WOOD WORKING

OVERVIEW OF FCM (Fundamental of Furniture & Cabinet Making by Gregorio T. Amano, pp74-77)

The furniture & cabinet making industry remains to be a flourishing industry because of the art of designing.
Every now & then styles of piece of furniture are fashioned to satisfy the discriminating taste of people in the
various walk of life. Like buildings, home & office furnishings are continue to be the subject of modifications by
the market research, production development, drawing & trial production, production sale.

The furniture designer has to find out what people want to fashion in their home & office furnishings suitable for
their needs. After analyzing what people want, the designer studies the production of the article, & then draws
the plan & proceeds for the trial production of the article. In the trials production process, the piece if furniture
is tested for its strength & comport. If the piece of furniture tested is found satisfactory, it is mass produced for
the market.

Good Design is the effective and efficient in fulfilling its purpose. A good design is not just what looks good as
long as it should be balance. It is also needs to perform, convert, astonish and fulfill its purpose. It can be
innovative or it might just get the job done. A good design cannot be measured by a finite way, multiple
perspective are needed

In designing a piece of furniture, the following factors are to be considered:

▬ The function or purpose of the piece of furniture

▬The pleasing form
▬ The materials with which is to be made
▬ The technique of producing &
▬ The cost when finished.

In determining the function of furniture, the following factors are to be considered:

▬ Ease in using the furniture

▬ The dimension – the most suitable dimensions for the piece of furniture to be designed.
▬ The relationship of the piece of furniture to human beings in terms of comport & satisfaction.

In designing any article of use, there are two things to be considered:

▬ Function & comport

▬ Form – the beauty or pleasing appearance it offers, which gives utmost satisfaction to the consumer or user.

CLASSIFICATION OF FURNITURE

Piece of furniture may be classified into three groups:

▬ Storage furniture – which include book cases, filing cabinets, side boards, drawer chests & the like.

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▬ Resting furniture – which includes desks, chairs, stools & the like.
▬ Working furniture – which includes dining table, office table, study table, wood bench & the like.

Three Types of Storage furniture:

▬ Shelf board type – is open & without any covering

▬ Shutter type – is covered with either:

▬ Folding ▬ Chain slot
▬ Sliding ▬ Detachable single panel

▬ Drawer type- may be in box or in sheet form

In determining the size of storage furniture, the factors to be considered are:

▬ The kind of items to be stored

▬ The dimension of the item to be stored
▬ The quantity of the items to be stored

The design of resting furniture must be flexible to suit any position or posture of resting from upright
to laying position.

Dimensions for storage furniture:

The standard height of the cabinet is 160 to 170 centimeters. The standard width is 80 to 90
centimeters. The standard depth is 40 to 45 centimeters.

The following illustrations may be helpful in designing custom-fashioned piece of furniture for
individual customer.

The table below will give the dimensions of some pieces of storage furniture:

Type of furniture Height Width Depth

Wardrobe 165-180 cm 91 -120 cm 60 cm

Drawer cabinet 105-130 cm 91-120 cm 45-48cm
Cup board 170-185 cm 91-120 cm 30-35cm

Dimension for resting furniture:

Desk, chairs & beds are the common pieces classified as resting furniture. There are many kinds of
chairs such as the easy chairs, the arm chairs, the lounging chairs the rocking chairs, the dining chairs,
& some others.

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Below are the standard dimensions of the parts of a chair.

Easy-arm chair rocking chair lounging chair

Height of seat 35-38 cm the same the same

Width of seat 45-50 cm the same the same
Depth of seat 40-44 cm the same the same
Inclination of seat 3-50 the same the same
Length of back 50 cm + the same the same
Inclination of back 105-1100 the same the same
Height of arm 21-24 cm the same the same

As the rule, the height of the back should be slightly lower than the shoulder blade. This is also through
to chairs with vertical back rest.
An important factor to remember about dining chairs is that the distance of the seat to the top of the
dining table should be at least 26 – 30 cm the ideal is 29 cm.

The measurement of a single bed are:

▬ Width – 90 cm if located near the wall, & more if located in the middle of the room
▬ Length – 159 - 200cm
▬ Height – 45 – 50 cm with cushion, 25cm if without cushion

Dimension for Working Furniture

Working furniture includes the dining table, office table, coffee table, typing table, workbench & the
like.

The dimension of dining table are as follows:

Height Width Length

Good for 2 – persons 69-71 cm 75 cm 75 cm

Good for 3 – persons the same the same 100 cm
Good for 4 – persons the same the same 120 cm
Good for 5 – persons the same the same 135 cm
Good for 6 – persons the same the same 350 cm
Dimension for tea table 45-55 cm 45-60 cm 90-120 cm

SAFETY (Wood Technology & Processes by John L. Feirer pp 87 – 90)

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

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 ▬ Identify the general & specific safety rules that must be followed in the workplace.
▬ Identify the purpose of the federal Occupational Safety & Health Act (OSHA)
▬ Adopt the law “Zero Accident Program” (ZAP)
Safety is:
▬ A habit. ▬ Thinking ahead.
▬ An attitude towards your work. ▬ Learning to use tools & machine correctly.
▬ Planning your work- then working your plan. ▬ Doing the job the right way.
▬ Following directions. ▬ Not being careless.
▬ Taking precautions.

