch.

CONTACT RATIO (Helical) is the contact ratio in the plane of rotation plus a contact portion a tributted to the axial advance.

DEDENDUM (b) is the depth of a tooth space below the pitch line; also, the radial distance beta, the pitch circle and the root
circle. (Figure 1.1); dedendum can be defined as either nominal or operating.

DIAMETRAL PITCH (Pd) is the ratio of the number of teeth to the number of inches in the pitch diameter. There is a fixed relation
between diametral pitch (Pd) and circular pitch (pc): pc = / Pd

FACE WIDTH (F) is the length of the teeth in an axial plane.

FILLET RADIUS (r,) is the radius of the fillet curve at the base of the gear tooth. In generated this radius is an approximate radius
of curvature. (Figure 1.13)

FULL DEPTH TEETH are those in which the working depth equals 2000"
diametral pitch

GENERATING RACK is a rack outline used to indicate tooth details and dimensions for the design of a hob to produce gears of a
basic rack system.

HELIX ANGLE () is the angle between any helix and an element of its cylinder. In helical gears a worms, it is at the pitch
diameter unless otherwise specified. (Figure 1.7)

INVOLUTE TEETH of spur gears, helical gears, and worms are those in which the active portion of the profile in the transverse
plane is the involute of a circle.

T32
LEAD (L) is the axial advance of a helix for one complete turn, as in the threads of cylindrical worms and teeth of helical gears.
(Figure 1.11)

LENGTH-OF-ACTION (ZA) is the distance on an involute line of action through which the point of contact moves during the action
of the tooth profiles. (Figure 1.8)

LEWIS FORM FACTOR (Y, diametral pitch; yc, circular pitch). Factor in determination of beam strength of gears.

LINE-OF-ACTION is the path of contact in involute gears. It is the straight line passing through the pitch point and tangent to the
base circles. (Figure 1.12)

LONG- AND SHORT-ADDENDUM TEETH are those in which the addenda of two engaging gears are unequal.

MEASUREMENT OVER PINS (M). Distance over two pins placed in diametrically opposed tooth spaces (even number of teeth) or
nearest to it (odd number of teeth).

NORMAL CIRCULAR PITCH, Pcn, is the circular pitch in the normal plane, and also the length of the arc along the normal helix
between helical teeth or threads. (Figure 1.7)

NORMAL CIRCULAR THICKNESS (tn) is the circular thickness in the normal plane. In helical gears. it is an arc of the normal helix,
measured at the pitch radius.

NORMAL DIAMETRAL PITCH (Pdn) is the diametral pitch as calculated in the normal plane.

NORMAL PLANE is the plane normal to the tooth. For a helical gear this plane is inclined by the helix angle, , to the plane of
rotation.

OUTSIDE DIAMETER (Do gear, and do = pinion) is the diameter of the addendum (outside) circle (Figure 1.1); the outside radius
(Ro gear, ro pinion) is one half the outside diameter.

PITCH CIRCLE is the curve of intersection of a pitch surface of revolution and a plane of rotation. According to theory, it is the
imaginary circle that rolls without slip with a pitch circle of a mating gear. (Figure 1.1)

PITCH CYLINDER is the imaginary cylinder in a gear that rolls without slipping on a pitch cylinder or pitch plane of another gear.

PITCH DIAMETER (D = gear, d = pinion) is the diameter of the pitch circle. In parallel shaft gears, the pitch diameters can be
determined directly from the center distance and the number of teeth by proportionality. Operating pitch diameter is the pitch
diameter at which the gears operate. (Figure 1.1) The pitch radius (R = gear, r pinion) is one half the pitch diameter (Figure 11).

PITCH POINT is the point of tangency of two pitch circles (or of a pitch circle and pitch line) and is on the line-of-centers. Also, for
involute gears, it is at the intersection of the line-of-action and a straight line connecting the two gear centers. The pitch point of
a tooth profile is at its intersection with the pitch circle. (Figure 1.1)

PLANE OF ROTATION is any plane perpendicular to a gear axis.

T33
PRESSURE ANGLE (), for involute teeth, is the angle between the line-of-action and a line tangent to the pitch circle at the pitch
point. Standard pressure angles are established in connection with standard gear-tooth proportions. (Figure 1.1)

PRESSURE ANGLE NORMAL (n) is the pressure angle in the normal plane of a helical or spiral tooth

PRESSURE ANGLE OPERATING (r) is determined by the specific center distance at which the gears operate. It is the pressure
angle at the operating pitch diameter.

STUB TEETH are those in which the working depth us less than 2.000
diametral pitch

TIP RELIEF is an arbitrary modification of a tooth profile whereby a small amount of material is removed near the tip of the gear
tooth. (Figure 1.13)

TOOTH THICKNESS (T) Tooth thickness at pitch circle (circular or chordal Figure 1.1).

TRANSVERSE CIRCULAR PITCH (Pt) is the circular pitch in the transverse plane. (Figure 1.7)

TRANSVERSE CIRCULAR THICKNESS (tt) is the circular thickness in the transverse plane.

TRANSVERSE PLANE is the plane of rotation and, therefore, is necessarily perpendicular to the go axis.

TRANSVERSE PRESSURE ANGLE (t) is the pressure angle in the transverse plane.

UNDERCUT is the loss of profile in the vicinity of involute start at the base circle due to tool cutter action in generating teeth with
low numbers of teeth. Undercut may be deliberately introduced to facilitate finishing operations. (Figure 1.13)

WHOLE DEPTH (ht) is the total depth of a tooth space, equal to addendum plus dedendurn, also equal to working depth plus
clearance. (Figure 1.1)

WORKING DEPTH (hk) is the depth of engagement of two gears; that is, the sum of their addenda.

T34
T35
T36

T36
4.1.2 Symbols

The symbols used in this section are summarized below.This is consistent with most gear literature and the publications of AGMA
and ANSI.
SYMBOL NOMENCLATURE & DEFINITION
backlash, linear measure along
B a addendum
pitch circle

BLA backlash, linear measure

b dedendum
along line-of-action

aB backlash in arc minutes c clearance

C center distance d pitch diameter, pinion
dw pin diameter, for over-pins
change in center distance
measurement
Co operating center distance e eccentricity

Cstd standard center distance hk working depth

D pitch diameter ht whole depth

Db base circle diameter mp contact ratio

Do outside diameter n number of teeth, pinion

DR root diameter nw number of threads in worm

F face width pa axialpitch

K factor; general pb base pitch

L length, general; also lead of worm pc circular pitch

M measurement over-pins pcn normal circular pitch

N number of teeth, usually gear r pitch radius, pinion

Nc critical number of teeth for no undercutting rb base circle radus, pinion

Nv virtual number of teeth for helical gear rt fillet radius

Pd diametral pitch ro outside radius, pinion

Pdn tooth thickness, and for

normal diametral pitch t
general use for tolerance
pt horsepower, transmitted yc Lewis factor, circular pitch

R pitch radius, gear or general use pitch angle, bevel gear

Rb base circle radius, gear rotation angle, general
Ro outside radius, gear lead angle, worm gearing
RT testing radius mean value
T tooth thickness, gear v gear stage velocity ratio
Wb beam tooth strength pressure angle

Y Lewis factor, diametral pitch operating pressure angle

helix angle (Wb = base helix angle;
Z mesh velocity ratio
operating helix angle)
angular velocity
inv involute function

4.2 Pitch Diameter and Center Distance

As already mentioned in par. 2.4, the pitch diameters for a meshing gear pair are tangent at a point on the line-of-centers called
the pitch point. See figure 1.4. The pitch point always divides the line of centers proportional to the number of teeth in each gear.

Center distance = C = D1 + D2 = N1 + N2 (5)

2 2Pd
and the pitch-circle dimensions are related as follows:
D1 = R1 = N1 (6)
D2 R2 N2
4.3 Velocity Ratio
The gear ratio, or velocity ratio, can be obtained from several different parameters:
Z = D1 = N1 = 1 (7)
D2 N2 2
The ratio, Z, in this equation is the ratio of the angular velocity of gear 2 to that of gear 1.

4.4 Pressure Angle

The pressure angle is defined as the angle between the line- of-action (common tangent to the base circles in Figs. 1.3 and 1.4)
and a perpendicular to the line-of-centers. See Figure 1.14. From the, geometry of these figures, it is obvious that the pressure
angle varies (slightly) as the cen distance of a gear pair is altered. The base circle is related to the pressure angle and pitch
dinmeter by the equation:

Db = D cos where D and are the standard values or alternately, (8)

Db = D cos where D and are the exact operating values.

This basic formula shows that the larger the pressure angle the smaller the base circle. Thus, for standard gears, 14 pressure
angle gears have base circles much nearer to the roots of teeth than 20 gears. It is for this reason that 14 gears encounter
greater undercutting problems than 20 gears. This is further elaborated on in section 4.8.

4.5 Tooth Thickness

This is measured along the pitch circle. For this reason it is specifically called the circular tooth thickness. This is shown in Figure
1.1. Tooth thickness is related to the pitch as follows:
T = Pc = (9)
2 2Pd

T38
The tooth thickness (T2) at a given radius, R2, from the center can be found from a known value (T1) and known
pressure angle (1) at that radius (R1), as follows:

T2 = T1 R2 - 2R2 -2R2 (inv 2 - inv 1) (10)

R1
where:
inv =tan - = involute function.

To save computing time involute-function tables have been computed and are available in the references. An abridged liting
is given in Table 1.5.

4.6 Measurement Over-Pins

Often tooth thickness is measured indirectly by gaging over pins which are placed in diametrically opposed tooth spaces, or the
nearest to it for odd numbered gear teeth. This is pictured in Figure 1.15.
For a specified tooth thickness the over-pins measurement, M, is calculated as follows:
For an even number of teeth:

M = D cos + dw (11)
cos 1
For an odd number of teeth
M = D cos cos 90 + dw (12)
cos 1
where the value of 1 is obtained from
inv 1 = T + inv + dw - (13)
D D cos

Tabulated values of over-pins measurements for standard gears are given in Table 1.6. This provides a rapid means for
calculating values of M, even for gears with slight departures trom standard tooth thicknesses.
When tooth thickness is to be calculated from a known over-pins measurement, M, the equations can be manipulated to
yield:
T = D ( + inv c - inv - dw ) (14)
N D cos

where:
cos c = D cos (15)
2Rc

for an even number of teeth:

Rc = M - dw (16)
2
and for an odd number of teeth:
Rc = M - dw (17)
2 cos 90
N

T39
 TABLE 1.5 INVOLUTE FUNCTONS
Inv = tan - for values of from 10 to 40
Degrees Minutes
0 12 24 36 48
10 0.00180 0.00191 0.00202 0.00214 0.00226
11 0.00239 0.00253 0.00267 0.00281 0.00296
12 0.00312 0.00328 0.00344 0.00362 0.00379
13 0.00398 0.00417 0.00436 0.00457 0.00476
14 0.00488 0.00520 0.00543 0.00566 0.00590
15 0.00615 0.00640 0.00667 0.00694 0.00721
16 0.00750 0.00779 0.00809 0.00839 0.00870
17 0.00902 0.00935 0.00969 0.01004 0.01039
18 0.01076 0.01113 0.01142 0.01191 0.01231
19 0.01272 0.01314 0.01357 0.01400 0.01444
20 0.01490 0.01537 0.01585 0.01634 0.01683
21 0.01734 0.01786 0.01840 0.01894 0.01949
22 0.02006 0.02063 0.02122 0.02182 0.02242
23 0.02304 0.02368 0.02433 0.02499 0.02566
24 0.02635 0.02705 0.02776 0.02849 0.02922
25 0.02998 0.03074 0.03152 0.03232 0.03313
26 0.03394 0.03478 0.03563 0.03650 0.03739
27 0.03829 0.03920 0.04013 0.04108 0.04204
28 0.04302 0.04402 0.04503 0.04606 0.04710
29 0.04816 0.04924 0.05034 0.05146 0.05260
30 0.05375 0.05492 0.05612 0.05733 0.05856
31 0.05981 0.06108 0.16237 0.06368 0.06502
32 0.06636 0.06773 0.06913 0.07055 0.07199
33 0.07345 0.07493 0.07644 0.07797 0.07952
34 0.08110 0.08270 0.08432 0.08597 0.08765
35 0.08934 0.09106 0.09281 0.09459 0.09639
36 0.09822 0.10008 0.01096 0.10388 0.10582
37 0.10778 0.10978 0.11180 0.11386 0.11594
38 0.11806 0.12020 0.12238 0.12459 0.12683
39 0.12911 0.12141 0.13375 0.13612 0.13853
40 0.14097 0.14344 0.14595 0.14850 0.15108

T40
T41
 T42

f
T43
4.7 Contact Ratio

To assure smooth continuous tooth action, as one pair of teeth ceases contact a succeeding pair of teeth must already have come
into engagement. It is desired to have as much overlap as possible. A measure of this overlapping action is the contact ratio. This
is a ratio of the length of the line-of-action to the base pitch. Figure 1.16 shows the geometry. The length-of-action is determined
from the intersection of the length-of-action arid the outside radii. The ratio of the length-of-action to the base pitch is
determined from:
mp = (Ro - Rb) +(ro - rb) - Csin (18)
Pc COS

It is good practice to maintain a contact ratio of 1.2 or greater. Under no circumstances should the ratio drop below 1.1,
calculated for all tolerances at their worst-case values.
A contact ratio between 1 and 2 means that part of the time two pairs of teeth are in contact and during the remaining time
one pair is in contact. A ratio between 2 and 3 means 2 or 3 pairs of teeth are always in contact. Such as high contact ratio
generally is not obtained with external spur gears, but can be developed in the meshing of an internal and external spur gear pair
or specially designed non-standard external spur gears.

4.8 Undercutting

From Figure 1.16 it can be seen that the maximum length of the line-of-contact is limited to the length of the common tangent.
Any tooth addendum that extends beyond the tangent points (T and T') is not only useless, but interferes with the root fillet area
of the mating tooth. This results in the typical undercut tooth, shown in Figure 1.17. The undercut not only weakens the tooth
with a wasp-like waist, but also removes some of the useful involute adjacent to the base circle.

From the geometry of the limiting length-of-contact (T-T', Figure 1.16) it is evident that interference is first encountered by the
addenda of the gear teeth digging into the mating-pinion tooth flanks. Since addenda are standardized by a fixed ratio (1/Pd) the
interference condition becomes more severe as the number of teeth on the gear increases. The limit is reached when the gear
becomes a rack. This is a realistic case since the hob is a rack-type cutter. The result is that standard gears with

T44
tooth numbers below a critical value are automatically undercut in the generating process. The limiting number of teeth in a gear
meshing with a rack is given by the expression:
Nc = 2 (19)
sin

This indicates the minimum number of teeth free of undercutting decreases with increasing Pressure angle. For 14 the
value of Nc is 32, and for 20 it is 18. Thus, 200 pressure angle gears with low numbers of teeth have the advantage of much
less undercutting and, therefore, are both stronger and smoother acting.

4.9 Enlarged Pinions

Undercutting of pinion teeth is undesirable because of losses of strength, contact ratio and smoothness of
action. The seventy of these faults depends upon how far below N, the tooth number is. Undercutting for the first few numbers is
small and in many applications its adverse effects can be neglected.

For very small numbers of teeth, such as ten and smaller, and for
high-precision applications, undercutting should be avoided. This is achieved by
pinion enlargement (or correction as often termed), wherein the pinion teeth, still
generated with a standard cutter, are shifted radially ourward to form a full
involute tooth free of undercut The tooth is enlarged both radially and
circumferentially. Comparison of a tooth form before and after enlargement is
shown in Figure 1.18.
The details of enlarged pinion design, mating gear design and, in general,
profile-shifted gears is a large and involved subject beyond the scope of this
writing. References 1, 3, 5 and 6 offer additional information. For measurement
and inspection Figure 1.18 Comparison of such gears, in particular, consult
reference 5.

4.10 Backlash Calculation

Up to this point the discussion has implied that there is no backlash. If the gears are of standard tooth proportion design and
operate on standard center distance they would function ideally with neither backlash nor jamming.
Backlash is provided for a variety of reasons and cannot be designated without consideration of machining conditions. The
general purpose of backlash is to prevent gears from jamming and making contact on both sides of their teeth simultaneously. A
small amount of backlash is also desirable to provide for lubricant space and differential expansion between the gear components
and the housing. Any error in machining which tends to increase the possibility of jamming makes it necessary to increase the
amount of backlash by at least as much as the errors. Consequently, the smaller the amount of backlash, the more accurate
must be the machining of the gears. Runout of both gears, errors in profile, pitch, tooth thickness, helix angle and center
distance all are factors to consider in the specification of the amount of backlash. On the other hand, excessive backlash is
objectionable, particularly if the drive is frequently reversing or if there is an overrunning load. The amount of backlash must not
be excessive for the requirements of the job, but it should be sufficient so that machining costs are not higher than necessary.
In order to obtain the amount of backlash desired, it is necessary to decrease tooth thickness (see Figure 1.19). This
decrease must almost always be greater than the desired backlash because of

T45
the errors in manufacturing and assembling. Since the amount of the decrease in tooth thickness depends upon the accuracy of
machining, the allowance for a specified backlash will vary according to the manufacturing conditions.
It is customary to make half of the allowance for backlash on the tooth thickness of each gear of a pair, although there are
exceptions. For example, on pinions having very low numbers of teeth, it is desirable to provide all of the allowance on the
mating gear so as not to weaken the pinion teeth.

In spur and helical gearing, backlash allowance is usually obtained by sinking the hob deeper into the blank than the
theoretically standard depth. Further, it is true that any increase or decrease in center distance of two gears in any mesh will
cause an increase or decrease in backlash. Thus, this is an alternate way of designing backlash into the system.
In the following we give the fundamental equations for the determination of backlash in a single gear mesh. For the
determination of backlash in gear trains, it is necessary to sum the backlash of each mated gear pair. However, to obtain the
total backlash for a series of meshes it is necessary to take into account the gear ratio of each mesh relative to a chosen
reference shaft in the gear train. For details see Reference 5.
Backlash is defined in Figure 1.20a as the excess thickness of tooth space over the thickness of the mating tooth. There are
two basic ways in which backlash arises: Tooth thickness is below the zero-backlash value; and the operating center distance is
greater than the zero-backlash value.
If the tooth thickness of either or both mating gears is less than the zero-backlash value, the amount of backlash
introduced in the mesh is simply this numerical difference:
B = Tstd - Tact = T (20)

where:

B = linear backlash measured along the pitch circle (Figure 1.20b)

Tstd = no backlash tooth thickness on the operating-pitch circle, which is the standard teeth
thickness for ideal gears
Tact = actual tooth thickness

T46
When the center distance is increased by a relatively small amount, C, a backlash space develops
between mating teeth, as in Figure 1.21. The relationship between center distance increase and linear
backlash, BLA, along the line of action, is:

BLA = 2(C)sin (21)

This measure along the line-of-action is useful when inserting a feeler gage between teeth to measure backlash.
The equivalent linear backlash measured along the pitch circle is given by:

B = 2(C) tan (22a)

where:
C = change in center distance
= pressure angle
Hence, an approximate relationship between center distance change and change in backlash is:

C= 1.933 B for 14 pressure-angle gears (22b)

C= 1.374 B for 20 pressure-angle gears (22c)

T47
 Although these are approximate relationships they are adequate for most uses. Their derivation, limitations, and correction
factors are detailed in Reference 5.
Note that backlash due to center distance opening is dependent upon the tangent function of the pressure angle. Thus, 20
gears have 41% more backlash than 14 gears, and this constitutes one of the few advantages of the lower pressure angle.
Equations 22 are a useful relationship, particularly for converting to angular backlash. Also for fine-pitch gears the use of
feeler gages for measurement is impractical, whereas an indicator at the pitch line gives a direct measure. The two linear
backlashes are related by:

BLA (23)
B = _____
cos
The angular backlash at the gear shaft is usually the critical factor in the gear application. As seen
from Figure 1.20a this is related to the gears pitch radius as follows:
B (24)
____ (arc minutes)
aB = 3440
R1

Obviously, angular backlash is inversely proportional to gear radius. Also, since the two meshing gears are usually of
different pitch diameters, the linear backlash of the measure converts to different angular values for each gear. Thus, an angular
backlash must be specified with reference to a particular shaft or gear center.

4.11 Summary of Gear Mesh Fundamentals

The basic geometric relationships of gears and meshed pairs given in the above sections are summarized in Table 1.7.

T48
 TABLE 1.7 SUMMARY OF FUNDAMENTALS
SPUR GEARS
To Obtain From Known Symbol and Formula
D = N = NPc
Pitch diameter Number of teeth and pitch
Pd
Diametral pitch or number of Pc == D
Circular Pitch
teeth and pitch diameter Pd N
Circular pitch or number of Pd = =N
Diametral pitch
teeth and pitch diameter Pc D
N =DPd = D
Number of teeth Pitch and pitch diameter
Pc
Pitch and pitch diameter or Do =D + 2 = N+2
Outside diameter
pitch and number of teeth Pd Pd
Root diameter Pitch diameter and dedendum DR = D - 2b
Base circle diameter Pitch diameter and pressure angle Db=D cos
Base pitch Circular pitch and pressure angle Pb = Pc cos
Tooth thickness at Tstd = Pc = D
Circular pitch
standard pitch diameter 2 2N
a= 1
Addendum Diametral pitch Pd
Pitch diameters Or number C=D1+D2=N1+N2=Pc(N1+N2)
Center distance
of teeth and pitch 2 2Pd 2
Outside radii, base radii, center mp = (Ro-Rb)+(ro-rb)-C sin
Contact ratio
distance and pressure angle Pc cos
Backlash (linear) From change in center distance B = 2 (C) tan
Backlash (linear) From change in tooth thickness B = T
Backlash (linear) BLA = B cos
Linear backlash along pitch cirde
along line of acvon

Backlash, angular Linear backlash aB = 6880 B (arc minutes)

D
Minimum number of N= 2
Pressure angle
teeth for no undercutting sin
Pitch diameter and
Dedendum b = (D-DR)
root diameter ( DR )
Clearance Addendum and dedendum c=b-a
Working depth Addendum hk = 2a
Pressure angle Base circle diameter and pitch =cos-1 Db/D
( standard ) diameter
Operating pressure Actual operating pitch diameter =cos-1 Db/D'
angle and base circle diameter

T49
 TABLE 1.7 CONT. - SUMMARY OF FUNDAMENTALS
HELICAL GEARING
To Obtain From Known Symbol and Formula
Normal circular pitch Transverse circular pitch Pcn = Pc cos
Pdn = Pd
Normal diametral pitch Transverse diametral pitch
cos
Pa = Pc cot = Pcn
Axial pitch Circular pitches
sin
Normal pressure angle Transverse pressure angle tan n = tan cos

D = N = N
Pitch diameter Number of teeth and pitch Pd Pdn cos

Center distance C = N1 + N2
Number of teeth and pitch
(parallel shafts) 2 Pdn cos

Center distance C= 1 ( N1 + N2 )
Number of teeth and pitch
(crossed shafts) 2 Pdn cos 1 cos 2

Shaft angle = 1 + 2
Helix angles of 2 mated gears
(Crssed shafts)

Pitch; or outside and pitch a = 0.5 ( Do - D ) = 1

Addendum
diameters Pd

Pitch diameter and root

Dedendum b = 0.5 ( D - DR )
diameter (DR)
Clearance Addendum and dedendum c = b-a
Working depth Addendum hk = 2a
Transverse pressure Base circle diameter and cos t = Db / D
angle pitch circle diameter
Number of teeth, cos = N
Pitch helix angle normal diametral pitch and Pn D
pitch diameter
Pitch diameter and
Lead L = D cos
pitch helix angle
INVOLUTE GEAR PAIRS
To Obtain Symbols Spur or Helical Gears ( g gear; p = pinion)
ZA = (C - (Rb+rb)) (maximum)
Length of action ZA
ZA = (Ro-Rb) (ro-rb-C sin r)
SAPp = -(Ro-Rb)
Start of active profile SAP
SAPg = Zmax-(ro-rb)
Contact ratio Rc Rcg = ((SAP) + Rb); Rcp = ((SAP) + rb)

T50
 TABLE 1.7 CONT. - SUMMARY OF FUNDAMENTALS
WORM MESHES
To Obtain From Known Symbol and Formula
dw = nw Pcn
Pitch diameter of worm Number of teeth and pitch
p sin
Pitch diameter of Dg = Ng Pcn
Number of teeth and pitch
worm gear cos
= tan -1 nw = sin-1 nw Pcn
Lead angle Pitch, diameter, teeth
Pddw pdw
L = nwpc = nw pcn
Lead of worm Number of teeth and pitch
cos
Normal circular pitch Transverse pitch and lead angle Pcn = Pc cos
C = dw + Dg
Center distance Pitch diameters
2
C = Pcn [ Ng + nw ]
Center distance Pitch, lead angle, teeth
2 cos sin
Z = Ng
Velocity ratio Number of teeth nw
BEVEL GEARING
To Obtain From Known Symbol and Formula
Z = N1
Velocity ratio Number of teeth
N2
Z = D1
Velocity ratio Pitch diameters
D2
Z = sin 1
Velocity ratio Pitch angles
sin 2
Shaft angle Pitch angles = 1 + 2

T51
5.0 HELICAL GEARS

The helical gear differs from the spur gear in that its teeth are twisted along a helical path in the axial direction. It resembles the
spur gear in the plane of rotation, but in the axial direction it is as if there were a series of staggered spur gears. See Figure 1.22.
This design brings forth a number of different features relative to the spur gear, two of the most important being as follows:

1. tooth strength is improved because of the elongated helical wrap around

tooth base support.
2. contact ratio is increased due to the axial tooth overlap. Helical gears thus
tend to have greater load-carrying capactiy than spur gears of the same size.
Spur gears, on the other hand, have a somewhat higher efficiency.

Helical gears are used in two forms:

1. Parallel shaft applications, which is the largest usage.

2. Crossed-helicals (or spiral gears) for connecting skew shafts, usually at tight
angles.

5.1 Generation of the Helical Tooth

The helical tooth form is involute in the plane of rotation and can be developed in a manner similar to that of the spur gear.
However, unlike the spur gear which can be viewed essentially as two dimensional, the helical gear must be portrayed in three
dimensions to show changing axial features.
Referring to Figure 1.23, there is a base cylinder from which a taut plane is unwrapped, analogous to the unwinding taut
string of the spur gear in Figure 12. On the plane there is a straight line AB, which when wrapped on the base cylinder has a
helical trace AoBo. As the taut plane is unwrapped any point on the line AB can be visualized as tracing an involute from the base
cylinder. Thus, there is an infinite series of involutes generated by line AB, all alike, but displaced in phase along a helix on the
base cylinder.
Again a concept analogous to the spur-gear tooth development is to imagine the taut plane being wound from one base
cylinder on to another as the base cylinders rotate in opposite directions. The result is the generation of a pair of conjugate
helical involutes. If a reverse direction of rotation is assumed and a second tangent plane is arranged so that it crosses the first, a
complete involute helicoid tooth is formed.

T52
5.2 Fundamental of Helical Teeth

In tho piano of rotation the helical gear tooth is involute and all of the relationships govorning spur gears apply to the helical.
However, tho axial twist of the teeth introduces a holix anglo. Since the helix angle varies from the base of the tooth to the
outside radnjs, the helix angle, w~ is detned as the angle between the tangent to the helicoidal tooth at the intersection of the
pitch cylinder and the tooth profile, and an element of the pitch cylinder. See Figure 1.24.
The direction of the helical twist is designated as either left or right. The direction is defined by the right-hand rule.

5.3 Helical Gear Relationships

For helical gears there are two related pitches: one in the plane of rotation and the other in a plane normal to the tooth. In
addition there is an axial pitch. These are defined and related as follows: Referring to Figure 1.25, the two circular pitches are
related as follows:

Pcn = Pc cos = normal circular pitch (25)

The normal circular pitch is less than the transverse or circular pitch in the plane of rotation, the ratio between the two being
equal to the cosine of the helix angle. Consistent with this, the normal diametral pitch is greater than the transverse pitch:

Pdn = Pd = normal diametral pitch (26)

cos

The axial pitch of a helical gear is the distance between corresponding points of adjacent teeth measured parallel to the
gears axissee Figure 1.26. Axial pitch, p1. is related to circular pitch by the expressions:

Pa = Pc cot = Pcn = axial pitch (27)

sin

T53
5.4 Equivalent Spur Gear

The true involute pitch and involute geometry of a helical gear is that in the plane of rotation. However, in the normal plane, looking
at one tooth, there is a resemblance to an involute tooth of a pitch corresponding to the normal pitch. However, the shape of the
tooth corresponds to a spur gear of a larger number of teeth, the exact value depending on the magnitude of the helix angle.

The geometric basis of deriving the number of teeth in this equivalent tooth
form spur gear is given in Figure 1.27. The result of the transposed geometry
is an equivalent number of teeth given as:
NV = N (28)
cos

This equivalent number is also called a virtual number because this spur
gear is imaginary. The value of this number is its use in determining helical
tooth strength.

5.5 Pressure Angle

Although strictly speaking, pressure angle exists only for a gear pair, a nominal pressure angle can be considered for an individual
gear. For the helical gear there is a normal pressure angle as well as the usual pressure angle in the plane of rotation. Figure 1.28
shows their relationship, which is expressed as:
tan = tan n (29)
cos

5.6 Importance of Normal Plane Geometry

Because of the nature of tooth generation with a rack-type hob, a single tool can generate helical gears at all helix angles as well as
spur gears. However, this means the normal pitch is the common denominator, and usually is taken as a standard value. Since the
true involute features are in the transverse plane, they will differ from the standard normal values. Hence, there is a real need for
relating parameters in the two reference planes.

T54

f
5.7 Helical Tooth Proportions

These follow the same standards as those for spur gears. Addendum, dedendum, whole depth and clearance are the same
regardless of whothor measured in tho piano of rotation er the normal piano. Pressure angle and pitch are usually specified as
standard values in tho normal plane, but there are times when they are specified standard in the transverse plane.

5.8 Parallel Shaft Helical Gear Meshes

Fundamental information for the design of gear meshes is as follows:

5.8.1 Helix angle Both gears of a meshed pair must have the same helix angle. However, the
helix directions must be opposite, i.e., a left-hand mates with a right-hand helix.
5.8.2 Pitch dIameter This is given by the same expression as for spur gears, but if the normal
pitch is involved it is a function of the helix angle. The expressions are:
D=N= N (30)
Pd Pdn cos
5.8.3 Center distance Utilizing equation 30, the center distance of a helical gear mesh is:
C = ( N1+N2 ) (31)
2 Pdn cos

Note that for standard parameters in the normal plane, the center distance will not be a standard value compared to
standard spur gears. Further, by manipulating the helix angle () the center distance can be adjusted over a wide range of
values. Conversely, it is possible

a. to compensate for significant center distance changes (or erors) without changing the speed ratio between parallel geared
shafts; and
b. to alter the speed ratio between parallel geared shafts without changing center distance by manipulating helix angle along with
tooth numbers.

5.8.4 Contact Ratio The contact ratio of helical gears is enhanced by the axial overlap of the teeth. Thus, the contact ratio is
the sum of the transverse contact ratio, calculated in the same manner as for spur gears (equation 18), and a term involving the
axial pitch.
(mp)total = (mp)trans + (mp)axial (32)

where

T55
 New Page 4
(mp)trans = value per equation 18
(mp)axial = F = F tan = F sin
Pa Pc Pcn
and F = face width of gear.

5.8.5 Involute interference Helical gears cut with standard normal pressure angles can have considerably higher pressure
angles in the plane of rotation (see equation 29), depending on the helix angle. Therefore, referring to equation 19, the minimum
number of teeth without undercutting can be significantly reduced and helical gears having very low tooth numbers without
undercutting are feasible.

5.9 Crossed Helical Gear Meshes

These are also known as spiral and screw gears. They are used for interconnecting skew shafts, such as in Figure 1.29. They can
be designed to connect shafts at any angle, but in most applications the shafts are at right angles.
5.9.1 Helix angle and hands The helix angles need not be the same. However, their sum must equal the shaft
angle:
1 + 2 = (33)

where:

1, 2 = the respective helix angles of the two gears

= shaft angle (the acute angle between the two shafts when viewed in a direction parallel
ing a common perpendicular between the shafts)

Except for very small shaft angles, the helix hands are the same.

5.9.2 Pitch Because of the possibility of ditferent helix angles for the gear pair, the transverse pitches may not be the same.
However, the normal pitches must always be identical.

T56

file:///C|/A3/D190/HTML/D190T56.htm [9/30/2000 10:10:44 AM]

 5.9.3 Center Distance The pitch diameter of a crossed-helical gear is given by equation 30, and the center distance
becomes:
C = 1 ( N1 + N2 ) (34)
2Pdn cos 1 cos 2

Again it is possible to adjust the center distance by manipulating the helix angle. However, both gear helix angles must be
altered consistently in accordance with equation 33.
5.9.4 Velocity ratio Unlike spur and parallel shaft helical meshes the velocity ratio (gear ratio) cannot be determined from
the ratio of pitch diameters, since these can be altered by juggling of helix angles. The speed ratio can be determined only from
the number of teeth as follows:
velocity ratio Z = N1 (35)
N2
or if pitch diameters are introduced the relationship is:
Z = D1 cos 1 (36)
D2 cos 2

5.10 Axial Thrust of Helical Gears

In both parallel-shaft and crossed shaft applications helical gears develop an axial thrust load. This is a useless force that loads
gear teeth and bearings and must accordingly be considered in the housing and bearing design. In some special instrument
designs this thrust load can be utilized to actuate face clutches, provide a friction drag, or other special purpose. The magnitude
of the thrust load depends on the helix angle and is given by the expression:

WT =Wt tan (37)

where:

WT = axial thrust load

Wt = transmitted load

The direction of the thrust load is related to the hand of the gear and the direction of rotation. This is depicted in Figure 1.29.
When the helix angle is larger than about 20, the use of double helical gears with opposite hands (Figure 1 .30b) or herringbone
gears (Figure 1.30a) is worth considering.

T57
6.0 RACKS

Gear racks (Figure 1.31) are important components in that they are a means of converting rotational motion into linear motion.
In theory the rack is a gear with infinite pitch diameter, resulting in an involute profile that is essentially a straight line, and the
tooth is of simple V form. Racks can be both spur and helical. A rack will mesh with all gears of the same pitch. Backlash is
computed by the same formula as for gear pairs, equation 22. However, the pressure angle and the gears pitch radius remain
constant regardless of changes in the relative position of the gear and rack. Only the pitch line shifts accordingly as the gear
center is altered. See Figure 1.32.

7.0 INTERNAL GEARS

A special feature of spur and helical gears is their capability of being made in an internal form, in which an internal gear mates
with an ordinary external gear. This offers considerable versatility in the design of planetary gear trains and miscellaneous
instrument packages.

7.1 Development of the Internal Gear

The gears considered so far can be imagined as equivalent pitch circle friction discs which roll on each other with external contact
If instead, one of the pitch circles rolls on the inside of the ether, it forms the basis of internal gearing. In addition, the larger
gear must have the material forming the teeth on the convex side of the involute profile, such that the internal gear is an inverse
of the common external gear, see Figure 1.33a.
The base circles, line of action and development of the involute profiles and action are shown in Figure 1.33b. As with spur
gears there is a taut generating string that winds and unwinds between the base circles. However, in this case the string does not
cross the line of centers, and actual contact and involute development occurs on an extension of the common tangent. Otherwise,
action parallels that for external spur gears.

T58
7.2 Tooth Parts of Internal Gear

Because the internal gear is reversed relative to the external gear, the tooth parts are also reversed relative to the ordinary
(external) gear. This is shown in Figure 1.34. Tooth proportions and standards are the same as for external gears except that the
addendum of the gear is reduced to avoid trimming of the teeth in the fabrication process.

T59
Tooth thickness of the internal gear can be calculated with equations 9 and 20, but one must remember that the tooth and space
thicknesses are reversed, (see Figure 1.35). Also, in using equation 10 to calculate tooth thickness at various radii, (see Figure
1.36), it is the tooth space that is calculated and the internal gear tooth thickness is obtained by a subtraction from the circular
pitch at that radius, Thus, applying equation 10 to Figure 1.36,

7.3 Teeth Thickness Measurement

In a procedure similar to that used for external gears, tooth thickness can be measured indirectly by gaging with pins, but this
time the measurement is "under" the pins, as shown in Figure 1.37. Equations 11 thru 13 are modified accordingly to yield:
For an even number of teeth:
M= 2 ( Rc - dw ) (38)
2
For an odd number of teeth:
M = 2(Rc cos 90 - dw ) (39)
N 2
inv 1=inv + - T - dw
N D Dcos

where:
Rc = cos R
cos 1

T60
7.4 Features of Internal Gears

General advantages:
1. Lend to compact design since the center distance is less than for external gears.
2. A high contact ratio is possible.
3. Good surface endurance due to a convex profile surface working against a concave surface.
General disadvantages:
1. Housing and bearing supports are more complicated, because the external gear nests
within the internal gear.
2. Low velocity ratios are unsuitable and in many cases impossible because of interferences.
3. Fabrication is limited to the shaper generating process, and usually special tooling is required.

8.0 WORM MESH

The worm mesh is another gear type used for connecting skew shafts, usually 90, see Figure 1.38. Worm meshes are
characterized by high velocity ratios. Also, they offer the advantage of the higher load
capacity associated with their line contact in contrast to the point contact of the crossed-helical mesh

8.1 Worm Mesh Geometry

The worm is equivalent to a V-type screw thread, as evident from Figure 1.39. The mating worm-gear teeth have a helical lead. A
central section of the mesh, taken through the worms axis and perpendicular to the wormgears axis, as shown in Figure 1.39,
reveals a rack-type tooth for the worm, and a curved involute tooth form for the wormgear. However, the involute features are
only true for the central section. Sections on either side of the worm axis reveal non-symmetric and non-involute tooth profiles.
Thus, a worm-gear mesh is not a true involute mesh. Also, for conjugate action the center distance of the mesh must be an exact
duplicate of that used in generating the wormgear. To increase the length of action the wormgear is made of a throated shape to
wrap around the Worm.

T61
8.2 Worm Tooth Proportions

Worm tooth dimensions, such as addendum, dedendum, pressure angle, etc., follow the same standards as those for spur and
helical gears. The standard values apply to the central section of the mesh, (see Figure 1.40a). A high pressure angle is favored
and in some applications values as high as 25 and 30 are used.

8.3 Number of Threads

The worm can be considered resembling a helical gear with a high helix angle. For extremely high helix angles, there is one
continuous tooth or thread. For slightly smaller angles them can be two, three, or even more threads. Thus, a worm is
characterized by the number of threads, nw.

8.4 Worm and Wormgear Calculations

Referring to Figure 1.40b and recalling the relationships established for normal and transverse pitches in Par.5, the following
defines the geometry of worm mesh components.

T62
8.4.1 Pitch Diameters, Lead snd Lead Angle

Pitch diameter of worm = dw = nw Pcn (40)

sin

Pitch diameter of wormgear = Dg = Ng Pcn (41)

cos

where:
nw = number of threads of worm
L = lead of worm = nwpc = nw Pcn
cos
= lead angle = tan-1 nw
Pddw
= sin-1 nw Pcn
dw
Pcn = Pc cos

8.4.2 Center Distance of Mesh

c = dw + Dg = Pcn [ Ng + nw ] (42)
2 2 cos sin

T63
8.5 Velocity Ratio

The gear ratio of a worm mesh cannot be calculated from the ratio of the pitch diameters. It can be determined only from the
ratio of tooth numbers:

velocity ratio = Z = no. teeth in worm gear = Ng (43)

no. threads in worm

9.0 BEVEL GEARING

For intersecting shafts, bevel gears offer a good means of transmitting motion and power. Most transmissions occur at right
angles (Figure 1.41), but the shaft angle can be any value. Ratios up to 4:1 are common, although higher ratios are possible as
well.

9.1 Development and Geometry of Bevel Gears

Bevel gears have tapered elements because they can be generated by rolling cones, their pitch surfaces lying on the surface of a
sphere. Pitch diameters of mating bevel gears belong to frusta of cones, as shown in Figure 1.42. In the full development on the
surface of a sphere, a pair of meshed bevel gears and a crown gear are in conjugate engagement as shown in Figure 1.43.
The crown gear, which is a bevel gear having the largest possible pitch angle (defined in Figure 1.43), is analogous to the rack
of spur gearing, and is the basic tool for generating bevel gears. However, for practical reasons the tooth form is not that of a
spherical involute, and instead, the crown gear profile assumes a slightly simplified form. Although the deviation from a true
spherical involute is minor, it results in a line of action having a figure-S trace in its extreme extension, see Figure 1.44. This
shape gives rise to the name "octoid" for the tooth form of modem bevel gears.

T64
T65
9.2 Bevel Gear Tooth Proportions

Bevel gear teeth are proportioned in accordance with the standard system of tooth proportions used for spur gears. However, the
pressure angle of all standard design bevel gears is limited to 200. Pinions with a small number of teeth are enlarged
automatically when the design follows the Gleason system.
Since bevel-tooth elements are tapered, tooth dimensions and pitch diameter are referenced to the outer end (heel). Since
the narrow end of the teeth (toe) vanishes at the pitch apex (center of reference generating sphere) there is a practical limit to
the length (face) of a bevel gear. The geometry and identification of bevel gear parts is given in Figure 1.45.

9.3 Velocity Ratio

The velocity ratio can be derived from the ratio of several parameters:

velocity ratio = Z = N1 = D1 = sin 1 (44)

N2 D2 sin 2

where:

= pitch angle (Figure 1.45)

T66
In the simplest design the tooth elements are straight radial, converging at the cone apex. However, it is possible to have the
teeth curve along a spiral as they converge on the cone apex, resulting in greater tooth overlap, analogous to the overlapping
action of helical teeth. The result is a spiral bevel tooth. In addition, there are other possible variations. One is the zerol bevel,
which is a curved tooth having elements that start and end on the same radial line.
Straight bevel gears come in two variations depending upon the fabrication equipment. All current Gleason straight bevel
generators are of the Ceniflex form which gives an almost imperceptible convexity to the tooth surfaces. Older machines produce
true straight elements.. See Figure 1 .46a. Straight bevel gears are the simplest and most widely used type of bevel gear for the
transmission of power and/or motion between intersecting shafts. Straight-bevel gears are recommended:

1. When speeds are less than 1000 fpm at higher speeds, straight bevel gears may be noisy.
2. When loads are light, or for high static loads when surface wear is not a critical factor.
3. When space, gear weight, and mountings are a premium. This includes planetary gear
sets, where space does not permit the inclusion of rolling-element bearings. In this case
ground gears are a necessity.

Other forms of bevel gearing include the following:

Conii1ex gears (Figure 1.46b) are made in special straight-bevel gear-cutting machines that crown the sides of the teeth in
their lengthwise direction. The teeth, therefore, tolerate small amounts of misalignment in the assembly of the gears and some
displacement of the gears under load without concentrating the tooth contact at the ends of the teeth. As a result, these gears
are capable of transmitting heavier loads than the straight bevel gears under the same operating conditions.
Spiral bevels (Figure 1.46c) have curved oblique teeth which contact each other gradually and smoothly from one end to the
other. Imagine cutting a straight bevel into an infinite number of short face-width sections, angularly displace one relative to the
other, and one has a spiral bevel gear. Well-designed spiral bevels have two or more teeth in contact at all times. The
overlapping tooth action transmits motion more smoothly and quietly than with straight bevel gears.
Zerol bevels (Figure 1.46d) have curved teeth similar to these of the spiral bevels, but with zero spiral angle at the middle of
the face width; and they have lithe end thrust.

Both spiral and Zerol gears can be cut on the same machines with the same circular face-mill cutters or ground on the same
grinding machines. Both are produced with localized tooth contact which can be controlled for length, width, and shape.
Functionally, however, Zerol bevels are similar to the straight bevels and thus carry the same ratings. In fact, Zerols can be
used in the place of of straight bevels without mounting changes. Zerol bevels are widely employed in the aircraft industry, where
ground-tooth precision gears are generally required. Most hypoid cutting machines can cut spiral bevel, Zerol or hypoid gears.