Start Right, Work Right

First, think of the place in which you work as your laboratory. Everyone working has an equal responsibility to
see that the tools, machines & working area are in good condition. Use the tools & machines in a correct usage.
In carrying out the procedures, you learn to work accurately. The best way to complete a project & develop good
working skills is to develop correctly. When you come into the laboratory, treat it as your own. When you are
taught to do mechanical job properly, do not try to do it differently later. It is learning the hard way if you let a
piece of wood kick back from a circular saw & strike you in the stomach. It is not joke to see a fellow student lose
several fingers because he or she has tried to plane a piece that was too small on a jointer. In the school
laboratory we learn by doing. Learning by doing means doing the job correctly.
Dress correctly

For everything that you do, whether it is skating, playing baseball, or working, the right clothes should
be worn. In the laboratory, you should remove all extra clothing, such as coats, sweaters, & jackets. Roll
up your sleeves & wear a shop apron. The shop apron will protect your clothes from dust, paint, & dirt.
Following this suggestion will help prevent accidents. Nothing is more likely to cause an accident than a
lose sleeve hanging over machine. If your hair is long tie it back. Make sure that it does not fall loosely
where it can catch in a revolving cutter of the machine. Also wear an approved eye protector for safety
all the times while working in the laboratory.

Doing your share

Keeping up laboratory requires cooperative effort. Everyone must do his or her part to maintain a safe
& a well-kept job. Here are some of the things you can do:
▬ pick up small pieces of wood in the floor & through them in the waste box. Some student may turn
an ankle on them.
▬ Keep the aisle clear by placing projects in their proper places.
▬ Keep your tools properly arrange in your bench. Don’t allow sharp-pointed tools to stick out.
▬ Keep oil wiped up from the floor. Oil may cause bad fall.
▬ Don’t walk up behind a student who is working on a machine. He or she may be startled & moved
suddenly. If
someone is using a machine, wait until he or she finished.
▬ Be willing to sign safety pledge card. A safety pledge card is your signed promise to use safe work
habits.
▬ Know the fire regulations in your laboratory. The woodworking laboratory is one of the place most
likely to have a blaze. This is because wood dust & finishing materials present a fire hazard. Dust in
the air can cause an explosion. Such dust can be ignited by a spark from a loose wire on a piece of an
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 electrical equipment. The finishing room is a particularly dangerous place. The solvents used in
applying finishes form a vapor. This vapor ignite easily & can cause an explosion.

Be Attentive
Not many accidents occur in school Woodworking laboratory. Each year, however, some students are
injured. Everyone of this accident can be prevented. All of them occur because someone does
something carelessly or incorrectly. To help prevent accident you should:
▬ Carefully watch your instructor’s demonstration on how to use each tool & machine.
▬ Get your teacher’s permission before using the machine. You may not be ready to use power
machinery, so don’t try it until you are. The machines may look harmless, but they are far from it.
An ounce of prevention
Even when you are working correctly with tools & machines, small accident can happen. The most
common are slight cuts & bruises, a sliver in the finger, minor burns & getting something in the eye.
While non of these may be serious, they all can be. A sliver for example, can cause blood poisoning.
Your eyes can be permanently damage if the injury is not treated immediately. Get first aid from nurse
or the doctor. When carrying lumber, be careful not to pinch your fingers. Always make sure that the
lumber is kept in a neat pile. Poorly stock lumber is dangerous.

Handling tools
Many of the tools in woodworking laboratory have sharp cutting edges. These tools are used for marking,
shaping, & cutting stock. These tools can cause accidents. Some rules to follow are:
▬ Never carry pointed tools in your pockets. ▬ Never use tools with loose handle.
▬ Always grind a mushroom (flattened) head. ▬ Always carry cutting tools with the sharp edge
down.
▬ Always cut & chisel away from yourself ▬ Use tools for the proper purpose.

Occupational Safety & Health Act

In April, 1971, the Congress of the United States made the federal Occupational Safety & Health Act (OSHA) an
official part of the national labor law. The purpose of this law is to assure so far as possible every working man &
woman in the nation safe & healthful working conditions & to preserve our human resources.
This law affects all employees in the woodworking trades where one or more workers are employed.
For an individual employed in woodworking, it is just as important to develop the safe work attitudes &
habits outlined by this laws as it is to develop the skills of the trade. Employers are looking for people
with this traits, for their benefit & welfare as well as yours. Thus it is important to know & follow safety
rules.

General Safety Rules:

▬ Secure approval from your instructor for all work that you plan to do.
▬ Never use any tools or machine on which you have not been properly instructed.
▬ Keep the laboratory clean & well organized.
▬ Keep the surface of large machines free of hand tools, scrap wood, sawdust, & oil.
▬ Keep all cutting tools sharp.
▬ Wear goggles or safety glasses.
▬ Do not wear any jewelry.
▬ Do not wear loose-fitting clothes. Wear short sleeve or roll up long sleeves. If you wear long sleeves
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 make sure they are fitted & buttoned at the cuffs.
▬ Keep hair away from moving parts. Wear a hairnet if hair too long.
▬ Keep all guards & other safety equipment in place & operating correctly.
▬ Report all injuries to your instructor.
▬ Fill out accident reports to all injuries.
▬ Know where to find first aid.
▬ Never leave a running machine unattended.
▬ Do not allow horseplay or roughhousing in the woodworking laboratory.