________
The material in this paragraph has been reprinted with the permission of McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc.,
New York, N.Y. from Design of Bevel Gears by W. Coleman, Gear Design and Applications, N.
Chironis, Editor, McGraw Hill, New York, N.Y. 1967, p.57.

T67
10.0 GEAR TYPE EVALUATION

The choice of gear type is dependent upon a number of considerations involving physical space and shaft arrangement, load, gear
ratio, and desired precision or quality level. A general guide is to choose the simplest gear type that can accomplish the
objectives.
Spur gears are the first choice if they can do the job, as they are the easiest to make. That means they are the least
expensive and, if required, can be made to the highest precision. Helical gears are slightly more complicated than straight spurs,
but are the choice if loads and speeds are demanding. Helicals are superior to spurs in load capacity. Also, they offer avoidance of
undercutting in small tooth number pinions; and helicals can be designed to neatly span non-standard center distances. Crossed
helicals are an acceptable skew shaft drive only if the loads are small. Worm gearing and bevels offer right angle drives for skew
and intersecting shafts respectively. Each offers special features and advantages if needed.
Internal gears can fill a real need nicely, but they should only be used when the application requires their unique feature.
Special gears such as spiroid, helicon beveleid and face should be avoided as much as possible because of limited features,
complex forms to produce and inspect, limited fabrication sources, and relative high cost.
Table 1.8 summarizes comments and evaluations of the various gear types.

11.0 CRITERIA OF GEAR QUALITY

In addition to the sizing of gear parameters, it is necessary to ensure that their specifications and manufacture result in the
desired gear quality, This includes not only tolerances, but an understanding of what compromises gear quality.

11.1 Basic Gear Formats

Specification of a gear requires a drawing that shows details of the gear body, the mounting design, face width, any special
features, and the fundamental and essential gear data. This gear data can be efficiently and consistently specified on the gear
drawing in a standardized block format. The format varies in accordance with gear type. A typical data block for standard
fine-pitch spur gears is given in Figure 1.47. Formats for coarse pitch gears, helical gears and other gear types are given in detail
in the appendix of Ref. 5.

T68
 TABLE 1.8 SUMMARY AND EVALUATION OF GEAR TYPES
Precision Comments
Type Features Applications
Rating Regarding Precision
Spur excellent Parallel shafting Applicable to all Simplest tooth elements offering max -
High speeds types of trains and imum precision. First choice, recom -
and loads a wide range of mended for all gear meshes, except
Highest efficiency velocity ratios, where very high speeds and loads or
special features of other types, such as
right - angle drive, cannot be avoided.
Helical good Parallel shafting Most applicable to Equivalent quality to spurs except for
Very high speeds high speeds and complication of helix angle.
and loads loads; also used Recommended for all high- speed
Efficiency slightly wherever spurs and high-load meshes. Axial thrust
less than spur mesh are used. component must be accommodated.
Crossed poor Skewed shafting Relatively low To be avoided for precision meshes.
- helical Point contact velocity ratio; Point contact limits capacity and precision.
High sliding low speeds and Suitable for right - angle drives if
low speeds light loads only. A less expensive substitute for bevel
light load. Any angle gears. Good lubrication essential because
skew shafts. of point contact and high sliding action.
Internal fair Parallel shafts Internal drives Not recommended for precision meshes
spur High speeds requiring high because of design, fabricabon, and
High loads speeds and high inspection limitations. Should only be
loads; offers low used when internal feature is necessary.
sliding and high
stress loading; good
for high capacity,
long tie. Used In
planetary gears to
produce large
reduction ratios.
Bevel fair to Intersecting Suitable for 1:1 and Good choice for right-angle drive,
good shafts higher velocity particularly low ratios. However,
High speeds ratios and for right- comptcaled tooth form and fabrication
High loads angle mashes limits achievement of precision.
(and other angles) Should be located at one of the less
critical meshes of the train.
Worm fair to Right - angle High velocity ratio Worm can be made to high precision,
mesh good skew shafts Angular meshes but worm gear has inherent limitations.
High velocity High loads To be considered for average precision
ratio meshes, but can be of high precision with
High speeds care. Best choice for combination high
and loads velocity ratio and right- angle drive. High
Low efficiency sliding requires excellent lubrication.
Most designs
nonreversible
Specials poor to Intersecting and Special cases To be avoided as precision meshes. Sig -
(face, fair skew shafts nificant nonconjugate action with depart
Spiroid, Modest speeds ure from nominal center distance and
Helicon, and loads shaft angles. Fabrication requires special
Beveloid) equipment and inspection is limited.

T69

f
11.2 Tooth Thickness and Backlash

One of the most important criteria of gear quality is the specification and control of tooth thickness. As mentioned in Par. 4.10,
the magnitude of tooth thickness and its tolerance is a direct measure of backlash when the gear is assembled with its mate.
Although it is possible to set the tooth thickness and tolerance to any value within a wide range, convenient quality classes
have been established by AGMA in Gear Classification and Inspection Handbook (ANSI/AGMA 2000 - A88 ). This information is
reproduced in Table 1.9. The previous issue of this specification, (390.02), offered a more detailed table of backlash allowance
and tolerance which is still a useful design guide. See Table 1.10. Although no longer part of current AGMA standards, it is
consistent with Table 1.9.
Note that the data in Table 1.9 is for unassembled spur and helical gears; i.e. an individual gear. Backlash for a meshed gear
pair due to tooth thickness tolerance will be the sum of two values from Table 1.9, Most often the same tolerance is applied to
each gear of a meshed pair.

11.3 Position Error (or Transmission Error)

In many precision gear applications the transmission of motion from shaft-to shaft must have a high degree of linearity. This is
known by several names: transmission linearity, angular transmission accuracy, and index accuracy. Theoretically, involute gears
will function perfectly. However, in practice there are deviations from ideal motion transmission due to involute profile variations,
spacing errors, pitch line runout, and radial out-of-position. Combinations of all these errors cause a net position error, which is
transmitted to the instrument or machine involved.

T70
The single most important criterion of the above position errors is the total composite error of the gear (TCE). This is defined
simply as the maximum variation in center distance as the gear is rolled, intimately meshed with a master gear, on a
variable-center-distance fixture. The device has one floating center, and as the gears are rolled any eccentricity, tooth-to-tooth
variation, and profile deviation results in center distance variation. This variation can be measured and plotted, as shown in
Figure 1 .48.TheTCE parameter encompasses the combination of run out and tooth-to-tooth errors as indicated in Figure 1.48.
The latter, which is essentially the variation over a tooth cycle, is known as tooth-to-tooth composite error (TTCE).
Control of TCE and TTCE is achieved by specifying maximum values. Since TCE includes TTCE it is only necessary to specify
both when a finer control of the TFCE is desired.
The relationship between TCE and transmission error, ET, is adequately approximated by the expression:

ET = Etc sin , where = angular position of the gear (45)

2

This relationship indicates that the position error fluctuates sinusoidally between maximum lead and lag values.
*TABLE1.9 TOOTH THICKNESS TOLERANCE, (tT) (ALL TOLERANCE VALUES IN INCHES)
FOR UNASSEMBELED SPUR AND HELICAL GEARS
Quality Diametral Tolerance Codes
Number Pitch A B C D
0.5 0.074

3 1.2 0.031
and 2.0 0.019
4
3.2 0.012

5.0 0.0075

0.5 0.074

1.2 0.031

5 2.0 0.019 0.0093

3.2 0.012 0.006

5.0 0.0075 0.0037

8.0 0.005 0.0025

0.5 0.074

1.2 0.031

2.0 0.019 0.0093

3.2 0.012 0.006

6
5.0 0.0075 0.0037

8.0 0.005 0.0037

12.0 0.003 0.0018

20.0 0.0024 0.0012 0.0006

32.0 0.0016 0.0008 0.00043

0.5 0.074

1.2 0.031

2.0 0.019 0.0093 0.0048

3.2 0.012 0.006 0.003

7
thru 5.0 0.0075 0.0037 0.0019
15
8.0 0.005 0.0025 0.00125 0.00063
12.0 0.003 0.0018 0.0009 0.00044
20.0 0.0024 0.0012 0.0006 0.0003
32.0 0.0016 0.0008 0.00043 0.0002
50.0 0.0012 0.0006 0.0003 0.00014
80.0 0.0008 0.00045 0.00022 0.00011
120.0 0.00067 0.00034 0.00017 0.00009
*Extracted from AGMA Standard 2000-ABB, Gear Classification and Inspection Handbook Tolerances and Measuring Methods for
Unassembled Spur and Helical Gears, with permmision of the publisher, American Gear Manufacturers Association, 1500 King
Street, Alexenderia , Virginia 22314

T71
Equation 45 yields a linear position error measured in inches along the pitch circle. If an angular transmission error, aET, is
desired it is necessary to divide by the pitch radius of the gear. Thus:
aET = Etc sin q (radians) = 3440 Etc sin (arc minutes) (46)
2R D

The above defines the error of a single gear. In practice, one is interested in the total error of a mesh arising from errors of both
gears. Concerning only the maximum error (in order to avoid the complexity of phase angles*), the peak total mesh error is:

maximum peak error = (aET)mesh = (Etc)1+(Etc)2 3440 (arc minutes) (47)

R1,2

where: subscripts 1 and 2 represent each of the meshing gears; and

R1 and R2 are the respective pitch radii. These yield the angular error for the respective
gear center of the particular pitch radius being used, as shown in equation 47.
**TABLE 1.10 AGMA BACKLASH ALLOWANCE AND TOLERANCE
COARSE- PITCH GEARS
Center Distance Normal Dlametral Pitches
( Inches ) 0.5 - 1.99 2 - 3.49 3.5 - 5.99 6 - 9.99 10 - 19.99
Up to 5 0.005 - .015
Over 5 to 10 . 0.010 - .020 0.010 - 020
Over 10 to 20 0.020 -030 0.015 - .025 0.020 - .030
Over 20 to 30 0.030-.040 0.025 -.030 0.020 - .030
Over 30 to 40 0.040 - .060 0.035 - .045 0.030 - .040 0.025- .040
Over 40 to 50 0.050-.070 0.040 - .055 0.035-.O50 0.030 - .040
Over 50 to 80 0.060 - .080 0.045 - .065 0.040 - .060
Over 80 to 100 0.070 - .095 0.050 - .080
Over 100 to 120 0.080 - .110

FINE - PITCH GEARS

Tooth Thinning to
Obtain Backlash Resulting Approximate
Backlash Normal Diametral
Backlash (par mesh)
Designation Pitch Range Allowance Tolerance Normal Plane
( per gear) ( per gear )
20 thru 45 .002 0 to .002 .004 to .008
46 thru 70 .0015 0 to .002 .003 to .007
A
71 thru 90 .001 0 to .00175 .002 to .0055
91 thru 200 . 00075 0 to .00075 . 0015 to .003
20 thru 60 .001 0 to .001 .002 to .004
B 61 thru 120 .00075 0 to .00075 .0015 to .003
121 thru 200 .0005 0 to .0005 001 to .002
20 thru 60 .0005 0 to .0005 .001 to .002
C 61 thru 120 .00035 0 to .0004 .0007 to .00013
121 thru 200 . 0002 0 to .0003 .0004 to .001
20 thru 60 .00025 0 to .00025 .0005 to .001
D 61 thru 120 .0002 0 to .0002 .0004 to .0008
121 thru 200 . 0001 0 to .0001 . 0002 to .0004
20 thru 60 0 to .00025 0 to.0005
E 61 thru 120 Zero 0 to .0002 0 to .0004
121 thru 200 0 to.0001 0 to.0002

*See Reference 5 for the case of considering phase angles.

**Extracted from AGMA Gear Classification Manual AGMA 390.02, September 1964

T72
11.4 AGMA Quality Classes

Using criteria that are indicators and measures of gear quality, the AGMA has established a convenient standardization that forms
a continuous spectrum of quality classes ranging from the crudest to the most precise gears. For all gears, coarse and fine
pitches, them am 13 classes numbered 3 through 15.
AGMA Gear Classification and Inspection Handbook (ANSI/AGMA 2000-A88) specifically defines various gear quality
parameters for these 13 classes. This includes tolerance ranges for runout, pitch, profile, lead, total composite error, and
tooth-to-tooth composite error. These values are for spur and helical gearing. In addition, them are separate table values for rack
and pinions, bevel and hypoid gears, and fine pitch worm gearing. Also presented are class tolerances of key parameters for spur
and helical inspection master gears.

11.5 Comparison with previous AGMA and International Standards

It is assumed that the present AGMA Gear Classification and Inspection Handbook (ANSI/AGMA 2000- A88) is readily available to
all those who wish to obtain additional information and tables related to this subject. Many designers, however, may not have
access to the tables published in previous AGMA 390.02 and AGMA 236.04 standards. For this reason, Tables 1.10A and 1 .10B
are presented.
Furthermore, as a result of increased international trade and the influx of metric gears, it is useful to compare different
national gear standard values. Such a comparison giving approximate equivalence of values is given in Table 1.10 C.

T73
 TABLE 1.10A FINE-PITCH GEAR TOLERANCES FOR AGMA QUALITY CLASSES
AGMA No. of Teeth Diametral Tooth-to-Teeth Total
Quality And Pitch Composite Composite
No. Pitch Diameter Range Tolerance Tolerance
Up to 20 teeth inclusive 20 to 80 0.0037 0.0052
Over 20 teeth, up to 1.999 20 to 32 0.0027 0.0052
5
Over 20 teeth. 2 to 3.999 20 to 24 0.0027 0.0061
Over 20 teeth, 4 & over 20 to 24 0.0027 0.0072
Up to 20 teeth inclusive 20 to 200 0.0027 0.0037
Over 20 teeth,up to 1.999 20 to48 0.0019 0.0037
6
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999 20 to 32 0.0019 0.0044
Over 20 teeth, 4" & over 20 to 24 0.0019 0.0052
Up to 20 teeth Inclusive 20 to 200 0.0019 0.0027
Over 20 teeth, up to l.999" 20 to200 0.0014 0.0027
7
Over 20 teeth, 2" to 3.999 20 to 48 0.0014 0.0032
Over 20 teeth, 4 & over 20 to 40 0.0014 0.0037
Up to 20 teeth inclusive 20 to 200 0.0014 0.0019
Over 20 teeth, up to l.999 20 to200 0.0010 0.0019
8
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999 20 to 100 0.0010 0.0023
Over 20 teeth,4 & over 20 to64 0.0010 0.0027
Up to 20 teeth inclusive 20 to 200 0.0010 0.0014
Over 20 teeth, up to 1.999 20 to 200 0.0007 0.0014
9
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999 20 to 200 0.0007 0.0016
Over 20 teeth, 4 & over 20 to 120 0.0007 0.0019
Up to 20 teeth inclusive 20 to 200 0.0007 0.0010
Over 20 teeth, up to l.999 20 to200 0.0005 0.0010
10
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999 20 to 200 0.0005 0.0012
Over 20 teeth,4 &over 20 to200 0.0005 0.0014
Up to 20 teeth inclusive 20 to 200 0.0005 0.0007
Over 20 teeth, up to 1.999 20 to 200 0.0004 0.0007
11
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999 20 to 200 0.0004 0.0009
Over 20 teeth,4 & over 20 to200 0.0004 0.0010
Up to 20 teeth inclusive 20 to 200 0.0004 0.0005
Over 20 teeth, up to 1.999 20 to 200 0.0003 0.0005
12
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999 20 to 200 0.0003 0.0006
Over 20 teeth, 4 &over 20 to 200 0.0003 0.0007
Up to 20 teeth inclusive 20 to 200 0.0003 0.0004
Over 20 teeth,upto 1.999 20 to200 0.0002 0.0004
13
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999 20 to 200 0.0002 0.0004
Over 20 teeth, 4 & over 20 to 200 0.0002 0.0005
Up to 20 teeth inclusive 20 to 200 0.00019 0.00027
Over 20 teeth, up to 1.999 20 to 200 0.00014 0.00027
14
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999 20 to 200 0.00014 0.00032
Over20 teeth,4 & over 20 to200 0.00014 0.00037
Up to 20 teeth inclusive 20 to 200 0.00014 0.00019
Over 20 teeth, up to1.999 20 to 200 0.00010 0.00019
15
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999 20 to 200 0.00010 0.00023
Over 20 teeth, 4 & over 20 to 200 0.00010 0.00027
Up to 20 teeth inclusive 20 to 200 0.00010 0.00014
Over 20 teeth,upto 1.999 20 to200 0.00007 0.00014
16
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999 20 to 200 0.00007 0.00016
Over 20 teeth, 4 & over 20 to 200 0.00007 0.00019

*From AGMA Gear Classification Manual for Spur, Helical and Heningbone Gears. AGMA 390.02, Sept. 1964.

T74
 TABLE 1.10B COMPARISON OF NEW AND PREVIOUS FINE-PITCH
AGMA QUALITY CLASSES*
PREVIOUS FINE-PITCH SYSTEM , AGMA 236.04 FINE-PITCH SYSTEM, AGMA 390.02
AGMA Tooth-to-Tooth Total AGMA Tooth-to-Tooth Total
Quality Composite Composite Quality Composite Composite
No. Error Error No. (Error) Tolerance (Error) Tolerance
0.0027 or 0.0052 or
Commercial 1 0.0020 0.0060 5 or 6
0.0019 0.0037
0.0019 or 0.0037 or
Commercial 2 0.0015 0.0040 6 or 7
0.0014 0.0027
Commercial 3 0.0010 0.0020 8 0.0010 0.0019
Commercial 4 0.0007 0.0015 9 0.0007 0.0014
0.0005 or 0.0010 or
Precision 1 0.0004 0.0010 10 or 11
0.0004 0.0007
Precision 2 0.0003 0.0005 12 0.0003 0.0005
0.0002 or 0.0004 or
Precision 3 0.0002 0.00025 13 or 14
0.00014 0.00027
* Extracted from AGMA Gear Classification Manual AGMA 390.02, Sept. 1964.
For more current standard, consult ANSI/AGMA 2000-A88, March 1988.

TABLE 1.10C QUAUTY NUMBER COMPARISON OF

DIFFERENT NATIONAL GEAR STANDARDS
International W. Germany Japan U.S.A.
ISO DIN JIS AGMA
4 4 0 13
5 5 1 12
6 6 2 11
7 7 3 10
8 8 4 9
9 9 5 8

T75
12.0 CALCULATION OF GEAR PERFORMANCE CRITERIA

Essential to proper application of gears is the derivation of values of performance criteria Most important are: backlash,
transmission error and total position error. In evaluating a gear mesh, its performance depends not only on specific gear
parameters, but also on many installation and design features such as bearings, shafting, and housing.

12.1 Backlash In a Single Mesh

All sources of backlash must be identified and combined in order to obtain the total backlash for the mesh. Sources can be
grouped according to the following categories:
I. Design backlash allowance
1. Gear size allowance any reduction of tooth thickness (or testing radius)
below nominal value
2. Center distance any increase in center distance above nominal value

Major tolerances
II. 1. Gear size tolerance (tooth thickness or testing radius)
2. Center distance tolerance

Gear center shift due to secondary sources

III. 1. Fixed bearing eccentricities
a. Outer-race eccentricity of ball bearing
b. Inside-diameter and outside-diameter runout of sleeve bearing
2. Racial clearances due to tolerances and allowances
a. Racial play of ball bearing
b. Fit between shaft and bearing bore
c. Fit between outside diameter of beating and housing bore

Backlash sources which are functions of gear rotation

IV. 1. Total composite error
2. Clearance between gear bore and shaft
3. Runout at point of gear mounting
4. Eccentricity of rotating race of ball beating
V. Miscellaneous sources
1. Dimensional changes due to thermal expansion or contraction
2. Deflections: teeth, gear body, shaft, and housing

A more complete and detailed coverage of these backlash sources is given in Reference 5. From the above listing of backlash
sources, those which contribute significantly can be evaluated and summed. Thus, the total backlash for a mesh is expressed as:

Bmesh = B (48)

When using equation 48, it should be noted that all sources of radial backlash, such as center- distance tolerance and racial shift
due to eccentricities, must be converted to backlash measured along the pitch circle in accordance with equation 22a prior to
addition of sources such as tooth- thickness tolerances, etc. Also, note that sources of backlash can be divided into two
categories: those of constant magnitude; and those the magnitude of which varies with gear rotation. The latter sources are
associated with runout. Thus, backlash can be expressed as follows:

T76
 B = Bc + Bv (49)

where:

Bc = constant backlash
Bv = variable backlash

12.2 Transmission Error

The sources of transmission error originate both from the gears and their installation. Some of these are also sources of backlash.
The list of usual sources is as follows:
I. Position error in the individual gears
1. Total composite error
a. Single-cycle errors (pitch-line runout)
b. High-frequency tooth-to-tooth composite errors (TTCE)

II. Installation errors

1. Runout sources
a. Clearance between gear bore and shaft
b. Runoutat point of gear mounting
c. Eccentricity of rotating race of ball bearing
d. Miscellaneous runouts:
component shaft
composite gear assembly
2. Miscellaneous error sources
a. Shaft couplings
b. Material creep of shaft and bearings

The above errors are converted to angular-position error in the same manner as TCE is converted by equation 46. Thus, the total
transmission error for each mesh is proportional to the sum of all eccentricity error sources:

a(ET)mesh = 3440 Ei (arc minutes) (50)

R

where:
Ei = eccentricity (one half runout value) of error contributors

A more detailed explanation and analysis of transmission error can be obtained from Reference 5.

12.3 Integrated Position Error

Backlash and transmission error should be distinguished from functional considerations which are not necessarily related to gear
performance. For example, in a servomotor gear train, backlash may be very important, whereas position error may be
immaterial. Alternatively, in a unidirectional position sensor gear-train, backlash may be of little concern, while transmission error
might be critical. Often however, positional accuracy is most important in the overall accuracy of gear trains. In such cases,
backlash combines with transmission error to yield an integrated position error (IPE). In essence the

T77
errors. However, this combination is not necessarily simple since many of the transmission-error sources are identical to those
associated with variable backlash. In addition, transmission error varies between maximum lead and lag values. Details of the
integration are beyond the scope of this coverage, but can be found in Reference 5. The basic equation for the peak value is:

(peak) IPE = Ei = (ET + Bc ) (51)

2

where:
Bc = backlash constant with rotation
ET = transmission error ( peak value)

12.4 Control of Backlash

In the many cases in which it is necessary to minimize backlash, a proper control must be chosen. The direct approach of
narrowing all allowances and tolerances on sources is effective. Accordingly, precision gear qualities are specified, particularly
with regard to testing radius (tooth thickness) and TCE. However, there are practical limitations since cost increases exponentially
with precision. Some method of circumventing extremes of precision must be used. An alternate means of controlling backlash is
to use adjustable centers or to spring-load the gears by one of several different designs. In this regard, the spring-loaded scissor
gear has particular merit since all backlash is continually eliminated. However, it is limited to low torque applications. Consult
Reference 5 for an in-depth coverage of various types of backlash control and elimination schemes.