QUALITY CONTROL

(Wood Technology & Processes by John L. Feirer pp490) (Module pp 14 – 22)

Quality Control – is a system for achieving or maintaining the desired level of quality in a
manufactured product by inspecting samples and assessing what changes may be needed in the
manufacturing process.
All items manufactured must meet certain standards. Quality control consists of inspecting and testing
the raw material that come into the plant, checking the parts as they are produced, and inspecting and
testing the finished product.
In mass production, the aim is to make high percentage of acceptable parts with few rejects. In
industry, many types of gauges are used to check each part as it is made and to inspect the final
product. Quality control often depends on individual inspection of each part as it is made. The
assembly of the product must also be checked. The finish must be checked. For the Japanese owned
company, they are practicing the 6S of housekeeping wherein this is the basis or the foundation of
producing standard quality output.

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (THE 6 S)

The 6 S activities are aiming to find solution to problems easier by trying to eliminate waste in the
work place.

THE 6 S WORDS ARE:

1.SORT ( SEIRE ) SURIIN

Clear up / Right placement of things
Taking out & disposing unnecessary items
Unneeded items are thrown away or disposed

2.SYSTEMATIC ( SEITON ) SINUPIN

Keep up in good order / follow standard operating procedure
Arrangement / organization of necessary items in good order for use.
Item in the workplace are arranged for ease of access & repeated use. (a place for everything &
everything in its place.)
3.SWEEP ( SEISO ) SIMUTIN
Clean up / Never place unnecessary thing in the workplace.
Cleaning of the workplace
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 Cleaning even if things are NOT DIRTY. A regular cleaning schedule, prevents things from having
the chance to get Dirty

4.SANITIZE ( SEIKITSU ) SARILING KUSA

Hygienic / Keeping your things and working environment clean.
Maintaining the workplace in high standard of housekeeping.

5.SELF- DISCIPLINE ( SHITSUKI )

Lets behave / Form good work habit.
Doing things spontaneously without being told.
Teach by doing.

6.STRIVE ( SHIKKARI –YAROU ) SIKAP

Lets try hard / Everyone should know extra initiative and effort

WHAT WE CAN EXPECT FROM 6S ACTIVITIES?

Good environment, is a source of good moral, quality and safety.
Bring about good results for production, cost and delivery.
Visual effects and pleasure through these improved activities can be experience.
Teamwork can be fostered to achieved ‘client satisfaction’.
Learning how to implement improved activity is good training.
Comfortable workplace is beneficial to both individuals and institution.

SOME COMMON KINDS OF WOOD USED FOR FURNITURE MAKING

1.Accasia 11. Cedar 21.Mahogany

2.Alder 12. Cherry 22. Maple
3.Almaciga 13. Chest nut 23. Narra
4.Apitong 14. Daniela 24. Oak
5.Ash 15. Dao 25. Pinewood
6.Bagalnga 16. Douglas 26. Poplar
7.Balsa 17. Ebony 27. Rosewood
8.Banuyo 18. Gemelina 28. Toog
9.Beach 19. Kalantas 29. Walnut
10.Birch 20. Lauan 30. Zebrano

FACTS ABOUT WOOD by John L. Feirer (Wood Tech & Processes pp 42, 64-65)

Wood is greater strength per pound than steel. A wood block just 1” square and 2 1/4” long can support
10,000pound of weight. This great strength helps wood houses withstand earthquakes &
hurricanes better than buildings made of other materials.
Wood is a natural insulator. Wood insulates 6x better than bricks, 15x better than concrete, & 1,770x
better than aluminum. Wood is an excellent insulator because of its cellular structure.
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Wood will last for centuries. Many wood houses are over 300 hundred years old. Wood piles under the
streets of Venice, Italy, are over 1,000 years old. Timber over 2,700 years old have been found intact in
kings tombs in the Middle East.
Wood is as varied as nature itself. Colors of wood range from greenish-black to creamy white. Wood’s
grain patterns come in as many varieties as the wave of the sea.
Wood can be worked by hand & power tools to take on forms & shapes.
Wood is our only renewable resource for construction & manufacturing. Modern forests make it
possible to harvest trees much like any other crop.

Common Fallacies About Wood:

A fallacy is a false idea. There are several common fallacies about wood. Eight of these are discussed
here. You may already familiar with some of them:
▬The white house when remodeled in 1949, was found to contain sound timbers that have been in place since
1816.
▬T The Fairbanks House, a wood structure in Dedham, Massachusetts, is standing intact after 3 centuries.
▬Timbers with several hundred years old have been found in the ruins Amerindian pueblos in Arizona
& New Mexico.
▬The part of a Roman emperor’s houseboat that sank nearly 2,000 years ago was sound enough to be
Identified as spruce.
▬T A log 7 feet in diameter was found during construction of a tunnel beneath the Yakima River in
Washington.
▬The wood was identified as an extinct species of sequoia. Geologist estimate that it was buried 12
million years ago.

LUMBER MANUFACTURING (Woodworking for Secondary School pp20-24)

Lumber - is made by sawing a logs into boards, strips, plunks, timbers, stc., each name according to its size and
intended use. After being sawed, much of the lumber is mill-planed or surfaced at the mill on one or more sides
to smooth and straighten it. Yard lumber may be purchased either s1s, s2s, s3s, s4s
Methods of cutting Lumber:

▬ Plain sawing – the most economical way of cutting

▬ Quartered sawing – the most expensive way of cutting

Methods of seasoning wood:

▬ Water seasoning- it is the process of dipping the wood into a log-pond for several days
for the purpose of softening the fiber for easy manufacturing
▬ Air drying- in air drying the lumber is filed in open stocks with strips between the layers
of boards so that the air will circulate through the stocks and reduce the moisture content.
▬ Kiln drying- in kiln drying the materials are piled in similar stocks through smaller in sizes and
placed in a large oven-like structures called “kiln”.

Two classes of lumber size:

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 ▬ Original size or rough size
▬ surface size
Figuring board foot in a Lumber

▬ Bd. Ft = No. of pcs.x T”xW”xL”/144

▬ Bd.Ft.= No. of pcs.x T”xW”xL’/12
Figuring board foot in a log

Bd. Ft= (D-4)2 x L/16

Where;

D - The smallest diameter of the log in inches.

L - Length of the log in feet.

4 & 16 – Are the slab reduction & allowance which are constant in the formula

Common wood defects: (Wood tech. & Processes pp29-30)

1. Crook - an irregular shape of wood.

2. Warp - is a movement of wood for either bow, cup, and twist.
Bow - warping across the length of wood.
Cup - warping across the width of wood.
Twist - warp twisting the surface of wood.
3. Cracks - is a defect of wood for either wind shake, cup shake, heart shake splits, and checks.
Wind shake- splits and checks
Cup shake - an opening between the two concentric layers.
Heart shake - defect consisting of cracks or splits at the center of the log.
Splits- a big cracks usually at the end of the wood.
Checks - a small cracks running parallel to the wood grain.
4. Pinholes - a small holes made by insects. The most common of which is the “bokbok”
5. Knots - is the lumber obtain from the base of twigs or braches.
6. Wane - is the lumber having a bark on one side.

Technical Terms Used in Marketing Lumber

Rough lumber Pinholes wane
S4S – lumber that has surface on 4 sides.
Stone Cut
V – Cut
T&G
Jalousie Blades

Covings:
♣Cove moulding ♣ Quarter round ♣ Crown moulding

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Trims:
♣ Half round ♣ Center panel ♣ Lattice moulding
Skirtings:
♣ Side panel ♣ Baseboard
Casings:
♣ Center panel ♣ Center lining ♣ Center casing
Stair components & Balusters:
♣ Nevel post ♣ Balusters ♣ Hand rail
Boards Commercial Trade Name

1. Marine Plywood 7. Lawanit

2. Ordinary Plywood
3. Plyboard / Blockboard
4. Medium Density Fiber (MDF)
5. High Density Fiber (HDF)
Particle Board (PB)
8. Gypsum Board (GB)
9. White Board (WB)
10. Pearl Board (PB)
11. Cement Board (CB) (hardiflex / premaflex
stone board)

Wood Laminates

1. PVC laminates
2. Plastic laminates
3. Veneer

Panel Edging

1. PVC edging
2. Rubber edging
3. Solid wood edging

WOOD LAMINATION

Solid wood lamination

♣ face to face lamination
♣ edge to edge lamination
Panel board lamination
Mould lamination
Plastic lamination
PVC lamination
Veneer lamination

Classification of abrasives:

1.Synthetic or artificial – is made of boron carbide 2nd in diamond in hardness.

2.Natural – are flint, garnet, and emery. No one of them is as hard or as sharp as the synthetic abrasives
3.Flint – is perhaps the most common abrasives and is referred to as sandpaper.
4.Garnet – a dark semiprecious stone. It is superior to flint in that it is harder and tougher and its
toughness can be
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 increase by heat.
5.Emery – is used for polishing metal. It is very black in color and is found in Turkey and Greece. Its
name is derived from
the cape Emery, which is on the Grecian island of naxos.

Coated Abrasive Backing (Finishing Technology pp 135-138)

1. paper 3. Fiber
2. cloth 4. Combination

Types of Coating Abrasives (Finishing Technology pp136)

1.Closed – no abrasive is exposed in the closed type of coating, as the surface of backing is completely
covered
with abrasive.
2.Open - in an open coat, the surface of the backing is covered with a regulated amount of abrasive
exposing the
adhesive. The space between the abrasive grains reduces filling or loading when sanding soft or
gummy materials.

Abrasives grits sizes (Finishing Technology pp137)

Very Coarse - 12-36

Coarse - 40-50
Medium - 60-100
Fine - 120-180
Very Fine - 220-600
Extra Fine - 800-1400

Purpose of abrasives (General Woodworking pp65)

To clean raw wood surfaces and smooth out coats of shellac, varnish, lacquer, etc.