12.5 Control of Transmission Error

The methods available for controlling transmission error are much more limited than the means for controlling backlash. The
most effective is the direct control of errors by specification of close tolerances. This means precision categories for TCE, TTCE,
and for installation components such as shafting and ball bearings.
In special cases, such as when the gear ratio of the mesh is unity, it is possible to calibrate the gears to match pitchline
runouts to provide cancellation of error. However, besides being costly and not foolproof, this method is very limited since it
requires not only a 1:1 gear ratio, but also identical runout errors for both gears.

13.0 GEAR STRENGTH AND DURABILITY

Gear failure can occur due to tooth breakage or surface failure in the form of fatigue and wear. The first is referred to as tooth
strength and the latter as durability. Strength is determined in terms of tooth-beam stresses for both static and dynamic
conditions, following well established formulas and procedures. Durability ratings are evaluated in terms of surface stresses
including the influence not only of dynamics, but also of material combinations, lubrication and a considerable number of
empirically derived factors.

13.1 Bending Tooth Strength

Tooth loading produces stresses that can ultimately result in tooth breakage. This is not a prevalent

T78
type of failure because mechanical properties of gear materials are well known, and the design equations are sufficiently
accurate. The analysis of bending stresses is as follows:
In transmitting power, the driving, force acts along the line-of-action, and the tooth senses a moving force acting from the
tip to the base, as shown in Figure 1.49. The load can be resolved into a tangential force, W1, causing bending, and a normal
force, WN, causing compression. These are shown in Figure 1.50 along the corresponding net stresses.
Based upon the above static analysis, Wilfred Lewis, in 1892, presented his expression for tooth beam strength which is now
reknowned as the classic Lewis equatien:
Wt = SFY
Pd

As a static beam resisting a fixed load in position and magnitude, this equation is usually adequate. However, it does not take
into account the dynamics of meshing teeth. In that regard, later investigators have modified and improved the original Lewis
equation.

Beam Strength (Figure 1.51)

Improved results can be obtained by use of Barths modified Lewis formula, which takes velocity into consideration but not wear.
Impact and fatigue stresses become more pronounced as pitch-line velocity increases. The formula includes a velocity factor and
is satisfactory for commercial gears at pitch-line velocities up to 1,500 fpm:
Wt = SFY ( 600 ) where: Wt = transmitted load (52)
Pd 600+V S = maximum bending tooth stress, at the root outer fibers.
F = face width of gear
Y = Lewis factor
Pd= diametral pitch
V = velocity of the pitch point in feet per minute.

For non-metallic gears, the velocity factor is changed from ( 600 ) to ( 150 + 0.25 )
600+V 200+V
The Lewis factor is dimensionless and independent of tooth size, and a function only of shape. Lewis factors for standard
teeth are given in Table 1.11.
A safe stress level depends upon the material and the number of stress cycles to which the teeth are subjected. This can be
evaluated from an S-N curve, modified Goodman diagram, Soderberg line, or equivalent data. Reference 6 contains helpful
information on fatigue stress analysis.

Table 1.12 gives safe stresses for a number of engineering materials. An estimate for the maximum allowable bending stress, S
in equation 52, can then be obtained by multiplying the stress given in Table 1.12 by two factors: a service factor given in Table
1.13 and a lubrication factor given in Table 1.14.
Use of a proper limiting stress value, Se in equation 52, results in a calculated tooth load, W0, based on beam strength. For
acceptable designs, Wb>= Wt
The tangentially transmitted load is calculated from the transmitted horsepower as follows:
where: Pt = transmitted horsepower (53)
Wt = 126,000 Pt
Nr= gear speed in revolutions per minute
DNr
D = gear pitch diameter

T79
T80
D190 Catalog

TABLE 1.11 LEWIS Y FACTORS

Full Depth Involute Full Depth Involute
No. of No. of
Teeth 14o 20o Teeth 14o 20o
10 0.176 0.201 36 0.329 0.377
11 0.192 0.226 38 0.332 0.383
12 0.210 0.245 40 0.336 0.389
13 0.223 0.264 45 0.340 0.399
14 0.236 0.276 50 0.346 0.408
15 0.245 0.289 55 0.352 0.415
16 0.255 0.295 60 0.355 0.421
17 0.264 0.302 65 0.358 0.425
18 0.270 0.308 70 0.360 0.429
19 0.277 0.314 75 0.361 0.433
20 0.283 0.320 80 0.363 0.436
22 0.292 0.330 90 0.366 0.442
24 0.302 0.337 100 0.368 0.446
26 0.308 0.344 150 0.375 0.458
28 0.314 0.352 200 0.378 0.463
30 0.318 0.358 300 0.382 0.471
32 0.322 0.364
34 0.325 0.370 Rack 0390 0.484

TABLE 1.12 SAFE STRESSES**

Safe beam stress or static stress of materials for gears
(values of sw for use in the modified Lewis equations)

Safe Stress Ultimate Strength Yield Stress

Material* sw sw sw
Cast iron, ordinary 8,000 24.000
Cast iron, good grade 10,000 30,000
Semisteel 12,000 36,000
Cast steel 20,000 65,000 36,000
Forged carbon steel :
SAE 1020 casehardened 18,000 55,000 30.000
SAE
1030 not treated 20,000 60,000 33,000
1035 not treated 23,000 70,000 38,000
1040 nat treated 25,000 80,000 45,000
1045 not treated 30.000 90.000 50.000
1045 hardened 30,000 95,000 60,000
1050 hardened 35.000 100,000 60,000
Alloy steels:
Ni, SAE 2320, casehardened 50,000 100,000 80,000
Cr-Ni, SAE 3245, heat treated 65,000 120,000 100,000
Cr-Van. SAE 6145, heat treated 67,500 130,000 110,000
Manganese bronze, SAE 43 20.000 60.000 30,000
Gear bronze. SAE 62 10,000 30,000 15,000
Phosphor bronze, SAE 65 12,000 36,000 20,000
Aluminum bronze, SAE 68 15,000 65.000 25,000
Rawhide 6,000
Fabrnil 6,000
Bakelite 6,000 18,000 bending
Micarta 6,000 18,000 bending

* For materials not given in this table the safe stress can be taken as 1/3 of the ultimate
strength.
**Repinted with permission from: Doughtie, Valiance, Kreisle: Design of Machine Members,
McGraw Mill Co. 1964, p.268.

T81
 D190 Catalog

TABLE 11.3 SERVICE FACTORS

Type of Service
Type of Load 8-10 hr per 24 hr Intermittent,
day per day 3 hr per day
Steady 1.00 0.80 1.25
Light shock 0.80 0.65 1.00
medium shock 0.65 0.55 0.80
Heavy shock 0.55 0.50 0.65

TABLE 1.14 LUBRICATION FACTORS

Type of
Lubrication Factor
Lubrication
Submerged in oil 1.00
Oil drip
Grease 0.80
Intermittent 0.65
Lubrication 0.50

The loading conditions assumed by the original Lewis equation are very conservative.
A modification that results in a more realistic situation was made by Dudley
(Reference 3), that takes into account multiple teeth sharing load. When the contact ratio factor
is added as well, the modified Lewis equation becomes:

Wt = mpSFY ( 600
) for steel gears (54)
Pd 600+V
where the contact ratio m takes into account the fact that when the load is at the tip of the tooth, it is
shared by a second pair of teeth.

The following tables are useful in determining gear load ratings:

Table 1.15 : Ratings for steel spur gears
Tables 1.16 & 1.17 : Ratings for small-pitch spur gears
Table 1.18 : Ratings for hardened steel helical gears
Tables 1.19 & 1.20 : Ratings of worms and worm gears.

13.2 Dynamic Strength

Equations 52 and 54 give adequate results for gear meshes that are in a static situation. When
gears are in action, however, tooth loading is greater than the static value due to dynamic
effects. In a gear system, dynamic forces arise from a combination of the masses involved, their
elasticity and the forcing function representing the prescribed motion. Inaccuracies in gear-tooth
profiles cause accelerations and decelerations during gear action which reflect as inertia forces,
and can greatly exceed static tooth loading. The severity of dynamic forces is a function of
pitch-line velocity and tooth errors.An accurate prediction of dynamic forces is very difficult.
Various factors and formulas have beer, devised to increase the static tooth force to a value that
safety represents the dynamic condition. A

T82
NOTE: All charts are based on 30,000 p.s.i. yield stress. For other yield stress values multiply gear by thickness matetial stress
ratio.
Example: 72 pitch 140 teeth brass gear torque is 200 in. oz. Table for 72 pitch yields 0.062 face width for these conditions.
Multiplied by 1.5 stress ratio, the final face width of 0.093 is obtained.

TABLE 1.17 STRESS RA11OS FOR VARIOUS GEAR MATERIALS**

Gear Material Yield Stress, psi Stress Ratio

3140 Steel *70,000-150,000 *0.43-0.20
Stainless Steel 416 *50,000-115,000 *0.60-0.26
Aluminum Alloy 24 S-T4 40,000
30,000 0.75
Stainless Steel 303 1.00
Phosphor Bronze 20,000
20,000 1.50
SAE 1020 1.50
Brass 20,000
8,000 1.50
Phenolic 3.75
Nylon 6,000
5.00

* depends upon heat treatment.

**By permission, Product Engineering, October 1955

TABLE 1.18 RA11NGS FOR HARDENED STEEL HELICAL GEARS**

Number Horsepower at Various R.P.M.*

of 24 D.P. - 1/4" Face 20 D.P. - 3/8" Face
Teeth 100 200 300 600 900 1200 1800 100 200 300 600 900 1200 1800
8 .03 .05 .07 .14 .20 .26 .37 .05 .11 .16 .30 .43 .55 .76
10 .04 .07 .10 .19 .27 .34 .47 .07 .14 .21 .40 .56 .71 .47
12 .04 .08 .12 .23 .32 .41 .55 .09 .18 .26 .48 .68 .85 .55
15 .05 .11 .16 .29 .41 .51 .68 .12 .23 .33 .61 .85 1.05 .68
16 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

18 .04 .09 .13 .23 .32 .40 .53 - - - - - - -

20 .05 .10 .14 .26 .35 .44 .57 .11 .21 .30 .54 .73 .89 1.14
24 .06 .12 .17 .30 .41 .50 .64 - - - - - - -
25 - - - - - - - .14 .26 .37 .65 .86 1.04 1.30
30 .08 .14 .21 .36 .48 .58 .73 .16 .31 .43 .75 .98 1.16 1.43

32 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
36 .09 .17 .25 .42 .55 .66 .81 - - - - - - -
40 - - - - - - - .22 .40 .56 .93 1.19 1.38 1.65
48 .12 .22 .31 .52 .66 .77 .92 - - - - - - -
50 - - - - - - - .27 .49 .67 1.08 1.35 1.55 1.81

60 .15 .27 .37 .60 .75 .86 1.01 .32 .57 .77 1.20 1.48 1.67 1.91
72 .17 .32 .43 .67 .82 .93 1.07 - - - - - - -

*Above ratings are for gears used on PARALLEL SHAFTS. Perpendicular

shaft applications are not recommended for transmission of power.
**Reprinted by permission from Browning Manufacturing - Cat. No. 6.

T85
D190 Catalog
dynamic factor DF is used to modify static tooth strength equations 52 and 54, such that:

Wd=Wt * DF (55)

and for acceptable designs:

wb >=wd
With the aid of empirical data. Buckingham established the dynamic increment of the transmitted
force as a function of: profile errors; acceleration forces; elasticity properties; forces required to deform the teeth an amount
equivalent to the tooth errors; and pitch line velocity. His simplified equation is:

For spur gears:

wd = wt + .05V(FC+Wt )
.05V +(FC+Wt) (56)

and for helical gears:

wd = wt + .05V(FC Cos2+Wt)Cos
.05V +(FC Cos2+Wt) (57)

where:

V = pitch line velocity in feet per minute

F = active face width in inches
C = deformation factor

Values of the factor C for common material combinations and a range of tooth error
(action errors) is presented in Table 1.21. These errors can be equated to total composite and tooth-to-tooth composite errors.
TABLE 1.21 VALUES OF DEFORMA11ON FACTOR C
Tooth Error in Action, Inches
Materials, Pinion and Gear
Form 0.0005 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
Cast Iron & Cast Iron 400 800 1,600 2,400 3,200 4,000
Steel & Cast Iron 14o 550 1,100 2,200 3,300 4,400 5,500
Steel & Steel 800 1,600 3,200 4,800 6,400 8,000
Cast Iron & Cast Iron 20o 415 830 1,660 2,490 3,320 4,150
Steel & Cast Iron full 570 1,140 2,280 3,420 4,560 5,700
Steel & Steel depth 830 1,660 3,320 4,980 6,640 8,300
Cast Iron & Cast Iron 20o
430 860 1,720 2,580 3,440 4,300
Steel & Cast Iron stub 590 1,180 2,360 3,540 4,720 5,900
Steel & Steel tooth
860 1,720 3,440 5,160 6,880 8,600
T87
13.3 Surface Durability

The Lewis formula and its modification to Incorporate dynamic conditions is limited to beam-stress analysis. In addition, there are
stresses generated in the surface layers of the teeth by the direct crushing action of the forces. These stresses can exceed the
material limits and can result in pitting, scoring, scuffing, seizing and plastic deformation.

Pitting This is the removal of small bits of metal from the surface, due to fatigue, thereby leaving small holes or pits. This is
caused by high tooth loads leading to excessive surface stress, a high local temperature due to high rubbing speeds, or
inadequate lubrication. Minute cracking of the surface develops, spreads and ultimately results in small bits breaking out of the
tooth surface.

Scoring This is a heavy scratch pattern extending from tooth root to tip. It appears as if a heavily-loaded tooth pair has
dragged foreign matter between sliding teeth. It can be caused by lubricant failure, incompatible materials and overload.

Scuffing This is a surface destruction composed of plastic material flow plus superimposed gouges and scratches caused by
loose metallic particles acting as an abrasive between teeth. Both scoring and scuffing are associated with welding (or seizing)
and plastic deformation. Frequently it is difficult to distinguish among the several types of failure as there is considerable
intermingling.

There have been many attempts to derive expressions for calculating safe surface stress. The Buckingham durability equations
based on Hertzian contact stresses and the work of others can be found in the references. All of the various design equations and
procedures are closely related to specific empirical data and experience. The AGMA equations are in wide use in the United
States.

13.4 AGMA Strength and Durability Ratings

The AGMA rating formulas again represent a combinations of analysis, approximations, and empirical data. A complete treatment
of AGMA practices is too extensive for this discussion and only an introductory survey is offered. More details are available from
AGMA literature and Chapter 11 of Reference 6.

The AGMA formulas pertain to strength and surface durability, with dynamic and other effects induded. The equations are:

Tooth Strength (bending stress):

St = WtKo . Pd . KsKm (58)

Kv F J

Surface Durability:

Sc = Cp WtCo . Cs . CtCm (59)

Cv dF l
These equations relate stress to load, size and stress parameters.
The calculated stresses must be less than the allowable stress values of the material, which in turn depend on the nature of the
application. The allowable stresses are as follows:

Allowable surface durability stress:

St =< Sat KL (60)

KrKr

T88
Allowable surface durability stress:

Sc =< Sac CLCH (61)

CRCT
Definition of terms in the above equations is given in Table 1.22.
Tooth strength, equation 58, is essentially a modification of the Lewis formula. The extent of depar-
ture and tie improved accommodation to actual performance is dependent upon the coefficients asso-
ciated with each term
The surface durability equation is related to the well established Hertzian contact-stress formula.
Again, coefficients in the above equations are intended to relate the theory more closely to actual gear-tooth behavior.
The meaning of the coefficients in the above equations are as follows:

Load distribution factors Cm&Km

These factors concern phenomena that cause non-uniform load distribution across the gear width:
profile errors, eccentricity of mounting, non-parallelism of shafts and defiections and distortions.
The effect of these errors is to cause a load concentration.

Overload factors Km& Co

TABLE 1.22 DEFINITIONS OF SYMBOLS IN AGMA RATING FORMULAS
Term Strength Durability

LOAD:
Transmitted Load Wt Wt
Dynamic Factor Kv Cv
Overload Factor
Ko Co
SIZE: -- d
Pinion Pitch Diameter
Net Face Width F F
Transverse Diameteral pitch Pd --
Size Factor Ko Co
STRESS DISTRIBUTION:
Load Distribution Factor Km Cm
Geometry factor J I
Surface Condition factor -- Cf

STRESS: St Sc
Caiculated Stress Sac
Allowable Stress Sat
Elastic Coetficient -- CP
Hardness-Ratio Factor -- CH
Life Factor KL CL
Temperature Factor
Factor of Safety Kt CT
KR CR

T89
Dynamic factors Kv & Cv
These relate to speed and gear errors which lead to dynamic loading. As pitch-line velocity increases, the dynamic load increment
increases linearly. However, the dynamic effects of tooth errors is much more complex. Tooth-to-tooth errors, which arise in a
variety of forms, have a different dynamic effect than runout errors. Also, elastic tooth deflections cause apparent errors.

Life factors KL & CL

These factors are primarily intended to take into account performance of gears the life of which can
be finite.

Factors of safety KR & CR

Although factors of safety are old in engineering practice, in this case they identify the degree of reliability sought in a clear
fashion.

Temperature factors KT & CT

These factors modify the design in accordance with adverse temperature effects on lubricant performance. Usually this factor
does not become significant until temperature exceeds 200F.

Surface factorsCPCH& CP
The three durability factors, C,, C & C for surface condition, hardness ratio and elastic coefficient rates the resistance of the
gear-tooth surface to wear.

Size factors KS& CS

These reflect the non-uniformity of material characteristics, such as hardness, and the dimensional parameters of the gear. The
latter include: diameter, face width, tooth size and ratio of case depth to tooth size.

Geometry factors J&I

These relate to the tooth proportions, primarily concerning radii of curvature and parameters controlling load sharing. They are
somewhat akin the Lewis Y factors. For standard tooth
proportions, these have fixed values.

Allowable stress Sat & Sac

This is the rated stress value of the material as specified by the manufacturer or standards, or obtained from material testing.
This value takes into account cyclic stressing and is the nominal endurance stress rating of the material.

Numerical values of factors Specific factor values are available from AGMA publications, or duplicated extracted information.
Procedures for determining these factors are given in the AGMA literature. When conditions are such that a given factor is
unimportant or insufficient information
exists for its adequate evaluation it is usually safe to equate the factor to unity. In most cases, this results in a conservative or
mid-value rating.

Evaluations of equations The above information constitutes an outline of the procedures offered by AGMA for determining
strength and durability ratings. As an outline it cannot include detail;and to apply the procedures the reader should refer to the
references.

Additional design equations The AGMA beam strength and durability equations have been custom modified and refined by a
number of gear designers and manufacturers, creating a variety of design techniques and equations. Often this may be
proprietary information, but will be available for specific use with customers needs. In addition, there are a host of varied design
equations used by

T90
 lou near designers
foreign gear designers. This multiplicity of equations underlines that gear strength and durability is not
an exact engineering science, but rather is empirical and experience dependent. Also, the user should
be aware that most gear equations and empirical results pertain to coarse pitch gears. The literature
offers much less about tine pitch instrument gearing.

Computer programs The AGMA design equations involving various parameters are defined with
specific detail in the standard. Several of these equation terms are subject to design modification,
but are complexly derived. Examples are geometry factors (I & J) which are alterable by profile
modifications. Many computer programs have been generated which efficiently handle these complex
calculations.

In addition to strength and durabtity design, software exists for the entire gear and gear train
design including the selection of gear type, pitch, geometry and materials. Programs are purchasable
from a number of universities and software houses.

14.0 GEAR MATERIALS

In order for gears to achieve their intended performance, life and reliability, the selection of a suitable
gear material is very important. Often not all design requirements are compatible. High load capacity
requires a tough, hard material which is difficult to machine; whereas high precision favors materials
that are easy to machine and, therefore, have lower strength and hardness ratings. Light weight and
small size favors light non-ferrous materials, while high capacity requires the opposite. Thus, tradeoffs and compromise are
required to achieve an optimum design.
Gear materials vary widely, ranging from ferrous metals, through the many non-ferrous and light-weight metals, to the various
plastics. The gear designer and user faces a myriad of choices. The
final slection should be based upon an understanding of material properties and application requirements.

14.1 Ferrous Metals

Despite the introduction of many new exotic metals and plastics with impressive characteristics, ferrous metals are still the most
widely used far gears, because they offer high strength, response
to heat treatment and low cost. Cast iron and steel, carbon steels and alloy steels are in common use.

14.1.1 Cast Iron is widely used for large gears where it is advantageous to save machining costs
by molding the gear blank. Cast steels also offer this advantage together with higher tensile and yield
strengths, but cast iron is superior under dynamic conditions, providing excellent internal damping
properties.

14.1.2 Steels are divided into two main divisions: plain carbon and alloy. The carbon steels offer
low cost reasonably easy machining and ability to be hardened. A major disadvantage is the lack of
resistance to corrosion.
When elements other than carbon are added to the iron, the steel is termed "alloy steel". These
cover a wide range from low-grade types to special high alloys offering exceptionally high strengths.
Stainless steels are contained within this large category. Alloy steels offer a wide range of heat
treatment properties that makes the category of alloy steels the most versatile.
Stainless Steels are divided into two types: the so called 300 series true stainless steels, which
resist nearly all corrosive conditions; and the 400 series, which although not truly stainless, offer less
corrosion resistance only in certain environments (such as certain acids and salt water) and are
otherwise considered stainless. The further significant distinction between the two series is that the
300 series generally are much more difficult to machine, non-magnetic and non-heat-treatable,
although somewhat responsive to cold working. The 400 series are magnetic, almost every alloy is

T91

file:///C|/A3/D190/HTML/D190T91.htm [9/27/2000 6:49:31 PM]

heat treatable and have a much better index of machinability corresponding to some of the carbon steels. Table 1.23 lists
mechanical properties of typical gear steels. Table 1.24 presents relative machinability of various steels.