FURNITURE HARDWARE & FITTINGS:

Types of nails:

•Common wire nails •Box nails

•Finishing nails •Casing nails
•Brad nails •Tacks
Types of nail heads: (Wood Tech. & Processes pp 254)

•Flat •Cupped
•Oval •Headless

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 •Deep •Checkered
•Curved •Knobbed convex
•Standard countersunk •Duplex
•Brad
Types of nail shanks:

•Smooth •Spiral
•Barbed •Annular ringed
•Fluted
Types of nail points:

•Diamond •Blunt
•Chisel •Duck bill
•Needle •Notched
•Side •Pointless
Screws:

•Flt-head screws •Screw hooks

•Round-head screws •L-hooks
•Oval-head screws •Hook & eyes
•Philips-head screws •Log screws
•Screw eyes •Cup hooks
Bolts:

•Carriage bolts •Allen-head bolts

•Stove bolts •Joint bolts
•Stud bolts / threaded pin •Connecting bolts
•Hexagonal-head bolts •Hanger bolts
•Square-head bolts
Hinges:

•Butt hinges •Continuous or piano hinges

•Chest hinges •Cupboard hinges
•Pivot or pin hinges •T-hinges
•L-hinges •Strap hinges
•Screen or double acting hinges •Concealed hinges
Other furniture hardware:

•Drawer lock •Drawer slide

•Drawer pull ∞Roller type
•Drawer knob ∞Full extension type
•Drawer stopper ∞Plastic type
•Furniture glides ∞Wooden type
•Caster •Pocket door mechanism
•Expansion shell
Cabinet catches

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 •Ball catch •Brass pin
•Friction catch •Adjuster or leveler
•Magnet catch •Socket nut
•Shelf stopper •T-nut

FINISHING

Finishing - It is the process of coating or treating the surface for the purpose of protecting & decorating
the products.
Function of Finish:
♣ To protect the product ♣ To beautify the product
Classification of finish:
♣ Opaque finish ♣ transparent finish
♣ Haspe Finish
Finishing Materials:
•Paint •Lacquer
∞Enamel ∞Dead flat lacquer
∞Latex ∞Gloss lacquer
∞Automotive
∞Epoxy
∞Primer Surfacer
Spray filler
Zinc chromate
•Wood stain
∞Oil wood stain
∞Non grain raising stain
∞Spirit stain
∞Water stain
•Varnish
∞ Shellac varnish
∞ Plastic varnish
•Polyurethane

• Polyester
•Reducer
∞ Paint thinner
∞ Lacquer thinner
∞ Lacquer flow

Application of finishing materials:

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 •Brushing •Roller coating
•Spraying •Tumbling
•Dip coating •Curtain coating
•Flow coating •Powder fusion coating

WOOD JOINERIES
http://www.doityourself.com/stry/types-of-wood-joints----
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodworking_joints

Joinery is a part of woodworking that involves joining together pieces of wood, to create furniture,
structures, toys, and other items. Some wood joints employ fasteners, bindings, or adhesives, while
others use only wood elements. The characteristics of wooden joints - strength, flexibility, toughness,
appearance, etc. - derive from the properties of the joining materials and from how they are used in
the joints. Therefore, different joinery techniques are used to meet differing requirements. For
example, the joinery used to build a house is different from that used to make puzzle toys, although
some concepts overlap.

List of joints
▬ Butt joint; the end of a piece of wood is butted against another piece of wood. This is the simplest
and weakest joint.
▬ Miter joint; similar to a butt joint, but both pieces have been cut at a 45 degree angle.
▬ Lap joints; one piece of wood will overlap another.
▬ Dovetail joint; a form of box joint where the fingers are locked together by diagonal cuts.
▬ Edge joint; the edges of two boards are joined.
▬ Dado joint; a slot is cut across the grain in one piece for another piece to set into; shelves on a
bookshelf having slots cut into the sides of the shelf, for example.
▬Tongue and groove. Each piece has a groove cut all along one edge, and a thin, deep ridge (the
tongue) on the opposite edge. If the tongue is unattached, it is considered a spline joint.
▬ Mortise and tenon; a stub (the tenon) will fit tightly into a hole cut for it (the mortise). This is a
hallmark of Mission Style furniture, and also the traditional method of jointing frame and panel
members in doors, windows, and cabinets.
▬ Dowels, where a small rod is used internal to a joint to both help align on glue up and permanently
strengthen the joint. Traditional joints are used with natural timbers as they do not need any other
materials other than the timber itself. for example: Butt joints. Dowel joints are also useful for
pegging together weaker, cheaper composite materials such as laminate-faced chipboard, and
where limited woodworking tools are available (since only simple drilled holes are needed to take
the dowels).
▬ Biscuit joints, where a small 'biscuit' is used to help align an edge or butt joint on glue-up.
▬ Joints can be designed to hold without the use of glue or fasteners; a pinned mortise and tenon is
an example of this.

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▬ Glue is highly effective for joining wood when both surfaces of the joint are edge grain. A properly
glued joint may be as strong or stronger than a single piece of wood. However, glue is notably less
effective on end-grain surfaces. Animal glue is soluble in water, producing joints that can be
disassembled using steam to soften the glue.
▬ Various mechanical fasteners may be used, the simplest being nails and screws. Glue and fasteners
can be used together.