14.2 Non-Ferrous Metals

The commonly used non-ferrous materials are the aluminum alloys and bronzes. Zinc diecast alloys are used also. Non-ferrous
metals generally or selectively offer good machinability, light weight, corrosion resistance and are non-magnetic.
14.2.1 Aluminum as a gear material has the special feature of light weight, and moderately good strength for the low weight It
is also corrosion resistant and easy to machine. A major disadvantage is the large coefficient of thermal expansion compared to
steels. Many aluminum alloys differ in ease of forming, machining and casting. Aluminum alloys respond to cold working and heat
treatment Mechanical properties for several alloys are given in Table 1.25.
14.2.2 Bronzes have long been used for gear materials. They possess favorable frictional and wear properties when mating with
steel gears. They are particularly advantageous in worm meshes and crossed-helical meshes because of the large amount of
sliding. Bronzes are extremely stable and offer excellent machinability. The material can be cast, but bar stock and forgings are
superior. Chief disadvantages are the high specific weight (highest of the gear materials) and relatively high cost.
There are many bronze alloys, but only a few are extensively used for gears. These are the four alloys listed in Table 1.25. This
table also lists brasses that are used for low load fine pitch gears.

14.3 Die Cast Alloys

Many high-volume low-cost gears are produced by the die-cast process. Most are produced in alloys of aluminum and zinc, and a
few in bronze and brass. Properties of alloys suitable fOr gears are given In Table 1.26.

14.4 Sintered Powder Metal

This is a process of molding fine metal powder and alloying ingredients under high pressure and then firing to fuse the mass. It is
a high-production means of producing relatively high-strength gears at low cost. Metals used for gears are iron-based mixtures,
bronzes and brasses. Powder metals are expensive, but offsetting this the scrap losses are very small. Properties of sintered
powder alloys suitable for gears is presented in Table 127.

14.5 Plastics

Plastics gears offer quiet operation, wear resistance, damping, lightweight, non-corrosiveness, minimum or no lubrication and low
cost. On the debit side, they are difficult to machine to high precision and are subject to large temperature-induced dimensional
changes and instability. Gears can be directly finish molded with teeth, entirely machined from bar and plate stock, or cut from
molded blanks.
Phenolic laminates have bases of either paper, linen, or cotton cloth with relative strengths in that order. They offer relatively
good strength and in cotton-canvas base are suitable for large gears and high loads. Properties for gear phenolics are given in
Table 1.28.

T92
 TABLE 1.25 COMPARATIVE PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Tensile Yield 108 Cycles Elongation
Material (ASTM No.) Strength Strength Endurance Hardness
(psi) (psi) Limit(psi) (%in 2")
Aluminum Alloys:
Wrought:
2011-T8 59000 45000 18,000 12 Brirtell 100
2024-T4 68.000 47,000 19,000 18 Brinell 120
7075-T6 83,000 73,000 23,000 11 Brinell 150
5025-H34 38,000 31,000 18,000 13 Brinell 68
6061-T6 45,000 40,000 14,000 12 Brinell 95

Cast:
195-T6 36,000 24,000 8,000 5 Brinell 75
356-T6 40,000 27,000 13,000 5 Brinell 90
Bronzes:
Aluminum Bronze-B150-2 (annealed) 100,000 60,000 28,000 25
Rockwell B90
Phosphor Bronze- B139C 80,000 45,000 31,000 33 Rockwell B80
Silicon Bronze - B98B (Hard) 65,000 35,000 25,000 10 Rockwell B80
Brinell 80
Manganese Bronze - B138-A 80,000 65,000 17,000 25
Brasses:
Free Cutting -B16 55,000 44,000 20,000 32
Rockwell B75
Yellow B-36-8 61,000 50,000 - 23 Rockwell B70
Naval - B124-3 (H) 70,000 48,000 16,0001 25 Rockwell B80
Rockwell B80
Cartridge - B134-6 72,000 52,000 22,0002 30

Data for brasses end bronzes is for 1/2 hard temper condition unless noted otherwise.
1 Endurance limit at 3x108 cycles
2 Endurance limit at 5x107 cycles

TABLE 1.26 PROPERTIES OF DIE-CASTING ALLOYS SUITABLE FOR GEARS

Tensile Yield Shear

Comp- 108 Cycles Elonga-
Nominal ressive Endurance Hardness
Material Strength Strength Strength tion (%
Composition (%) Strength Limit (Brinell)
(psi) (psi) (psi) in 2")
(psi) (psi)

Aluminum
Alloys:
13 12 Si
85 5 Si , 4 Cu 37,000 18,000 28,000 21,000 19,000 2 80
380 8.5 Si, 3.5 Cu 40,000 24,000 23,000 75
31,000 31,000 31,000 25,000 21,000 4 80
Magnesium
Alloys 10,000 -
ASTM-AZ91 9 AI,0.2 Zn 0.13 Mn 33,000 22,000 20,000 22,000 3 60
14,000
Zinc:
ASTM-xxiii 3.5 to 4.3Al,0.1 Cu
41,000 31,000 60,000 6,900 10 82
(Zamak 3) (max), .03 to .08Mg
ASTM-xxv 3.5 to 4.3Al,0.75 Cu
47,000 38,000 87,000 8,200 7 91
(Zamak 5) , .03 to .08Mg

Taken from: Michalec, G.W., iredsion Gearing, Wiley 1968

T95
 TABLE 1.27 TYPICAL SINTERED POWDER GEAR ALLOYS
Ultimate
Apparent
Specification Tensile
Name Composition(%) Hardness Comments
Designation Strength
(Rockwell)
(psi)
Offers a controlled
Copper 7-11 SAE Type 3 amount of porosity
Iron-Copper Alloy 40,000 H-95
Iron-remainder ASTM B222-58 suitable for lubricant
Impregnation
Iron 94,0 min. ASTM Good for Gear
Copper-Steel Alloy Copper 1.0 - 4.0 B310-58T 60,000 B-56 applications subject to
Other 2.0 max. Class A Type II high impact
Iron 95.5 min.
Silicon 0.3 max. SAE Type 6 Excellent wear
Carbon-Steel Alloy Class C 50,000 A-40
Aluminum 0.2 min ASTM B310-58T resistance
Other 3.0
Carbon 0.30
Manganese 0.50
The highest strength
Alloy Steel Silicon 0.25
Z2* 160,000 C-35 sintered powder
AISI 4630 Nitrogen 1.7
material
Molybdenum 2.5
Iron balance
Good gear material for
Iron 97.90 impact, strength and
Copper 0.15 ASTM
hardness. High density
Iron High Density Silicon 0.20 B309-58T 52,000 A-60
allows it to be case
Aluminum 0.15 Class A
hardened by
Other 1.60
carburizing or nitriding
SAE Type 1
Class A
Copper 87.0 Min.
ASTM
Tin 9.5 - 10.5 One of the strongest
Phosphor Bronze B202-58T 30,000 H-75
Phosphor 0.3 - 0.5 sintered bronzes
Type 1 Class A
Other 1.5 max.
Mil B 5687A
Type 1 Comp.A
Beryllium 1.5
75,000 to A maximum strength
Beryllium Copper Cobalt 0.25 150Pt B-85
100,000 beryllium alloy
Copper balance

* Designation of Keystone Carbon Co.

t Designation of The Brush Beryllium Co.

Taken from: Michalec. G.W., "Precisjon Gearing". Wiley 1966

T96
Catalog D190
TABLE 1.28 PROPERTIES OF PLASTIC MATERIALS
NYLON
Property ASTM Type 66 ASTM Type 6
0.2% 2.5 % 0.2% 2.8%
Moisture Moisture Moisture Moisture
Tensile Strength 11.800 13.800 11.200 9,000 7.400 8.700
Yield Strength 13.000 8.500 8.000 5.900
Compressive Strength. psi 1.5 1.6 to 2.0 -
Water Absorption % (24 hrs.) 8
7,200 9.5 -
Saturation % .041 - .041 -
-
Density- lbs/in3 4.1 x 105 2.5 x 10 5 -
-
Modules of Elasticity. psi (Flexural) 5 x 10 -5 4.6 to 1.1 x 105
1.75 x 105 -
Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion oF 5.4x10 -5

Data at 70o F
DELRIN*
Property
100 500
Yield Strength - psi 10.000 10.000
Shear Strength - psi 9.500 9.500
Compressive Stress - 1% deformation - psi 5,200 5,200
Water Absorption %(24 hrs) .25 .25
Saturation % .9 .9
Density- lbs/in3 0.514 0.514
Modules of Elasticity. psi (Flexural) 4.1 x 105 4.1 x 105
Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion oF 5.5 x 10-5 4.5 x 10-5

Data at 70o - 75o F

Registered trade name of E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co.
PHENOLIC LAMINATES
Properties NEMA Grade
X XXX C L
Fine Weave
Cotton Canvas
Base Kraft Paper Paper Cotton Linen
Fabric
Fabric

Tensile Strength - psi 21,000 16,000 11,500

Lengthwise 17,000 13,000 9,500 14,500
Crosswise 11,000
Flexural Strength - psi 26,000 14,000 22,000
Lengthwise 24,000 12,000 18,000 23,000
Crosswise 18,000
Compressive Strength - psi 36,000 32,000 37,000
Flatwise 35,000
Modules of Elasticity. psi (Flexural) 1.8 x 108 1.3 x 108 1.0 x 108
Lengthwise 1.1 x 108
1.3 x 108 1.0 x 108 0.9 x 108
Crosswise
0.9 0.3 0.8 x 108
Water Absorption %(24 hrs)
Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion oF
Lengthwise
1.1 x 10-5 0.94 10-5 1.04 x 10-5 0.77 x 105
Crosswise 1.04 x 10-5
1.4 x 10-5 1.4 x 10-5 1.22 x 10-5

T97
 Catalog D190
TABLE 1.29 SUMMARY OF MATERIAL FEATURES AND APPLICATIONS
Obtainable Precision
Material Outstanding Features Applications
Rating
Ferrous:
Cast Irons Low cost, good machining,high Large-size, moderate power Commercial quality
Internal damping rating, commercial gears
Low cast, high strength Power gears, medium
Cast Steels ratings Commercial quality
Good machining, heat Power gears, medium
Plain-Carbon Steels - treatable ratings Commercial to medium
Heat treatable, highest Severest power precision
Alloy Steels strength durability requirements Precision and high and
precision
Stainless Steels: High corrosion resistance, non Extreme corrosion, low
300 Series magnetic. nonhardenable power ratings Precision
Hardenable, magnetic.
moderate stainless steel
properties Low to medium power
400 Series ratings, moderate corrosion High precision
Nonferrous:
Aluminum Alloys Extremely light-duty High precision
Light weight. noncorrosive, instrument gears
Brass Alloys excellent machinability Low-cost commercial Medium precision
Low cost, noncorrosive, equipment
excellent machinability
Bronze Alloys Mates for steel power gears High prectsion
Excellent machinability, low
friction, and good compati-
bility with steel mates Special lightweight,
Magnesium Alloys low-load uses Medium precision
Extreme light weight,poor
corrosion resistance
Nickel Alloys Special thermal cases
Low coefficient of thermal Commercial grade
expansion, poor machin-
ability Special lightweight strength
Titanium Alloys Medium precision
High strength for moderate High production, low applications
weight, corrosion resistant quality,commercial
Die-Cast Alloys Low-grade commercial
Low cost, no precision, low High production, low quality
strength commercial Commercial
Sintered Powder Alloys
Low cost, low quality, moderate
strength
Nonmetalic:
Delrin
Wear resistant, long life, low water Long life, low noise, low Commercial
absorption loads
Phenolic Laminates
Quiet operation, highest Medium loads, low noise Commercial
strength plastic
Nylons Long life, low noise, low
Low friction, no lubricant, loads Commercial
high water absorption
Teflon (Fluorocarbon) Special low friction
Low friction, no lubricant Commercial

Taken from: Michalec, GW., "Precision Gearing", Wiley 1966

T98
Nylon has good wear resistance, even when operating without lubricant. A major disadvantage is instability in the presence of
moisture and humidity. Delrin* is similar to nylon in many respects, but is super or with regard to rigidity, dimensional stability,
and resistance to moisture. Properties are listed in Table 1.28.
These comments and data apply in particular to gears machined from plastic stock. Alternately, a greater volume of plastic gears
are produced by molding. This subject is covered in detail in Par. 20.2.

14.6 Application, and General Comments

For large gears and power applications, the ferrous materials are used. The greater the load and durability requirements, the
more essential are the high-alloy steels. Plain carbon steels are in common use for low-quality commercial gears.
An exception in the ferrous group are the stainless steels. These are predominantly used in the small-gear, fine-pitch instrument
fields because of their corrosion resistance. For fine-pitch precision applications, stainless steels are excellent. Although the 400
series is easier to machine and can have superior properties as a result of heat treatment, the 303 type of stainless steel has
reasonable machinability and offers superior corrosion resistance. In addition, when used in conjunction with aluminum housings,
its coefficient of thermal expansion matches that of aluminum much better than the 400 series.
The aluminum alloys, particularly 2024-T4, are excellent instrument gear materials when used within their strength ratings.
Aluminums have no value as a power gear material and should not be used beyond low-load instrument-type applications.
Bronze is excellent for worm gears through the full range from light loads to power applications. It is also appropriate far use in
spur and helical meshes that have high velocity and/or significant loading.

Plastic materials are best suited for small gears of the instrument and light commercial product variety. Their poorer machining
characteristics and greater instability make them undesirable for precision applications. Their quiet operation and minimal
lubrication requirements render them particularly attractive far consumer products.
A summary of material features is presented in Table 1.29.

15.0 FINISH COATINGS

Thin finish coatings are often applied to metal gears for protection against the environment or for decorative purposes. The type
of finish chosen is related to the material, corrosive conditions, and level of gear quality and precision.

Finish coatings on the active surfaces of gear teeth must accomplish their objectives without altering dimensions, profile, or
surface finish. This limits coatings to thin coverings of oxides or a substance that permanently adheres to the base, and not all
are suited to extend over the active tooth surfaces.

15.1 Anodize

An excellent finish for aluminum gears is anodize. This is an artificially induced thin, but even and
hard coating of oxide. The thickness of the coating can be varied by process control, and can be
troublesome in the maintenance of close tolerances. Consequently, anodizing of precision aluminum
gears is usually limited to the gear blank prior to tooth cutting.

* Registered trade name of E.I. duPont de Nemours and Co.

T99
 Catalog D190
Because the oxide film is somewhat porous. it can be impregnated with dyes of various colors. Anodized gears possess not only
improved appearance, but also other significant protection against many corrosive atmospheres and salt sprays.

15.2 Chromate Coatings

Applicable to aluminum, bronze, zinc and magnesium, these are low-temperature dip-bath processes that produce a chemical film
of chromate which is extremely thin and does not alter dimensions. However, the thin film has little wear resistance and offers
corrosion protection only against non-abrasive environments. Coating color varies with the particular metal and alloy. Most often
there is an iridescent color, which generated the common trade name Iridite, Dyes can be added to produce a wide assortment of
colors. Because there is no dimensional change, chromating can be applied to all gears, including precision, after tooth cutting.

15.3 Passlvatlon
This is not a coating, in the strict sense, but a conditioning of the surface. It is particularly applicable to stainless steels. The
process is essentially a low strength nitric acid dip. It results in an invisible oxide film that develops the "stainless" property,
removes "tramp iron" and reduces the metals anodic potential in the galvanic series. Passivation causes no dimensional changes
and does not discolor or otherwise alter the natural surface. If anything, it prevents random staining due to "free iron" particles
left from machining. All quality stainless steel gears can be passivated after complete machining since dimensions and stability
are unaffected.

15.4 Plating.
The common electroplating materials, such as cadmium, chromium, nickel and copper, are not suitable for gear surfaces since
they alter dimensions. Also, susceptibility to localized buildup precludes their use on any precision part. Use of these platings
should be limited to the application of coatingt prior to cutting of the teeth and of any other gear dimensions requiring close
tolerances.

15.5 Special Coatings

In recent years, special extra thin precision coatings have been developed and are available under different commercial names,
Some claim surface hardness, wear resistance, low coefficient of friction, anti-corrosive qualities, etc. There are many successful
applications on record. Each case however should be investigated and tested.

15.6 Application of Coating.

It is advisable to finish coat all gears which operate in a corrosive environment or must meet the requirements of military
equipment applications. In addition, appearance considerations may
compel a protective finish.
Aluminum gears are best protected when anodized in a natural color but not on the tooth surfaces.
A chromate coating is adequate for many applications and is acceptable in many military
equipment specifications.

T100
 Catalog D190
Passivation of stainless steels is a necessity for good practice and military equipment standards.
Even for non-military applications, this is advisable to preclude discolorations from free iron particles and minimization of galvanic
interaction with other parts.
Bronze gears could be chromate coated after cutting or cadium plated in the blank state, followed by chromating after tooth
generation. Table 1.30 summarizes features of the various coatings.

16.0 LUBRICATION
Lubrication serves several purposes, but its basic and most important function is to protect the sliding and rolling tooth surfaces
from seizing, wear, and other phenomena associated with surface failure by film separation. This is particularly pertinent to power
gearing. In addition, lubrication aids all gearing in that it reduces friction and protects against corrosion.

16.1 Lubrication of Power Gear.

Power gear trains require sealed housings with a lubricant bath. Depending on the magnitude of the transmitted power and
speed, it may be necessary to use a circulating system with lubricant cooling. Lubricant can be supplied as a liquid bath or fine
spray. Lubrication of small, low-power gear trains can be accomplished with a grease pack in some cases. Many consumer home
products are so lubricated.

16.2 Lubrication of instrument Gear.

Because of their much smaller size and capacity, generally lower speeds, and small or negligible power transmission, instrument
gear lubrication is very different from that of power gears. Often, the lubricants main purpose is to reduce friction.
Instrument gears that are relatively highly loaded and working near full capacity require equally good lubrication systems as
power gears. The difference is that, in these extremely low powers, the heat dissipation is not a problem, therefore the unit can
be packed and sealed without concern for lubricant circulation, filtering, etc.
The lightly loaded gear trains can be of the open variety, in which a thin lubricant film is brushed on the teeth during assembly
and reapplied only as maintenance and usage dictate. In such applications, it is important that gear speeds are not so great that
the lubricant is flung away by centrifugal force. Also, the lubricant should have a minimum "Spreading" rating. For this reason,
greases are often favored.
Open housing gear trains are subject to contamination and it is advisable to guard against excessive exposure. Instruments, the
outer enclosures of which must often be removed far maintenance of other items, should be.worked on in clean and controlled
environments. Where prolonged or uncontrollable exposure occurs, temporary or permanent inner dust covers for the gear train
are recommended. This is particularly advisable in hybrid electronic instrument boxes in which the danger of solder splatter and
other debris is high.

16.3 Oil Lubricants

Oils are the most common lubricants and come in various-types. The compounding of oils provides combinations and generation
of various properties. The most basic lubricant is petroleum to which animal, vegitable and synthetic oils and additives are
combined to yield specific properties.

T101
Catalog D190
 Catalog D190
Oils offer a wider range of operating speeds than greases. Also, they are easier to handle and are
more effective because of their liquid nature.

16.4 Grease
Grease is a combination of liquid and solids, in which the latter serve as a reservoir for the liquid lubricant as well as imparting
certain of their own properties. Grease has the advantage of remaining in place and not spreading as oils, and has a much lower
evaporation rate. Also, it can provide a lubricant film at heavy loads and at low speeds.

16.5 Solid Lubricants

In recent years a number of "dry fllm" lubricants have been developed. These have the advantages of wide temperature range,
no dispersion, and no evaporation. Hence, they are well suited for space and other vacuum applications; and they are easier to
use in open gearing since they do not contaminate as rapidly as oils and grease. However, most solid films alter dimensions
significantly - and some
drastically. The latter cannot be tolerated in quality gearing. Dry-film lubricants represent a one-shot application of lubricant that
must last the life of the gears, despite a continual eroding and wearing away of the film from the start of its use.

16.6 Typical Lubricants

The choice of lubricants is very wide. Military specifications govern most types and classes of lubricants, to which many
manufacturers products qualify. Table 1.31 is a list of typical gear oils and grease lubricants and their applications.

17.0 GEAR FABRICATION

The fabrication of a complete gear normally includes most or all of the following operations:

1. Blank fabrication
2. Tooth generation
3. Refining of tooth shape (shaving, grinding, honing)
4. Heat treatment
5. Deburring and cleaning
6. Finish Coating

Although it is not necessary to apply all six operations to every gear, the basic operations 1, 2, and determine the quality level of
a gear.
Blank fabrication involves all the general and special features of the gear body. Tooth generation involves only machine-cut or
around gears, as in other fabrication methods, the teeth and body are formed simultaneously. The refining operation (shaving,
grinding, or honing) is a special means of improving quality, particularly in high-volume production. Heat treatment is limited to
gears requiring surface hardness and/or strength. Deburring and cleaning is essential for all gears irrespective of method of
manufacture or quality. Finish coats are limited to certain materials and environments requiring corrosion protection or improved
appearance.
Modern methods of producing gear teeth cover a wide variety:

T103
 Catalog D190
Table 1.31 Typical Gear Lubricants
Lubricant Military Useful Temp.
Remarks Applications
Type Specification Range (o F)
Oils:
Petroleum oil MIL-L-644B -10 to 250 Good general purpose lubricant. All quality gears having a narrow
range of operating temperature.
General purpose, low starting Precision instrument gears and
Diester oil MIL-L-6085A -67 to 350 torque, stable over a wide small machinery gears.
temperature range.

Suitable for oil spray or mist High speed gears.

system, at high temperature.
Diester oil MIL-L-7808C -67 to 400
Best load carrier of silicone oils, Power gears requiring wide
widest temperature range. temperature ranges.