IMAGE OF WOOD JOINTS

A lap may be a full lap or half lap, end lap, middle lap, cross lap.

Full lap joint

In a full lap, no material is removed from either of the members to be joined, resulting in a joint
which is the combined thickness of the two members.

Half laps

In a half lap joint, a material is removed from each of the members so that the resulting joint is
the thickness of the thickest member. Most commonly in half lap joints, the members are of the
same thickness and half the
thickness of each is removed. Half-lap joint or a halving joint is a technique of joining two
pieces of material together by overlapping them.
Half lap joints are used extensively in traditional timber framing, construction and cabinetry for
framing. They are quick and easy to make and provide reasonable strength through good long
grain. They may be reinforced with dowels or mechanical fasteners to resist twisting.

Application

It is used to extend length of assorted materials to be useful again.

End lap
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 End lap joint also known as a 'pull lap' it is the basic form of the lap joint and is used when
joining members end to end at right angles. When the joint forms a corner, as in a rectangular
frame, the joint is often called a corner lap. This is the most common form of end lap and is
used most in framing.

Application:

It is used for framing construction

It is used for table legs and rail construction

Middle Lap
In lap joint, one member is located at the middle of the other member. The two members are at
right angles to each other.

Application:
It is applicable for stud support
It is applicable for stretcher and braces of chairs, tables and framing.

Cross lap

Cross lap joints are similar to the other part of middle lap. Each board is neatly interlocked with
the next, and in some cases, can hold everything together without the need for hardware or
glue. The more practical application is to combine the locking strength of a cross lap with some
additional reinforcement like screws, bolts, and or glue.

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 Cross lap joints tend to have a nicer look and feel most simple like any other lap joints. The
edges are completely flush, and the exposed joinery can add some style and beauty. Cross lap
joints call for the same type of work you'll do for half laps - which means you'll need to remove
a section of material from each adjoining board and then clamp and glue them together. In a
cross lap where both members continue beyond the joint, each member has two shoulders and
one cheek.

Application:

It is applicable for framing support

Its is applicable for cross stretcher
It is applicable for traditional framing design.

Dovetail lap

This is a lap in which the housing has been cut at an angle which resists withdrawal of the stem
from the cross-piece.

Application:
Framing applications where tension forces could pull the joint apart.

Mitered end lap

This is a variation of the end lap which shows a miter on the face of the finished work.
The mitered half lap is stronger than the ordinary miter cutting.

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Application:
It is applicable in framing construction where mitered is visible on the other side.

Ledge and Miter Nailed Miter

It is a combination of miter and a rabbet it is a plain miter cutting and it is
resulting into an easy work when assembling. difficult to assemble.

Application:
It is applicable in box framing construction.

Splined Miter
It is a miter joints of having a groove for intended for splined which makes the joint stronger

Application:
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 It is applicable for cabinet door frame.
It is applicable for box construction.
It is applicable for mirror frame construction.

Slip Miter
It is a joint which form a miter on the outer view and has a tenon on the middle. It is strong and
easy to assemble.

Application:
It is applicable for cabinet shutter.
It is applicable for door framing.
It is applicable for door and window jamb.
It is applicable for mirror framing.

Classical Miter
It is a miter joint which has a combination of other decorative cutting which shows a beautiful
and fascinating image.

Application:

It is applicable for wall framing.

It is applicable for shutter
It is applicable for mirror framing

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Biscuit tenon

In biscuit tenon, a thin oval piece of wood, shaped like a biscuit is inserted to a groove or slot
which hold the joint strongly.

Application:

It is applicable for cabinet construction.

It is applicable for shutter construction.
It is applicable for mirror framing.
It is applicable for edge lamination.

Mortise and Tenon Joint

A tenon is a projection on the end of a timber for insertion into a mortise. Usually the tenon is
taller than its wide. There are several kinds of tenon. It is the most strongest on joint cabinet
shutter, mirror frame, chairs and table legs and other rail construction.
A mortise is a cavity cut into a timber to receive a tenon. There are several kinds of mortise. The
mortise
and tenon joint has been used for thousands of years by woodworkers around the world to join
pieces of wood, mainly when the adjoining pieces connect at an angle of 90°.
Generally the size of the mortise and tenon is related to the thickness of the timbers. It is
considered
a good practice to proportion the tenon as one third of the thickness of rail, or as close to this
as is practical.

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Slip join or Open Mortise and Tenon
Open mortise or slip joint a mortise that has only three sides.

Application:
It is applicable for framing construction.
It is applicable for shutter construction.
It is applicable for table legs and rail construction.
It is applicable for chair construction.

Stub Mortise and Tenon

Stub mortisea shallow mortise, the depth of which depends on the size of the timber; also a
mortise that does not go through the work piece (as opposed to a "through mortise").
Stub tenon short, the depth of which depends on the size of the timber; also a tenon that is
shorter than the width of the mortised piece so the tenon does not show (as opposed to a
"through tenon"

Application:
It is applicable for framing construction.
It is applicable for shutter construction.
It is applicable for table legs and rail construction.
It is applicable for chair construction.