Silicone oil MIL-L-7808C -100 to 600

Greases
Diester Oil- lithium MIL-G-7421A -100 to 200 Particularly suited for low Moderately loaded gears.
soap starting torques, low
temperatures.

Diester Oil- lithium MIL-G-3278A -67 to 250 General purpose light grease. Precision instrument gears, and
soap generally lightly loaded gears.

High temperature only. High speed and high loads.

Petroleum oil- sodium MIL-L-3545 -20 to 300
soap Good high temperature features. High temperature, moderately
Silicone oil- non-soap MIL-G-2501 3B -65 to 400 loaded gear trains.
High temperature use only. Light to moderately loaded gears,
Silicone oil- lithium low speeds.
soap MIL-G-1 5719 -A 0 to 350
Solid Lubricants
Molybdenum -350 to 750;> Highly stable, radiation Light duty precision gears.
disulfide(MoS2) 20O0 in vacuum resistant, useable in vacuum
powder over wide temp. range.
-100 to 450 Application by spray and baking
Graphite in resin MIL-M7866A up to 3500 F. Film thickness Low precision and commercial
binder .0003 to .001 in. quality gears. Light loads.
Application by spray and baking
-100 to 450 up to 350oF. Film thickness Space gear trains and vacuum.
MoS2 in resin binder .0003 to .001 in. Stable in
vacuum.

T104
 Catalog D190
1. Machine cut
2. Grinding
3. Casting
4. Molding
5. Forming (drawing, extruding, rolling)
6. Stamping

Each method offers special characteristics relating to quality, production quantity, cost, material
and application.

17.1 Generation of Gear Teeth

Machining constitutes the most important method of generating gear teeth. It is suitable for high precision gears in both small
and large quantities.

17.1.1 Rack generation This is the basic method of producing involute teeth. The rack cutter forms conjugate tooth profiles
on the blank as the rack and blank are given proper relative motion by the drive mechanism of the generating machine. As the
rack traverses the gear blank, it is reciprocated across the blank face. Cutting edges on the rack teeth generate mating conjugate
teeth on the blank. The chief disadvantage of this method is that the rack has a limited length which necessitates periodic
indexing. This limits both operating speed and accuracy.

17.1.2 Hob generation This is the most widely used method of cutting gear teeth. It is similar to rack generation except that
the rack is in the form of a worm. Referring to Figure 1.39, the central section of the hob is identical to that of the worm and
gear. The differences are that the thread of the hob is axially gashed or fluted in several places so as to form cutting edges, while
the sides and top of these teeth are relieved behind the gash surface to permit proper cutting action. This arrangement, in eftect,
gives an infinitely long rack so that cutting is both steady and continuous. To generate the full Width of the gear, the hob slowly
traverses the face of the gear as it rotates. Thus, the hob has a basic rotary motion and a unidirectional traverse at right angles.
Both movements are relatively simple to effect, resulting in a very accurate process.
A further advantage of hobbing is that the hob can be swiveled relative to the blank axis. This permits cutting helical gears of all
angles with the same tooling.
With regard to accuracy, hobbing is superior to the other cutting processes. Gears can be directly hobbed to ultra-precision
tolerances without resorting to any secondary refining processes.

17.1.3 Gear shaper generation This process, unlike the other two, employs a gear-shaped cutter instead of a rack or the
equivalent. Uke a rack cutter, a given gear-shaped cutter is conjugate to all tooth numbers of that pitch. Thus, a gear made as a
cutting tool can generate the teeth of a blank when the two are rotated at proper speeds. The cutting tool can be imagined as a
gear that axially traverses the blank with a reciprocating axial motion as it rotates. The teeth on the gear cutter are appropriately
relieved to form cutting edges on one face.
Although the shaping process is not suitable for the direct cutting of ultra-precision gears and generally is not as highly rated as
hobbing, it can produce precision quality gears. Usually it is a more rapid process than hobbing.
Two outstanding features of shaping involve shouldered and internal gears. Compound gears and shaft gears frequently are
designed so compactly that a hob cutter interferes with adjacent material.
In such cases, shaping can be used since the stroke of the gear-shaped cutter requires very little round space on one side of the
gear. For internal gears, the shaping process is the only basic method
of tooth generation.
The shaping process can be used for the generation of helical gears. However, each helix angle requires special tooling.
Therefore, with regard to helical gears, shaping is not as convenient and is

T105
 Catalog D190
more expensive than hobbing.
17.1.4 Top generating This is a fabrication option utilizing cutters that finisb-.cut the outside diameter of the teeth
simultaneously with the cutting of the tooth profiles.
It can be used in both the hobbing and shaping processes, although more prevalent in hobbing and among the fine pitches. The
main advantages of topping are:

1. Liberal tolerances can be applied to the outside diameter of the blank.

2. The deburring problem is reduced.
3. The gear can be nested on its outside diameter for machining modifications of the
body should such a speaal need arise.

17.2 Gear Grinding

Although grinding is often associated with quantity fabrication of high quality gears as a secondary refining operation, it is also a
basic process for producing hardened gears. In addition, many high-precision fine-pitch gears have their teeth entirely ground
from the blank state.
Gear-tooth grinding can involve either form grinding or the generating process. The latter is basically more accurate because the
dressing of the grinding wheel involves a straight-sided tooth.
There are a number of distinct advantages to ground gears. These are listed as follows:

1. Achievement of high precision is possible because the process can remove very little
material in the final pass.
2. Grinding results in a much finer surface finish than any machining process.
3. Hardened steel alloys can be ground.
4. Residual surface stresses are minimal.

Being able to use heat-treatable hard steel alloys raises the bending stress and surface endurance
stress levels by very significant amounts. See Table 1.23. Often it is the difference between a reliable and unreliable gear. In
particular, case hardened, carburized or nitrided gears offer outstanding strengths and performance. They are typically used for
the most demanding tasks, such as aircraft drives.
Ground gears superior load carrying capacity is not only due to the hardened alloys higher mechanical properties, but also
because of the finer surface finish. A fine finish enables maintenance of a good continuous oil film versus boundary lubrication
and breakthrough. The result is higher load capactry along with reduced wear and longer useful life.
Although there are distinct advantages for ground gears, there are some limitations and disadvantages. These are:

1. Grinding is limited to ferrous materials.

2. Hard metals grind better than soft ones.
3. Grinding of helicals and worms has limitations that possibly involve profile deviations
and removal.
4. Pro-grind hobbing requires special protruberance hobs to provide grind wheel
clearance at the root
5. Gear grinding machinery is scarcer than hobbing machines.
6. Grinding is a secondary operation which increases total gear cost

Despite involving higher cost and other limitations, ground gears are always superior in precision
and strength.
T106
 Catalog D190
17.3 Plastic Gears
These can be produced by the normal hobbing and shaping processes. In addition, they can be produced by various molding
techniques. The latter methods are not accurate as cut gears due to shrinkage, mold variations, and flow inconsistencies.
Regardless of method, the fabrication of plastic gears suffers in comparison with metal gears due
to temperature instability, material flow, and generally poorer cutting qualities. Attainable quality is less than for metals and
varies with the particular plastic.
See Section 20.10, which deals with plastic gears in greater detail.

18.0 GEAR INSPECTION

The performance of a gear can be assured only by confirmation of its critical dimensions and parameters. With increasing gear
precision, adequate and proper inspection has become a paramount requirement.
There are many aspects of gear inspection and the subject is too large for complete coverage in this discussion. However, two of
the most basic and important inspection criteria, which will be discussed in the following paragraph, are total composite error
(TCE) and tooth thickness.

18.1 Varlable-Center-Distance Testers

Both TCE and tooth thickness can be measured by means of roll testing with a variable-center-distance fixture. There are many
varieties, but essentially all consist of a fixture having two parallel shafts (or precision centers), one fixed arid the other floating
on smooth, low-friction ways. The test gear is mounted on one shaft while an accurate known quality master gear is mounted on
the other shaft. The pair is held in intimate contact by spring loading or the equivalent. As the test gear is rotated, tooth-to-tooth
errors and runout are revealed as a variation in the center distance of the pair. This variation can be sensed, amplified and
displayed as a dial reading or recorded on a chart. See Figure 1.48. Sensitivity of the measurement is on the order of 50 to 100
millionths of an inch.
The unique feature of gear roll testing is that the inspection parallels the gear in its actual usage.
Thus, roll testing is a functional inspection.

18.1.1 Total Composite Error The TCE is dearly revealed in roll testing and its components can be identified. Referring to
Figure 1.48, it is evident that the magnitude of runout and TTCE can be extracted. From this, the gear quality can be judged.
Also, when parameters are out of tolerance, the fabricator can identify the source of the difficulty and take appropriate corrective
action.

18.1.2 Gear Size If the center distance setting of the roll tester is carefully established, the absolute readings are an
indication of tooth thickness. Thus, in Figure 1.48, the mean line of the trace is a measure of tooth thickness. The high and low
readings indicate the extreme variation of tooth thickness at the nominal pitch radius. Changes in center-distance are an indirect
measure of tooth thickness and must be converted with the aid of equation 22.

18.1.3 Advantages and Limitations of Variable-Center-DIstance Testers The functional test of a gear is desirable as it
reveals characteristics that occur in the real application. Also, the method is rapid and, therefore, suitable for production gear
inspection. Ability to obtain a hard copy record is also a distinct advantage.
Rolling of the gears is not usually relied upon for the determination of. pitch radius. For the measurement of TCE and TTCE,
however, roil testing gives excellent results. Repeatability arid absolute measure are usually good, being in the order of .0001
inch. On the other hand, size measurement is not as reliable as an absolute measure. This is due to the nature of the fixture and
the integration of several error sources in the calibration process. A repeatability of .0002 inch is considered good, and often it is
even better.

T107
 Catalog D190
18.2 Over-Pin. Gaging
The equations relating tooth thickness and a measurement over cylindrical pins or rolls inserted between the teeth were given in
Paragraph 4.6. This is a widely used method for gaging gears during fabrication (while they are still in the gear generating
machine) and during final inspection. Accuracy of the over-pins measurement is on the order of .0001 inch.
A major disadvantage of over-pins gaging is the inability to correlate precisely with variable-center-distance measurements. This
is because over-pins gaging is insensitive to pitch-line runout. On the other hand, rolling a gear necessarily involves the TCE and
its runout component. The best correlation is obtained by equating the over-pins measurement to the average value of center
distance found in the roll test.
Apart from the correlation problem, over-pins measurements by themselves are inadequate because the undetected runout can
be out-of-control causing interference with its mate. It is necessary, therefore, to control and to inspect runout.

18.3 Other Inspection Equipment

In addition to the basic inspection methods and equipments described in Paragraphs 18.1 and 18.2, other special-purpose
equipment is available. This includes involute-profile form checkers, tooth-spacing gages and runout checkers. Also, for high
precision gears, equipment is available for inspecting the position error of individual gears and the transmission error of a gear
train.

18.4 Inspection of Fine-Pitch Gear.

Because of their small dimensions, fine-pitch gears do not easily lend themselves to the kind of detailed tooth measurements
suitable for large, coarse-pitch gears. Hence, fine-pitch gears are almost exclusively inspected by functional testing on a
variable-center-distance fixture.
Over-pins measurements are also used, but generally are restricted to a reference measurement, This is primarily used in the
fabrication process as a set-up dimension, and in inspection departments which are not equipped to roll test gears.

18.5 Significance of Inspection and its Implementation

The inspection operation is essential to obtaining a quality product. In effect, it is a policing operation that ensures conformance
to dimensional tolerances and other drawing specifications.
The effort, care and cost of inspection are related to the quality level. Precision-gear inspection demands a much greater effort
than that for low quality gears. Equipment must be of the best grade, calibrated periodically and restricted to use by qualified
personnel. Control of temperature environment is essential for measurements on the order of .0001 inches. The cleanliness of
equipment, gears and working area are also very important.

T1O8
 Catalog D190

GEAR DESIGN - METRIC

19.0 GEARS, METRIC

19.1 Basic Definition.

Metric gearing is distinguished not only by different units of length, but also by its own unique design standard. Historically,
metric gears arose as a result of a different approach to the standardization of tooth proportions and this constitutes a major
obstacle to the adoption of the metric system by the American gear industry.
In the inch system diametral pitch was created as a convenient means far relating pitch diameters to center distance. Thus,
diametral pitch is defined as:

Pd = N = number of teeth per inch of pitch diameter (62)

D
where: N = number of teeth
D = pitch diameter
Pd = diametral pitch
From this relationship there are particular integer - values of diametral pitch that yield integer values for center distance in
inches. Thus 8, 16, 32 and 64 diametral pitches, to mention only some, can be associated with tooth numbers which can result
in center distances equal to an integral multiple of one inch and/or convenient fractions of an inch.
In the metric system the module is analogous to pitch, and is defined as:

m = D = amount of pitch diameter per tooth, in millimeters. (63)

N

This defines the module as analogous to the reciprocal of diametral pitch. However, the module is a dimension (length of pitch
diameter per tooth); whereas diametral pitch is the number of teeth to a unit length of pitch diameter. Again convenient center
distances in metric measure are obtained by choosing integer module values and/or selected fractional values.
One consequence is that each system (inch diametral pitch and metric module) has adopted preferred standard values which are
non - interchangeable.
It should be noted that the term diametral pitch is associated with the inch system. In the metric system the nearest analogue to
pitch is termed "module", and the word pitch is reserved for tooth spacing along the pitch circle. In the inch system, the tooth
spacing measure is more accurately called "circular" pitch.

If the equations for diametral pitch and module are solved for pitch diameter and these values equated by introducing the
conversion factor 25.4, we obtain:

Pd * m=25.4 (64)

This shows that inch diametral pitch and the metric module are related by the decimal factor 25.4. It is obvious that conversion
results in decimal values, often awkward numbers, for one or the other measure. It follows that convenient values in one system
will not be convenient values in the other. For this reason each system (inch diametral pitch and metric module) has adopted
preferred standard values which are non-interchangeable. Table 1.32 lists the commonly used pitches/modules of both systems,
with preferred values in bold-face type. Corresponding equivalent values are given, but these are of no help since odd valued
pitches and modules are usually not tooled for.

It becomes obvious, therefore, that direct replacement of conventional inch gearing with metric gearing is impossible. The best
that can be done is to shift to the nearest standard module when converting from the inch system. One should keep in mind,
however, the preferred module sizes which exist in different countries. The degree of non-correspondence between pitch and
module is best measured by the circular pitch and the circular tooth thickness. These values are given in inches and millimeters in
Table 1.32.

T109
 Catalog D190
As a consequence, metrification of gearing requires a completely new design with regard to gear dimensions and center
distances. This in turn involves new gear cutting tools.
Preferred module sizes in the United States are established only for the coarser gears by means of IS( recommendation R54 (see
Table 1.33). Judging by their acceptance by the industrialized metric countries, the following modules are expected to be
preferred for the finer gears:

0.3,0.4,0.5, 0.8, 1.0

To facilitate work with these modules we have computerized the basic relationship:

D=m*N

and created Table 1.34 for number of teeth, N ranging from 5 through 205.
The pitch diameters are calculated in Table 1.34 both in millimeters and inches. We expect this tab to be of great help to
designers in developing a feel for metric gear sizes and for determining center distances.
The subject of measurement over pins was dealt with in section 4.6. For inch-size gears Table 1.8 listed the over-wire
measurements. Similarly for module-type gears, computerized Table 1.34 was produced. This lists both pitch diameters as well as
over-wire measurements in both millimeters and inches.
TABLE 1.33 Modules and Diametral Pitches of Cylindrical Gears for
General and Heavy Engineering*
(ISO Recommendation R54 1977)
Modules m Diametral Pitches P
I II III I II
1 20
1.125 18
1.25 16
1.375 14
1.5 12
1.75 11
2 10
2.25 9
2.5 8
2.75 7
3 (3.25) 6
3.5 (3.75) 5.5
4 5
4.5 4.5
5 4
5.5 3.5
6 3
7 (6.5) 2.75
8 2.5
9 2.25
10 2
11 1.75
12 1.5
14
16 1.25
18
20 1
22 0.875
25 0.75
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
 Catalog D190
19.2 Metric Design Equations
Some of the gear design equations are dimensionless and are derived from geometric proportions and relationships. These
equations will not be affected by the use of metric units as opposed to inch units since the units cancel. lt is important, however,
that the same units are used consistently throughout. When this is not the case the problem of metriflcation can be approached
in two steps. The first step is to express the present inch-base units in metrics and to modify the constants and coefficients
accordingly. This procedure will yield results expressed in the form presently used in engineering practice in industrialized metric
countries.

The second step is to express these results in Si units which differ slightly from the conventional metric units. Thls is true for
stress calculations but does not affect gear dimensioning.

Metrification in the U.S. is taking place at a time when the SI (International System of Units) has been adopted in most metric
countties, but its use has not spread to the practical design engineering profession. For. these countries, transition to the SI
system represents a change which is accompanied by a degree of reluctance. The standardization related to transition to metrics
in the U.S. is expected to introduce the SI units as well, in a single step.

lf we concentrate on the large number of equations which are independent of the system of measuring units, there will be no
problem with metrification. Most of the kinematic design equations that appear American gear texts. and are associated with
inch-system gears, are suitable for use with metric gear dimensions, provided that a proper substitution of module (in) is made
for-pitch.

For equations involving diametral pitch:

Pd is replaced by 25.4 (65)

m
Recalling that:

Pd * Pc = m
25.4

we find that for equations involving circular pitch:

Pc is replaced by m (66)
25.4

Note: When converting between metric module and the inch diametral pitch, the conversion factor and relationship can be
remembered from the simple product of the two pitch measures:

m* Pd = 25.4

By this means, all geometric and all kinematic equations involving pitch parameters can be used. However, by the above,
conversion results are still given in inch measurements. Thus, this is a way to adapt the metric module to kinematic design
equations given in inch units.

Basic kinematic and geometric design equations for spur gears in both metric module and inch diametral-pitch forms are given in
table 1.35. These equations show the essence of using the modules versus inch diametral pitch.

Some equations which are identical in both systems are:

1. Over-pins measurements.
2. Relationship between tooth thicknesses at different radii from gear center.
3. Long and short addendum equations.
4. Profile-shifted gear-design equations: i.e., enlarged gear teeth, non-standard center distance

T122
Catalog D190
 Catalog D190
19.3 MetrIc Tooth Standmrds*

The metric module was developed in a number of versions that differ in minor ways. The German module, defined by the DIN
standard, is widely used throughout Europe. However, the Japanese have their own version, defined in JIS standards. The
deviations among these and other national metric standards are fortunately minor: the various metric standards, differ only with
regard to dedendum size and root radii.
Even these minor deviations are resolved by a new unified module standard sponsored and promoted by the International
Standards Organization (ISO). This unified version, shown in fIgure 1.52, conforms to the new SI system in all respects.
Currently, Germany, Japan, Great Britain and other major industrial countries on the metric system, are shifting to this ISO
standard, which has been advocated as the basis for American metric gearing.

ISO standard metric gear tooth is defined by a rack of module m = 1. ISO gears share many features with inch-size American
gears: 200 pressure angle, plus similar addendum and dedendum ratios.

Tooth proportions for the standard, which applies to cylindrical gears of the spur and helical varieties, are given in terms of the
basic rack, as shown in the illustration. Dimensions, in millimeters, are normalized for module m = 1. Corresponding values for
other modules are obtained by multiplying each dimension by the value of the specific module, m. Major tooth parameters are
described by the standard:

Tooth form is straight-sided and full-depth, forming the basis of a family of full-depth interchangeable gears.
Pressure angle is 200, conforming to world-wide acceptance of 200 as the most versatile pressure angle.
Addendum is equal to the module, m, which conforms to the American practice of addendum equaling 1/P.
Dedendum is equal to 1.250 m, which corresponds to American practice for coarse pitch gears (see Table 1.1).
Root radius is slightly greater than current American standards specify.
Tip radius has a maximum tip-rounding specified. This rounding is a deviation from American standards, which do not specify
rounding. However, as a maximum or limit value, American gear makers are not prevented from specifying a tip radius as near
zero as possible.

Note that the basic racks for metric gears and for American inch gears are essentially identical. For metric gears, specific size
dimensions are obtained from multiplying by m (the module). Gears conforming to diametral pitch American standards are sized
by dividing the basic rack dimensions by the specific diametral pitch (P).
___________________________
Apart from minor changes in wording. this paragraph, including figure 1.52, is quoted or reproduced wilh the permissior of
Machine Design magazine from the following article: "Shifting to Metric", by G.W. Mchalec and F. Buchsbaum Machire Design,
Vol. 45, August 9,1973, pp. 94-97.

T124
 Catalog D190
19.5 Metric Gear Standards

With recent increasing presence of metric geanng in the USA it is important that designers and gear users have knowledge of and
ready reference to various metric gear standards used throughout the world.

19.5.1 USA Metric Gear Standards Metric gears designed and produced in the USA should conform to the ISO standard.
This is the latest metric standard based upon SI units which have been
decreed as the most precise metric measurement for standardized international use.
The latest (1989) ISO gear standards are listed in Table 1.36. They can be procured from ANSI. 1430 Broadway, New York, N.Y.
10018

19.5.2 ForeIgn Metric Gear Standards Several of the major industrialized countries that have been dedicated for a long
time to metric measurement countries have developed their own standards for metric gearing. In general they have similar
standards, and since the establishment of ISO and SI units have adopted these standards as theirs.
With increasing international trade and worldwide manufacture of common products, availability and familiarity with appropriate
foreign standards have become important. To serve that need Table 1.37 offered as a listing of key gear standards in use in
several major countries and geographic areas.
TABLE 1.36 ISO METRIC GEARING STANDARDS
ISO 53:1974 Cylindrical gears for general and heavy engineering Basic rack
Cylindrical gears for general and heavy engineering Modules and diametral
ISO 54:1977
pitches
ISO 677:1976 Straight bevel gears for general and heavy engineering Basic rack
Straight bevel gears for general and heavy engineering-. Modules and diarmetral
ISO 678:1978
pitches
ISO 701:1979 International gear notation Symbols for geometrical data
ISO 1122-1:1983 Glossary of gear terms Part 1: Geometrical definitions
ISO 1328:1975 Parallel involute gears -. ISO system of accuracy
Cylindrical gears.- Information to be given to the manufacturer by the purchaser
ISO 1340:1976
In order to obtain the gear required
Straight bevel gears - Information to be given to the manufacturer by the
ISO 1341:1976
purchaser in order to obtain the gear required
Single-start solid (monobloc) gear hobs with axial keyway, 1 to 20 module and 1
ISO 2490:1976
to 20 diametral pitch - Nominal dimensions
Addendum modification of the teeth of cylindrical gears for speed-reducing and
ISO/TR 4407:1902
speed-increasing gear pairs
ISO 4468:1982 Gear hobs - Single start- Accuracy requirements

T-126
Catalog D190
TABLE 1.37 FOREIGN METRIC GEAR STANDARDS
AUSTRALIA
Bevel gears
ASB62 1965
Worm gears (inch series)
AS B 66 1969
Geometrical dimensions for worm gears Units
AS B 214 1966
Glossary for gearing
ASB2I7 1966
International gear notation symbols for geometric data
AS 1637
(similar to ISO 701)

FRANCE
NF E 23-001 1972 Glossary of gears (similar to ISO 1122)
NF E 23-002 1972 Glossary of worm gears
NF E 23-005 1965 Gearing Symbols (similar to ISO 701)
NF E 23-006 1967 Tolerances for spur gears with Involute teeth (similar to ISO 1328)
NF E 23-011 1972 Cylindrical gears for general and heavy engineering Basic
rack and modules (similar to ISO 467 and ISO 53)
NF E 23-012 1972 Cylindrical gears Information to be given to the manufacturer by the producer
Calculating spur gears to NFL 32-610
NF L 32-611 1955

GERMANY - DIN (Deutsches Institut fr Normung)

DIN 37 12.61
DIN 780 Pt 1 05.77
DIN 780 P12 05.77
DIN 867 02.88
DIN 868 12.76
DIN 3961 08.78
DIN 3962 Pt 1 08.78
DIN 3962 Pt 2 08.78
DIN 3962 Pt 3 08.78
DIN 3963 08.78
DIN 3964 11 .80
DIN 3965 Pt 1 08.86
DIN 3965 Pt 2 08.86
DIN 3965 Pt 3 08.86
DIN 3965 Pt 4 08.86 Tolerancing of bevel gears Tolerances for shaft angle errors and axes
DIN 3966 Pt 1 08.78
DIN 3966 Pt 2 08.78
DIN 3967 08.78
DIN 3970 Pt 1 11.74
DIN 3910 Pt 2 1114
Conventional and simplified representation of gears and gear pairs [4]
Series of modules for gears Modules for spur gears [4]
Series of modules for gears Modules for cylindrical worm gear
transmissions [4]
Basic rack tooth profiles for involute teeth of cylindrical gears for
general and heavy engineering [5]
General definitions and specification factors for gears, gear pairs and
gear trains [11]
Tolerances for cylindrical gear teeth Bases [8]
Tolerances for cylindrical gear teeth Tolerances for deviations of
individual parameters [11]
Tolerances for cylindrical gear teeth Tolerances for tooth trace
deviations (4]
Tolerances for cylindrical gear teeth Tolerances for pitch-span
deviations [4]
Tolerances for cylindrical gear teeth Tolerances far working deviations
[11]
Deviations of shaft center distances and shaft position tolerances of
casings for cylindrical gears [4]
Tolerancing of bevel gears Basic concepts (5]
Tolerancing of bevel gears Tolerances for individual parameters [11]
Tolerancing of bevel gears Tolerances for tangential composite errors
[11]
intersection point deviations [5]
Information on gear teeth in drawings Information on involute teeth
for cylindrical gears [7]
Information on gear teeth in drawings Information on straight bevel
gear teeth [6]
System of gear fits - Backlash, tooth thickness allowances, tooth
thickness tolerances - Principles [12]
Master gears for checking spur gears - Gear blank and tooth
system [8]
Master gears for ducking spur gears - Receiving arbors [4]

T127
Catalog D190
TABLE 1.37 CONT. FOREIGN METRIC GEAR STANDARDS
GERMANY CONT. - DIN (Deutsches Institut fr Normung)
DIN 3971 07.80 Definitions and parameters for bevel gears and bevel gear pair [12]
DIN 3972 02.52 Reference profiles of gear-cutting tools for involute tooth systems
according to DIN 887[4]
DIN 3975 10.76 Terms and definitions for cylindrical worm gears with shaft angle 90o[9]
DIN 3976 11.80 Cylindrical worms Dimensions, correlation of shaft center distances and gear ratios of
worm gear drives [6]
DIN 3977 02.81 Measuring element diameters for the radial or diametral dimension for testing tooth
thickness of cylindrical gears [8]
DIN 3978 08.76 Helix angles for cylindrical gear teeth [5]
DIN 3979 07.79 Tooth damage on gear trains Designation, characteristics, causes [11]
DIN 3993 Pt 1 08.81 Geometrical design of cylindrical Internal involute gear pairs Basic r ules [17]
Geometrical design of cylindrical internal involute gear pairs Diagrams for geometrical
D1N3993 P12 08.81 limits of internal gear-pinion matings [15]
Geometrical design of cylindrical internal involute gear pairs Diagrams for the
D1N3993 Pt3 08.81 determination of addendum modification coefficients [15]
Geometrical design of cylindrical internal involute gear pairs -. Diagrams for limits of internal
DIN 3993 P14 08.81 gear-pinion type cutter matings [10]
Denominations on gear and gear pairs Alphabetical index of equivalent terms [10]
DIN 3998 09.76 Denominations on gears and gear pairs General definitions [11]
Suppl 1 Denominations on gears and gear pairs Cylindrical gears and gear pairs [11]
DIN 3998 Ptl 09.76 Denominations on gears and gear pairs Bevel and hypoid gears and gear pairs [9]
DIN 3998 Pt2 09.76 Denominations on gears and gear pairs Worm gear pairs [8]
Spur gear drives for fine mechanics Scope, definitions, principal design data, classification
DIN 3998 P13 09.76 [7]
Spur gear drives for fine mechanics Gear fit selection, tolerances, allowances [9]
DIN 3998 P14 09.76 Spur gear drives for fine mechanics Indication in drawings, examples for calculation [12]
DIN 58405 Pt1 05.72 spur gear drives for fine mechanics Tables [15]
Technical drawings Conventional representation of gears
DIN 58405 P12 05.72

DIN 68405 P13 05.72

DIN 68405 Pt 4 05.72

DIN ISO 2203 06.76

NOTE: Standards available in English from: ANSI, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018: or Beuth
Verlag GmbH, Burggrafenstrasse 6. D-1000 Berlin 30, West Germany: or Global Engineering
Documents, 2806 McGaw Avenue, P.O. Box 19539, Irvine, CA 92714, Telex 692 373.
Easylink 380 124; or I.S.L.I., 160 Old Derby Street, Hingham, MA 02018, Telex 948 658.

ITALY
UNI 3521 1954 Gearing - Module series
UNI 3522 1954 Gearing - Basic rack
UNI 4430 1960 Spur gears Order Information for straight and bevel gears
UNI 4760 1961 Gearing - Glossary and geometrical definitions
UNI 6586 1969 Modules and diametral pitches of cylindrical and straight bevel gears
for general and heavy engineering (corresponds to ISO54 and 678)
UNI 6587 1969 Basic rack of cylindrical gears for general engineering (corresponding to ISO 53)
Basic rack of straight bevel gears for general and heavy engineering (corresponds to ISO677)
UNI 6588 1969 International gear notation -. Symbols for geometrical data (Corresponding to ISO 701)

UNI 6773 1970

T128
Catalog D190

TABLE 1.37 CONT. - FOREIGN METRIC GEAR STANDARDS

JAPAN - JIS (Japanese Industrial Standards)
B 0003 1989 Drawing office practice for gears.
B 0102 1988 Glossary of gear terms
B 1701 1973 Involute gear tooth profile and dimensions
8 1702 1976 Accuracy for spur and helical gears
B 1703 1976 Backlash for spur and helical gears
B 1704 1978 Accuracy for bevel gears
B 1705 1973 Backlash for bevel gears
B 1721 1973 Shapes arid dimensions of spur gears for general engineering
B 1722 1974 Shapes and dimensions of helical gears for general use
B 1723 1977 Dimensions of cylindrical worm gears
B 1741 1977 Tooth contact marking of gears
B 1751 1976 Master cylindrical gears
B 1752 1989 Methods of measurement of spur and helical gears
B 1753 1976 Measuring method of noise of gears
B 4350 1987 Gear cutter tooth profile and dimensions
B 4351 1986 Straight bevel gear generating cutters
B 4354 1988 Single thread hobs
B 4355 1988 Single thread fine pitch hobs
B 4356 1985 Pinion type cutters
B 4357 1988 Rotary gear shaving cutters
B 4358 1976 Rack type cutters

NOTE: Standards available in English from: ANSI, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018; or
International Standardization Cooperation Centre, Japanese Standards Association, 4-1-24 Akasaka, Minato-ku, Tokyo 107.
UNITED KINGDOM - BSI (BrItish Standards Institute)
BS 235 1972 Specification of gears for electric traction
BS 438 Pt1 1987 Spur and helical gears Basic rack form, pitches and accuracy
(diametral pitch series)
BS 436 Pt 2 1984 Spur and helical gears Basic rack form, modules and accuracy
(1 to 50 metric module) (Parts I & 2 related but not equivalent
with ISO 53.54, 1328,1340 & 1341)
BS436 Pt3 1986 Spur gear and helical gears-Method for calculation of contact and
root bending stresses, limitations for metallic involute gears
(Related but not equivalent with ISO/ DIS 633611, 2 & 3)
BS721 Pt 1 1984 Specification for worm gearing Imperial units
BS721 Pt2 1983 Specification for worm gearing Metric units
BS978 Pt1 1984 Specification for fine pitch gears Involute spur and helical gears
BS978 Pt2 1984 Specification for fine pitch gears Cydoidal type gears
BS978 Pt3 1984 Specification for fine pitch gears - Bevel gears
BS978 Pt4 1965 Specification for fine pitch gears - Hobs and cutters
BS1807 1981 SpecifIcation for marine propulsion gears and similar drives:
metric module
BS2007 1983 Specification for circular gear shaving cutters, 1 to 8 metric
module,accuracy requirements
BS2062 Pt 1 1985 Specification for gear hobs Hobs for general purpose: 1 to 2O
dp., inclusive
BS2082 Pt2 1986 Specification for gear hobs Hobs for gears for turbone reduction
and similar drives
BS2518 Pt 1 1983 Specification for rotary form relieved gear cutters - Diametral
pitch
BS2518 Pt2 1983 Specification for rotary relieved gear cutters - Metric modules

T129
Catalog D190
TABLE 1.37 CONTD. FOREIGN METRIC GEAR STANDARDS
UNITED KINGDOM CONT. BSI (British Standards Institute)
BS 2519 Pt 1 1976 Glossary for gears Geometrical definitions
BS 2519 Pt 2 1976 Glossary for gears Notation (symbols for geometrical data for
use in gear notation)
BS 2697 1976 Specification for rack type gear cutters
BS 3027 1968 Specification for dimensions of worm gear units
BS 3696 Pt 1 1984 Specification for master gears Spur and helical gears (metric
module)
BS 4517 1984 Dimensions of spur and helical geared motor units (metric series)
BS 4582 Pt 1 1984 Fine pitch gears (metric module) Involute spur and helical gears
BS 4582 Pt 2 1986 Fine pitch gears (metric module) Hobs and cutters
BS 5221 1987 Specification for general purpose, metric module gear hobs
BS 5246 1984 Specification for pinion type cutters for spur gears 1 to 8 metric
module
BS 6168 1987 Specification for non-metallic spur gears

NOTE: Standards available from: ANSI. 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018; or BSI, Linford Wood, Milton
Keynes MK146LE, United Kingdom.

ADDITIONAL GEAR DESIGN

LITERATURE AND SOFTWARE
From noted authorities
In the field of GEAR DESIGN.
such as:

Earl Buckingham

J W. Dudley

JE Shigley

Clifford E. Adams
and others is made available......

See complete listing with detailed description

and ordering information
on pages T159 and T160

T130
 Catalog D190

GEAR DESIGN - PLASTIC

20.0 DESIGN OF PLASTIC MOLDED GEARS

Plastic gears are continuing to displace metal gears in a widening arena of applications. Their unique characteristics are also
being enhanced with new developments, both in materials and processing. In this regard plastics contrast somewhat dramatically
from metals, in that the latter materials and processes are essentially fully developed and, therefore, are in a relatively static
state of development.
Among the various methods of producing plastic gears, molding is unique in many respects. For that reason, it is singled out for
in-depth treatment in this separate section.

20.1 General Characteristics of Plastic Gears

Among the characteristics responsible for the large increase in plastic gear usage the following are probably the most significant:

1. Cost effectiveness of the injection-molding process.

2. Elimination of machining operations; capability of fabrication with inserts and integral
designs.
3. Low density: light weight, low inertia.
4. Uniformity of parts.
5. Capability to absorb shock and vibration as a result of elastic compliance.
6. Ability to operate with minimum or no lubrication, due to inherent lubricity.
7. Relatively low coefficient of friction.
8. Corrosion resistance; elimination of plating, or protective coatings.
9. Quietness of operation.
10. Tolerances often less critical than for metal gears, due in part to their greater
resilience.
11. Consistency with trend to greater use of plastic housings and other components.
12. One step production; no preliminary or secondary operations.

At the same time the design engineer should be familiar with the limitations of plastic gears relative to metal gears. The most
significant of these are as follows:

1. Less load-carrying capacity due to lower maximum allowable stress; the greater
compliance of plastic gears may also produce stress concentrations.
2. Plastic gears cannot generally be molded to the same accuracy as high-precision
machined metal gears.
3. Plastic gears are subject to greater dimensional instabilities due to their greater
coefficient of thermal expansion and moisture absorption.
4. Reduced ability to operate at elevated temperatures; as an approximate figure,
operation is limited to less than 250 degreeso F. Also limited cold temperature
operations.
5. Initial high mold cost in developing correct tooth form and dimensions.
6. Can be negatively affected by certain chemicals and even some lubricants.
7. Improper molding tools and process can produce residual internal stresses at the
tooth roots resulting in over stressing and/or distortion with aging.
8. Cost of plastics track petrochemical pricing and thus are more volatile and increasing
in comparison to metals
T131
 Catalog D190
20.2 Properties of Plastic Gear Materials

Popular materials for Plastic Gears are acetal resins such as DELRIN*, nylon resins such as ZYTEL*
and NYLATRON** and acetal copolymers such as CELCON***. The physical and mechanical properties of a these materials vary
with regard to strength, rigidly, dimensional resistance, fabrication requirements, moisture absorption etc. Standardized tabular
data is available from various manufacturers catalogs. In general, the information and data is less simplified and fixed than for the
metals. This is because plastics are subject to wider formulation variations and are often regarded as proprietary compounds and
mixtures. Tables 1.38 through 1.43A are representative listings of physical and mechanical properties of gear plastics taken from a
variety of sources.

It is common practice to use plastics in combination with different metals and materials other than plastics. Such is the case when
gears have metal hubs, inserts, rims, spokes, etc. In these cases one must be cognizant of the fact that plastics have an order of
magnitude different Coefficients of Thermal Expansion as well as Density and Modulus of Elasticity. For this reason TABLE 1 .43A is
presented.
Other properties and features that enter into considerations for gearing are given in Table 1.44 (Wear) and Table 1.45 (Poissons
Ratio).
Moisture has a significant impact on plastic properties as can be seen in Tables 1.38 thru 1.43. Ranking of plastics is given in Table
1.46. In this table, rate refers to expansion from dry to full moist condition. Thus, a 0.20% rating means a dimensional increase of
0.002 inch per inch. Note that this is only a rough guide as exact values depend upon factors of composition and processing, both
the raw material and gear molding. For example, it can be seen that the various types and grades of nylon can range from 0.07%
to 2.0%.

Table 1.47 lists safe stress values for a few basic plastics and the effect of glass fiber reinforcement
TABLE 1.38 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS USED IN GEARS
Tensile Heat
Water Mold
Strength Flexural Compressive Distortion Rockwell
Material Strength Modulus Absorption Shrinkage
(psi x Temperature Hardness
(psi x 103) (psi x 103) (% 24 hr) (in./in.)
103) (oF @ 264 psi)
Acetal 8.8-1.0 13-14 410 230-255 0.25 M94 R120 0.022/0.003
ABS 4.5-8.5 5-13.5 180-245 0.2-0.5 R80-120 0.007/ 0.007
11.2-13.1 14.6 120-200 200 1.3 R115-123 0.015
Nylon 6/6 400
Nylon6/1O 7-8.5 10.5 145 .4 R111 M70 0.015/0.005
8-9.5 11-13 400 285-290 0.15 R112 0.007/ 0.003
Polycarbonate 350
High Impact
Polystyrene 1.9-4 5.5-12.5 160-205 .05-.10 M25-69 0.005
300-580
Polyurethane
Polyvinyl 4.5-8 7.1 180-205 .60-.80 M29 R90 0.009/0.002
6-9 8-15 85 140-175 07-.40 R100-120 0.004
Chloride 300-400
Polysulflon
MoS2 10.2 16.4 345 0.22 M69-R120 0.0076
10.2 10 370 140 0.4 D785 0.012
Filled Nylon 330

Reprinted with the permission of Plastic Design and Processing Magazine; see Raf. 11.

________________
*Registered trademark. E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Co., Wilmington, Delaware 19898.
**Registered trademark, The Polymer Corporation, P.O. Box 422, Reading Pennsylvania, 19603 ***Registered trademark, Celanese
Corporation, 26 Msin St., Chaitham, N.J. 07928

T132
 Catalog D190
TABLE 1.39 PROPERTY CHART FOR BASIC POLYMERS FOR GEARING
Water Mold Tensile Flexural Izod deflect. Coeff.
Absorption Shrinkage Strength Modulus Impact Temp. Linear Specific
24 hr *Yield Strength @264 psi Thermal Gravity
#Break Notched Expan.

Units % In./In. psi psi ft-lb/in. oF 10-5 oF

ASTM D570 D955 D638 D790 D256 D648 D696 D792
1.Nylon 6/6 1.5 .015/.030 *11,200 175,000 2.1 220 4.5 1.13/1.15
2.Nylon6 1.13
3.Acetal 1.6 .013/.025 *11,800 395,000 1.1 150 varies 1.42
4.Polycarbonate 1.55
30% G.F
0.2 .016/.030 *10,000 410,000 1.4/2.3 255 4.6
15% PTFE 0.06 .0035 *17,500 1,200,000 2 290 5.8
5.Polyester 1.3
(thermoplastic) 1.50
6.Polyphenylene 1.69
Sulfide
30% Sulfide 0.08 .020 *8,000 340,000 1.2 130
15% PTFE
7.Polyester
#12,000 5.3 1.25
elastomer 0.03 .002 *19,000 1,300,000 1.10 500
8.Phenolic 1.42
(molded) 1.50

0.3 .012 *3,780 -- -- 122

#5,500 10.00
0.45 .007 #7,000 340,000 .29 270
3.75
These are average values for comparison purposes only.
Source: Clifford E. Adams, "Plastic Gearng", Marcel Dekker Inc. N.Y.1986. Ref.13
TABLE 1.40 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OELRIN ACETAL RESIN AND ZYTEL NYLON RESIN
"DELRIN"
"ZYTEL" 100
Properties - Units ASTM
500 100
.2% Moisture 2.5% Moisture

Yield Strength, psi D638 10,000 11,800 8,500

Shear Strength, psi
Impact Strength, (Izod) D732 9,510 9,600
Elongation at Yield,%
Modulus of Elasticity, psi
D256 1.4 2.3 0.9 2.0
Hardness, Rockwell D638 15 410,000 75 5 25
Coefficient of Linear Thermal
Expansion, in/in. oF
D790 M94 R120 410,000 175,000
Water Absorption D785 4.5 x 10-5 M79 R118 M59 R108
24hrs.%
Saturation, % D696 4.5 x 10-5

Specific Gravity 0.25

0.9
1.425 1.5
D570 8.0
1.14

1.14

D792

Test conducted at 73o F

Reprinted with the permission of E.l. DuPont de nemours and Co.; see Ref. 8

T133
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
 Catalog D190
TABLE 1.46 MATERIAL RANKING BY WATER ABSORPTION RATE
Material Rate of change %
Polytetrafluoroethylene 0.0
Poly ethylene: medium density <0.01
high density <0.01
high molecular weight <0.01
<0.015
low density
0.01
Polyphenylene sulfldes (40% glass filled)

Polyester: thermosetting and alkyds 0.0 1-0.25

low shrink 0.01-1.0
glass-preformed chopping roving
0.02
Polyester: linear aromatic 0.02
Polyphenylene sulfide: unfilled 0.02-0.07
Polyester: thermoplastic(18% glass) 0.02-1.5
Polyurethane: cast liquid methane
0.05-0.20
Polyester synthetic: fiber filled - alkyd 0.05-0.25
glass filled - alkyd 0.05-0.50
mineral filled - alkyd 0.05-0.50
glass-woven cloth 0.06-0.28
glass premixed, chopped
0.07
Nylon 12 (30% glass) 0.07-0.20
Polycarbonate (10-40% glass) 0.08-0.22
Styrene acrylonitrite copolymer(20-33% glass filled)
0.09
Polyester thermoplastic: 0.10
thermoplastic PTMT (20% asbestos) 0.10-0.15
glass sheet molding
0.12
Polycarbonate < 10% glass 0.12-0.36
Phenolic cast - mineral filled 0.14
Polyester alkyd - asbestos filled 0.15-0.18
Polycarbonate - unfilled 0.15-0.60
Polyester cast - rigid 0.20
Acetal: TFE
0.20
Nylon 6/12 (30-35% glass) 0.20
6/10 (30-35% glass)
0.20
Polyester alkyd vinyl ester thermoset 0.20-0.30
Styrene acrylonitrite copolymer: unfilled 0.20-0.35
Polycarbonate ABS alloy 0.20-0.40
Phenolic cast : unfilled
0.22
Acetal copolymer 0.25
homopolymer
0.25
Nylon 12 (unmodified) 0.25-0.29
Acetal (20% glass) 028
Poly(ancide-imide) 0.29
Acetal (25% glass) 030
Nylon 11 (unmodified)

Source: Clifford E. Adams, "Plastic Gearing", Marcel Oekker, Inc. New York, 1986. Ref 13

T138
 Catalog D190
TABLE 1.46 (CONTINUED)
Material Rate of change %
Polyester elastomer 0.30-0.60
Poly imide 0.32
Nylon 6/12 (unmodified) 0.40
6/10 (unmodified) 0.40
0.50-2.5
Polyester-thermosetting and alkyds (cast flexible) 0.60-1.2
Nylon 6 (cast) 0.70-0.90
Poly urethane elastomer thermoplastic
0.80-1.1
Nylon 6/6: MOS2 0.90
30 - 35% glass 1.1-1.5
unmodified 1.1-1.5
nucleated
1.3
Nylon 6 (30-35% glass) 1.3-1.9
1.3-1.9
unmodified
nucleated 1.5-2.0

Nylon 6/6-6(copolymer)

Source: Clifford E. Adams, "Plastic Gearing", Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York, 1986. Ref. 13

20.3 Pressure Angles

Pressure angles of 14o, 20o and 25o are used in plastic gears. The 20o pressure angle is usually preferred due to its stronger
tooth shape and reduced undercutting compared to the 14o pressure-angle system. The 25o pressure angle has the highest
load-carring ability, but is more sensitive to center-distance variation and hence runs less quietly. The choice is dependent on the
application.