Through mortise and tenon

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 Through mortise and tenon - a tenon that passes entirely through the piece of wood it is
inserted into, being clearly visible on the back side.

Application:
It is applicable for framing construction.
It is applicable for shutter construction.
It is applicable for table legs and rail construction.
It is applicable for chair construction.

Haunch Mortise and Tenon

The haunch, the cut-away part of a sash corner joint that prevents the tenon coming loose, is
one third the length of the tenon and one sixth of the width of the tenon in its depth. The
remaining two-thirds of the rail, the tenon shoulders, help to counteract lateral forces that
might tweak the tenon from the mortise, contributing to its strength. These also serve to hide
imperfections in the opening of the mortise.

Wedge mortise and tenon

Wedge mortise and tenon a kind of mortise and tenon joint that uses a wedge-shaped key to
hold the joint together. In wedge mortise and tenon joint the the back is wider, or taller, than
the front, or opening. The space for the wedge initially allows room for the tenon to be inserted;
the presence of the wedge, after the tenon has been engaged, prevents its withdrawal. It is
sometimes called a "suicide" joint, since it is a "one-way trip".

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Application:
It is applicable for framing construction.
It is applicable for shutter construction.
It is applicable for classical table construction.
It is applicable for classical heavy duty door construction.
Loose tenon
Loose tenon - a tenon that is a separate part of the joint, as opposed to a fixed tenon that is an
integral part of one of the pieces to be joined.

Application:
It is applicable for shutter construction
It is applicable for mirror framing.
It is applicable for table construction.
It is applicable for chair construction.

Pinned Mortise and Tenon

Pegged (or pinned) tenon the joint is strengthened by driving a peg or dowel pin through one or
more holes drilled through mortise side wall and tenon; this is common in timber framing joints

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Application:
It is applicable for classical shutter construction
It is applicable for classical mirror framing.
It is applicable for classical table construction.
It is applicable for classical chair construction.

Keyed Mortise and Tenon or Tusk tenon

Keyed Mortise and Tenon or Tusk tenon - a kind of mortise and tenon joint that uses a wedge-
shaped key to hold the joint together.

Application:
It is applicable for classical mirror framing.
It is applicable for classical table construction.
It is applicable for classical chair construction.
It is applicable for classical wall framing décor.

Double Multiple Mortise and Tenon

Double Mortise and Tenon is desined to strengthen its capacity to hold heavy load. It is
commonly used for chair construction.

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Application:
It is applicable for chair construction.
It is applicable for table construction.
It is applicable for bed construction

Wedged half-dovetail
a mortise in which the back is wider, or taller, than the front, or opening. The space for the
wedge initially allows room for the tenon to be inserted; the presence of the wedge, after the
tenon has been engaged, prevents its withdrawal. It is sometimes called a "suicide" joint, since
it is a "one-way trip"

Application:
Framing applications where tension forces could pull the joint apart.

Half shoulder tenon

Half shoulder tenon An asymmetric tenon with a shoulder on one side only. A common use is in
framed, ledged and braced doors.

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Dovetail Joint
Dovetail joint is the most strongest joint for box construction. The head of the tenon is bigger
than its base which form as the tail of the dove. It locks together when it is assembled.

Application:
It is applicable for drawer case construction.
It is applicable for chest box construction.
It is applicable for jewelry box construction.
It is applicable for tool box construction.
It is applicable for arm legs construction.

Notch joint
Notch joint is a construction of joint which composed of a series of notch and a tenon which
interlock together when assembled. It is a closed figure of a dovetail joint.

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Application:
It is applicable for box framing.
It is applicable for the construction of jointing scrap and small sizes of wood to extend its sizes
to be useful again.

Rabbet Joint – it is a simple joint and commonly Finger Joint- is a complicated joint which
used for box construction. Only one member difficult to do manually. Each end has a
has a rabbet which receive to the other slope cut to interlock one another. It has
member a special machine cutter.

Application:
Application:
It is applicable for box making It is applicable for end jointing of wood to
It is applicable for frame construction extend its length for recycling.

Doweled Joint
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 Application:
It is applicable for shutter construction.
It is applicable for framing construction.
It is applicable for drawer construction.

Beveled joint Shiplap joint

It is commonly used for braces of rafters and
bottom chord of a house. It is a joint similar to tang and groove.
One edge has a groove to receive a tenon
shape in the other edge.

Application:
It is applicable for flooring and walling
construction.
Application:
It is applicable for house framing
construction.
It is applicable for braces of stand.

Scarf joint
It is a joint where the two components are cut similar with each other. When it assembled there
was an opening at the mid portion intended for a lock block which served to extend with each
other to tighten the joint itself.

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Application:
It is applicable for house framing construction especially post jointing.
It is applicable for jointing post or column.
It is applicable for beams jointing.

Butt Joint
Butt joint is the most simple and the most weakest on all the joint. It has no need of having a
cut for both piece.
It is applicable for house framing construction
It is applicable for wall framing
It is applicable for base board construction

WOODWORKING HAND TOOLS

Electric hand drill is a fastening tool used to secure screws or bolts. It can also be used with a drill bit to
tighten fasteners, and can be used with stirring attachments to mix paint and joint and other liquid
materials, such as glazing materials for ceramics. Hand drills are used to drill holes or secure two
objects together. They can also be used for drilling concrete, steel and other construction materials,
depending on the bit used.