20.4 Diametral Pitch

The determination of the appropriate diametral pitch is a compromise between a number of different design requirements. A
smaller pitch number is associated with larger and stronger teeth. For a given pitch diameter, however, this also means a smaller
number of teeth with a correspondingly greater likelihood of undercut at very low tooth numbers. Larger teeth are generally
associated with more sliding than smaller teeth.
On the other side of the coin, larger pitch numbers, which are associated with smaller teeth, tend to provide greater load sharing
due to the compliance of plastic gears. However, a limiting condition would eventually be reached when mechanical interference
occurs as a result of too much compliance. Smaller teeth are also more sensitive to tooth errors and may be more highly
stressed.
A good procedure is probably to size the pinion first, since it is the more highly loaded member. It should be proportioned to
support the required loads, but should not be overdesigned.

20.5 Design Equations For Plastic Spur, Bevel, Helical and Worm Gears

20.5.1 General ConsiderationsThe load-carrying capacity of a plastic spur gear is reached under a limiting load, which is
determined either by bending fatigue strength or wear(surface durability). The latter is measured by contact stress. The character
of the limiting load depends on the presence or absence of lubrication and its nature, as shown in Table 1.48

T139
 Catalog D190
TABLE 1.4 LOAD-CARRYING UNIT VS. LUBRICATION OF SPUR GEARS FOR ACETAL COPOLYMER (CELCON), ACEIAL
RESIN (DELRIN) AND NYLON RESIN (NYLON ETC.).
Natureof Lubricant Limiting Load Determined by:
Continuous lubrication Bending fatigue strength

Initial lubrication only Celcon and Zytel: Bending fatigue strength

Delrin: Wear (contact strength)

No lubrication Wear (contact stress)

Like metal gearing, plastic spur gears are the most prevalent type and also the easiest to design in
regard to stress level. The design procedure for helical and bevel gears is analagous to those for spur, differing mainly in the
values of the various equation modification parameters. We first consider the design for bending fatigue strength and follow this
with a discussion of design for surface durability (contact stress), For a given spur gear Table 1.48 determines which of these
should be used.

In regard to standards it should be noted that the AGMA standards have been generated around metal gears. An exception is
AGMA 141.01 which is devoted to plastic gearing.

20.5.2 Bending Stress -Spur GearsThe basic Lewis Formula, the use of which for metal gears has been described in Section 13,
is used also for plastic gears with suitable modifying factors. It can be expressed in the form:

Wt = SFY KLKvKt (70)

Pd
where

KL = lubrication factor
Kv = velocity-dependent dynamic factor
Kt = temperature factor
As already explained in Section 13.1, the remaining notation is as follows:

Wt = tangentially transmitted Load lbs

S = maximum tooth bending stress , lbs/in2
F = face width of gears, in.
Y = Lewis form factor f (Table 1.49)

ln the event torque or horsepower (H.P.) are specified, these are related to the tangent.ially transmitted load as follows:

Torque (in.-lbs.) = (1/2)WtD (71)

and H.P. = WtDn (72)
126050
where
D = pitch diameter of gear, inches
n = gear speed in revolutions per minute

T-140
 Catalog D190

TABLE 1.49 LEWIS FORM FACTOR, Y

TOOTH FORM FACTOR LOAD NEAR THE PITCH POINT
Number of Teeth 14o 20o Full Depth 20o Stub
14 - - 0.540
15 - - 0.566
16 - - 0.578
17 - 0.512 0.587
18 - 0.521 0.603
19 - 0.534 0.616
20 - 0.544 0.628
22 - 0.559 0.648
24 0.509 0.572 0.664
26 0.522 0.588 0.678
28 0.535 0.597 0.688
30 0.540 0.606 0.698
34 0.553 0.628 0.714
38 0.566 0.651 0.729
43 0.575 0.672 0.739
50 0.588 0.694 0.758
60 0.604 0.713 0.774
75 0.613 0.735 0.792
100 0.622 0.757 0.808
150 0.635 0.779 0.830
300 0.650 0.801 0.855
Rack 0.660 0.823 0.881
Reprinted with the permission of E. I. DuPont de Nemours and Co.; see Ref. 8.

20.5.3 Surface Durability for Spur and Helical Gears Excessive contact stresses can cause wear of the tooth surface and
can be a limiting factor in the performance of a plastic gear. For spur gears which are not lubricated or (in some cases) only
initially lubricated, both contact stress and bending stress should be checked, the smaller load being the limiting load.
For spur gears the Hertzian contact stress, 5,, in the elastic range is given by:
 Catalog D190
For helical gears, the contact stress is given by the equation:

The other symbols have the same meaning as in the case of spur gears.

The allowable contact stress is a function of lubrication, gear and pinion material, speed of operation, ambient temperature and
cycles of operation during the life of the gear. The most reliable information on -this point is likely to be that obtainable from the
plastics manufacturer.
In applying eqs. (73) and (74) it is not always easy to predict the values of the elastic moduli. The values given in the literature
such as figures 1.53 and 1.54 are functions of temperature. If the temperature does not vary too much, the ambient temperature
can be used for a first estimate.
For bevel gears the determination of contact stresses is beyond the scope of this treatment and the cited references at the end of
this section can be consulted for further information.

T142
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
 Catalog D190
2. ln determining the Lewis form factor from Table 1.49 the number of teeth should be the formative Numberr of teeth, Nt
where
Nt = N (77)
cos

and = pitch angle

3. Both bending stress and contact stress should be checked for all bevel gears regardless of lubrication, as either type of stress
may be limiting. The subject of contact stresses in bevel gears is an Involved subject for which the reader is referred to the
references.

20.5.7 Design Procedure- Worm GearsThe design of worm-gear drives involves consideration of a rumber of factors, which
do not arise in the design of spur and helical gears. These include the stresses associated with the theoretical line contact
between the teeth of the worm and gear - and the wear associated with the relatively high sliding velocities at the tooth
interface. Plastic worm gears meshing with either with a plastic worm or a metal worm have been used. In either case the
load-carrying capacity of the combination is substantially less than that of metal gears and worms. For design calculations, which
are the scope of this discussion, the reader is referred to the references.

3.6 Operating Temperature

As a general guideline plastic gears should be used only for temperatures below 250oF, as their load carrying capacity decreases
with temperature. The actual recommended maximum temperature can be considerably below 2500o F, depending upon the
application. Limiting factors include the nature of the lubrication, loads, speeds, thermal expansion, nature of operation
(continuous or intermittent) and the material properties of the plastics involved.
The combination of a plastic and a metal gear improves heat dissipation. If space permits, the plastic
can be proportioned so as to maximize the rate of heat transferred to its surroundings.
In order to estimate the operating temperature limit it is recommended that the bending stress and
contact stress can be calculated, taking into account the reduction in tensile strength and elastic moduli with temperature
(Figures 1.53, 1.54).

20.7 Effect of Part Shrinkage on Gear Design

The nature of the part and the molding operation have a significant effect on the molded gear. From the design point of view the
most important effect is the shrinkage of the gear relative to the size of the mold cavity.
Gear shrinkage depends upon mold proportions, gear geometry, material, ambient temperature and
is usually expressed in inches per inch. For example, if a plastic gear with a shrinkage rate of 0.022 in./in. has a pitch diameter
of 2 inches while in the mold, the pitch diameter after molding will be reduced by (2)(0.22)" or 0.44" and becomes 1.956" after
it leaves the mold. Depending upon the
material and the molding process shrinkage rates ranging from about 0.OO1in./in. to 0.030 in/in, occur in (see Tablet 1.38 and
Fig.1.61). Sometimes shrinkage rates are expressed as a percentage.
For example a shrinkage rate of 0.0025 in/in, can be stated as a 0.25% shrinkage rate.

T147
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
 Catalog D190
20.8 Design Specifications

Basic gear formals have been discussed in Section 11.1, which also included a typical data block for spur gears (Figure 1.47). The
information required for plastic injection-molded gears is very similar. Additional information, which would be useful, would
include fillet radius and whole depth. Other data, which is pertinent to the function of the gear and which the design engineer
may wish to add to the data block, includes the following: material and pitch diameter of mating gear, operating temperature,
lubrication, moisture/humidity data, and annealing, if required.

20.9 Backlash

Due to the thermal expansion of plastic gears, which is significantly greater than that of metal gears (see Tables 1 .40 thru
1.43A) and the effects of tolerances, one should make sure that meshing gears do not bind in the course of service. Several
means are available for introducing backlash into the system. Perhaps the simplest is to enlarge center distance. This procedure
is described in Section 4.10. Care must be taken, however, to ensure that the contact ratio remains adequate.
It is possible also to thin out the tooth profile during manufacturing, but this adds to the manufacturing cost and requires careful
consideration of the tooth geometry.
To some extent the flexibility of the bearings and clearances can compensate for thermal expansion. It a small change in center
distance is necessary and feasible, it probably represents the best and least expensive compromise.

20.10 Environment and Tolerances

In any discussion of tolerances for plastic gears it is necessary to distinguish between manufacturing
tolerances and dimensional changes due to environmental conditions.
As far an manufacturing is concerned, plastic gears can be made to high accuracy, if desired. For injection-molded gears TCE can
readily be held within a range of roughly 0.003" - 0.005", with a corresponding TTCE of about 0.OO1 - 0.002". Higher accuracies
can be obtained if the more expensive filled materials, mold design, tooling and quality control are warranted.
In addition to thermal expansion changes there are permanent dimensional changes as the result of moisture absorption. In
addition, there are dimensional changes due to compliance under load. The coefficient of thermal expansion of plastics is on the
order of four to ten times those of metals (see Tables 1.40, 1.43A). In addition, most plastics are hygroscopic (i.e., absorb
moisture) and dimensional changes on the order of 0.1% or more can develop in the course of time, if the humidity is sufficient
As a result, one should attempt to make sure that a tolerance which is specified is not smaller than the inevitable dimensional
changes which arise as a result of environmental conditions. At the same time, the greater compliance of plastic gears as
compared to metal gears suggests that the necessity for close tolerances need not always be as high as those required for metal
gears.

20.11 Avoiding Stress Concentration

In order to minimize stress concentration and maximize the life of a plastic gear the root fillet radius should be as large as
possible, consistent with conjugate gear actiotn. Sudden changes in section and sharp corners should be avoided, especially in
view of the possibility of additional residual stresses, which may have occurred in the course of the molding operation.

T150
 Catalog D190
20.12 Metal Inserts

Injection-molded metal inserts are used in plastic gears for a variety of reasons:

(a) To avoid an extra finishing operation

(b) To achieve greater dimensional stability, because the metal will shrink less and is not sensitive
to moisture, is also, a better heat sink.
(c) To provide greater load-carting capacity
(d) To provide increased rigidity
(e) To permit repeated assembly and disassembly
(f) To provide a more precise bore to shaft fit

Inserts can be molded into the part or subsequently assembled. By subsequent insertion of inserts stress concentrations may be
present which can result in cracking of the parts. The interference limits for press fits must be obeyed depending on the material
used, also proper minimum wall thicknesses around the inserts must be left. The insertion of inserts can be accomplished by
ultrasonically driving in the insert. In this case the material actually melts into the knurling at the insert periphery.
Inserts are usually produced by screw-machines and made of aluminum or brass, It is advantageous to attempt to match the
coefficient of thermal expansion of the plastic to the materials used for inserts. This will reduce the residual stresses in the plastic
part of the gear during contraction while cooling after molding.
When metal inserts are used generous radii and fillets in the plastic gear are recommended to avoid stress concentration, It is
also possible to use other types of metal inserts, such as self-threading, self-tapping screws, press fits and knurled inserts. One
advantage of the first two of these is that they permit repeated assembly and disassembly without part failure of fatigue.

20.13 Attachment of Plastic Gears To Shafts

Several methods of attaching gears to shafts are in common use. These include splines, keys, integral shafts, set screws, and
plain and knurled press fits. Table 1.53 lists some of the basic characteristics of each of these fastening methods:
TABLE 1.53 CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS SHAFT-ATTACHMENT METHODS
Nature of Torque
Gear Shaft Cost Disassembly Comments
Connection Capacity
Set Screw Limited Low Not good unless Questionable reliability,
threaded metal particularly under
insert is used vibration or reversing
drive
Press fit Limited Low Not Possible Residual stresses need to
Fair be considered
Knurled Shaft Good
Low Not Possible A permanent assembly
Connection
Good
Spindle High Good Suited for close
Good tolerances
Key Reasonably Good Requires good fits
Low
Integral Shaft Low Not Possible Bending load on shaft
needs to be watched
T151
 Catalog D190
20.14 Lubrication

Depending on the application, plaslic gears can operate with continuous lubrication, initial lubrication or no lubrication. According
to LD. Martin lnjection Molded Plastic Gears, Plastics Design and Processing, 1968; Pert 1, August,pp 38-45; Part 2.
September,pp.33-35);

(a) all gears function more effectively with lubrication and will have a longer service life;
(b) a light spindle oil (SAE 10) is generally recommended as are the usual lubricants; these include silicone and hydrocarbon oils,
and in some cases cold water is acceptable as well ; and
(c) under certain conditions dry lubricants, such as molybdenum disulfide, can be used to reduce tooth friction.

Ample experience and evidence exists that substantiates plastic gears can operate with a metal mate without the need of a
lubricant so long as the stress levels are not exceeded. It is also true that in the case of a moderate stress level, relative to the
materials rating plastic gears can be meshed together without a lubricant However, as the stress level is increased there is a
tendency for localized plastic to plastic welding which increases friction and wear. The level of this problem varies with the
particular plastic type.
A key advantage of plastic gearing is that for many applications running dry is adequate. When a
situation of stress and shock level is uncertain, using the proper lubricant will provide a safety margin and certainly will cause no
harm. The chief consideration in choosing a lubricants chemical compatability with the particular plastic. Least likely to encounter
problems with typical gear oils and greases are: nylons, delrins, phenolics, polyethylene and polypropylene. Materials requiring
caution are: polystyrene, polycarbonates, polyvinyl chloride and ABS resins.
An alternate to external lubrication is to use plastics fortified with a solid state lubricant. Molybdenum disulfide in nylon and Delrin
are commonly used. Also, graphite, coloidal carbon and silicone are used as fillers.
In no event should there be need of an elaborate sophisticated lubrication system such as for metal gearing. If such a system is
contemplated then the choice of plastic gearing is in question. Simplicity is the plastic gears inherent feature.

20.15 Inspection

In view of the compliance of injection-molded gears, the dimensional accuracy of such gears is determined by a
variable-center-distance fixture (see Section 18.1). This type of gear testing is both functional and utilizes a much more
consistent measuring contact force than an over-wires measurement. In view of the hygroscopic nature of plastic gears, care
should be taken to minimize dimensional changes between inspection and use of the gear.

20.15 Molded vs. Cut Plastic Gears

Although not nearly as common as the injection-molding process, both thermosetting and thermoplastic plastic gears can be
readily machined. The machining of plastic gears can be considered for high-precision parts with close tolerances and for the
development of prototypes for which the investment in a mold may not be justified.
Standard stock gears of reasonable precision are produced by molding blanks with brass inserts, which are subsequently hobbed
to close tolerances.
When to use molded gears vs. cut plastic gears is usually determined on the basis at production quantity, body features that may
favor molding, quality level and unit cost Often the initial prototype quantity will be machine cut, and investment in molding tools
is deferred until the product and market is assured. However, with some plastics this approach can encounter problems.

The performance of molded vs. cut plastic gears is not always identical. Differences occur due to subtle causes. Bar stock and
molding stock may not be precisely the same. Molding temperature can have an effect. Also, surface finishes will be different for
cut vs. molded gears. And finally there is the impact of shrinkage with molding which may not have been adequately
compensated.
An example is Dupont's. Vespel SP3, a good high temperature polyamide plastic available in rod form. However Vespel for
molding is not available in SP3 formulation another similar Vespel resin must be substituted.
T152
 Catalog D190
20.17 Elimination of Gear Noise

In complete conjugate action and/or excessive backlash are the source of noise. Plastic-molded gears are generally less accurate
than their metal counterparts. Furthermore, due to the presence of a larger TCE there is more backlash built into the gear train.
To avoid noise, more resilient material, such as Urethane can be used. Figure 1.63 shows several gears made of Urethane which
in mesh with Delrin gears produce a practically noiseless gear train. The face width of the Urethane gears must be increased
correspondingly to compensate for lower load carrying ability of this material.

20.18 Mold Construction

Depending on the quantity of gears to be produced a decision has to be made to make one single cavity or a multiplicity of
identical cavities. If more than one cavity is involved these are used as "family molds" inserted in mold bases which can
accommodate a number of cavities for identical or different parts. Since special terminology will be used we shall first describe
the elements shown in Figure 1.64.

1 LOCATING RING is the element which assures the proper location of the mold on the platen with respect to the nozzle
which injects the molten plastic.
2 SPRUE BUSHING is the element which mates with the nozzle. It has a spherical or flat receptacle which accurately mates
with the surface of the nozzle.
3 SPRUE is the channel in the sprue bushing through which the molten plastic is injected.
4 RUNNER is the channel which distributes material to different cavities within the same mold base.
5-CORE PIN is the element which by its presence restricts the flow of plastic; hence, a hole or void will be created in the molded
part.
6-EJECTOR PINS are pins-operated by the molding machine. These have a relative motion with respect to the cavity in the
direction which will cause ejection of the part from the mold.
7-FRONT SIDE is considered the side on which the sprue bushing and the Nozzle are located.
8- GATE is the orifice through which the molten plastic enters the cavity.
* - VENT is a miniscule opening through which the air can be evacuated from the cavity as the molten plastic fills it. The Vent is
configured to let air escape, but does not fill up with plastic.
____________
*Not visible due to its small size.

T153
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
Catalog D190
 Catalog D190
Furthermore, the shrinkage of the material in the direction of the flow will be different from that perpendicular to the flow As a
result, a slide-gated gear or rotating part will be somewhat elliptical rather than round.
In order to eliminate this problem, "diaphragm gating" can be used which will cause the injection of material in all directions at
the same time (see Figure 1.66). The disadvantage of this method is the presence of a burr at the hub and no means of support
of the core pin because of the presence of the sprue.
The best, but most elaborate way is "multiple-pin-gating" (Figure 1.67). In this case the plastic injected at several places
symmetrically located. This will assure reasonable viscosity of plastic when the material welds, as well as create uniform
shrinkage in all directions. The problem is the elaborate nature of the mold arrangement- so called 3-plate molds (Figure 1.68)
accompanied by high costs. If precision is a requirement, this way of molding is a must, particularly it the gears are of a larger
diameter.
To compare the complexity of a 3-plate mold with a 2plate mold which is used for edge gating, Figure 1.69 can serve as an
illustration.

20.19 Conclusion

In this section we have attempted to highlight the procedure for proper design of plastic gears as well as illustrate the difficulties
and complexities involved in the production of molded plastic gears for technical applications.
It is a fact that many gears are produced by molders for whom a gear is not any different from a
"fancy door-knob". In many instances taking this position is justified - such as toys etc. However, if technical applications and
stringent requirements are involved, it is imperative that a thorough knowledge of disciplines such as: gear design, mold design,
tool-making, molding and machining (for secondary operation) is used in order to produce a superior or even an acceptable
product.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF REPRINTS
References:

1. Earle Buckingham, Manual of Gear Design",3 Vols., Industrial Press, New York, 1935
2. Chironis, N.P.(Editor): "Gear Design and Application", McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. New York, NY., 1967
3. D.W. Dudley, "Gear Handbook", McGraw-Hill, NewYork,1962
4. Knut 0. Kverneland (Editor), "World Metric Standards for Engineering", Industrial Press, New York, NY. 1978
5. G.W. Michalec,"Precision Gearing: Theory and Practice", John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1966
6. J.E. Shigley,"Mechanical Engineering Design", McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963
7. W. Steeds,"Involute Gears, Longmans, Green and Co., London, 1948
8. El. DuPont de Nemeurs and Co., "Gears of DELRIN and ZYTEL", Wilmington, Delaware.
9. Celanese Plastics and Specialties Co., "Design and Production of Gears in CELCON Acetal Copolymer", Chatham, New Jersey,
1979
10. The Polymer Corp, "Nylatron Nylon Gear Design Manual, Reading, Pa.
11. L.D. Martin, "Injection Molded Plastic Gears",
Plastic Design and Processing Magazine , Pt.1 ,pp. 38-45. August 1968.
12. E.l. DuPont de Nemours and Co.. DELRIN Design Handbook", Willinggton. Delaware, 1967
13. Clifford E. Adams, "Plastie Gearing" Marcel Dekker, Inc. New YorK 1986 -

Literature of general interest:

R.W.Woodbury: "History of Gear Cutting Machines" M.I.T. Technology Press

Cambridge, Mass, 1958
D.W.Dudley: "The Evolution of the Gear Art" AGMA Paper No. 990.14
(Published in book form by AGMA Jan. 1969)

T-158