Electric hand drill Hand drill

Ratchet Brace

In most braces, immediately behind the chuck is a three position gear release which allows ratcheting
of the handle when in tight spots. Turning the gear release from the center position allows ratcheting
the brace in the direction needed. Turning the gear release fully clockwise lets it remove wood in a
clockwise direction with the ratchet action going counter-clockwise. Placing the gear release fully
29
counter-clockwise then allows turning the brace and bit in a counter-clockwise direction, usually to
remove the drill bit from the hole. The center position of the gear release prohibits the ratcheting
effect.

Expansive Bit

Expansive bits are for drilling different sizes of big holes in wood to meet different working demands.
Heavy duty function is upon the best cost combination.

Auger Bit

A bit shaped like an auger but without a handle; used for wood boring and for earth drilling.
(mining engineering) Hard steel or tungsten carbide-tipped cutting teeth used in an auger running on a
torque bar or in an auger-drill head running on a continuous-flight auger.

Claw Hammer

Claw hammer. This is suitable for pounding in nails; the claw part is suitable for pulling nails out. This
hammer is more commonly used for woodworking and has a “T” shape, with the head on one side and
a “claw” on the other side. It is in the house.

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Ball Pen Hammer

Ball peen hammer (hardened). This is suitable for driving a chisel or a punch. This is more commonly
used for metalworking and has no claw. It has a rounded metallic head.

Screw Driver is a hand tool used for driving screws screws.

Philips screw driver Flat screw driver

Wooden mallet, usually used in carpentry to knock wooden pieces together, or to drive dowels or
chisels. A wooden mallet will not deform the striking end of a metal tool, as most metal hammers
would, but it also reduces the force available to drive the cutting edge of a chisel. Hardwood mallet is
also used to knock in a cricket bat.

Champering Plane is a small woodworking hand plane which typically has the iron bedded at a lower
angle than other planes, with the bevel up. It is designed to cut end grain and champer and is typically
small enough to be used with one hand.

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Rabbeting Plane

The rebate plane (also known as the rabbet plane) is a hand plane designed for cutting rebates in
wood.

Smooth plane/Jack plane/jointer plane/fore plane

Hatchet

A hatchet (from the French hachette, a diminutive form of the French hache, 'axe') is a single-handed
striking tool with a sharp blade used to cut and split wood. Hatchets may also be used for hewing when
making flattened surfaces on logs; when the hatchet head is optimized for this purpose it is called a
broadaxe.

Wood Chisel

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Woodworking chisels range from small hand tools for tiny details, to large chisels used to remove big
sections of wood, in 'roughing out' the shape of a pattern or design. Typically, in woodcarving, one
starts with a larger tool, and gradually progresses to smaller tools to finish the detail. One of the largest
types of chisel is the slick, used in timber frame construction and wooden shipbuilding.

C-Clamp

A C-clamp is a type of clamp device typically used to hold a wood or metal workpiece, and are often
used in, but are not limited to, carpentry and welding. These clamps are called "C" clamps because of
their C shaped frame, but are otherwise often called G-clamps or G-cramps[1] because including the
screw part they are shaped like an uppercase letter G.

Pliers are a hand tool used to hold objects firmly, for bending, or physical compression. Generally, pliers
consist of a pair of metal first-class levers joined at a fulcrum positioned closer to one end of the levers,
creating short jaws on one side of the fulcrum, and longer handles on the other side. This arrangement
creates a mechanical advantage, allowing the force of the hand's grip to be amplified and focused on
an object with precision. The jaws can also be used to manipulate objects too small or unwieldy to be
manipulated with the finger.

Electrical Plier Long-nose Plier Side-cutter Plier

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Marking Gauge

A marking gauge, also known as a scratch gauge,[1] is used in woodworking and metalworking to mark
out lines for cutting or other operations.[2] The purpose of the gauge is to scribe a line parallel to a
reference edge or surface. It is used in joinery and sheetmetal operations.

Scratch Awl is a woodworking layout and point-making tool. It is used to scribe a line to be followed by
a hand saw or chisel when making woodworking joints and other operations.

Lining Tools is a woodworking tools used for marking straight line on a board or on a solid wood for
cutting.

Tape rule or steel tape is a tool used for measuring dimensions on a job.

Combination Square is a tool used for lay-outing 90 degree and 45 degree angle.

34
Sliding T-Bevel is a tool used for lay-outing any degree angle.

Try Square is a too used for lay-outing 90 degree angle.

Compass Saw is a saw used for cutting curve and circle.

Keyhole Saw is a tool used for cutting curve and circle. It is a thin blade

Back Saw is a tool used for cutting wood joint.

35
Coping Saw is a tool used for cutting wood design.

Crosscut saw is a tool used for cutting across the grain of wood.

Rip Saw is a tool used for cutting along the grain of wood.

Hack Saw is a tool used for cutting metal.

Nail Set is a tool used for setting nail below the wood surface.

36
Sharpening Stone is a tool used for sharpening edge cutting tools.

37