01/25/19

Introduction to
FAULT ANALYSIS
Part 2

Louelle Lucio A. Sanchez, PEE

Metering Services Senior Engineer, NGCP
2019 Board of Director, IIEE Cebu Chapter

Outline

• Per Unit Calculations

• Symmetrical Components
• Sequence Impedances of Power
System Elements and Sequence
Networks

Per Unit Calculations

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Per Unit Quantities

• Analyses of power systems employing
actual values such as electrical units of volt-
ampere(VA), voltage, current, and
impedance do not adapt themselves easily
to computations.
• Impedances, currents, voltages, and power
are preferably expressed in per unit (pu)
values rather than their actual units.

Per Unit Quantities

The per-unit value of any quantity is defined as the
ratio of the actual value to its base value expressed as
a decimal.

Advantages of Per Unit Values

• Per unit values of equipment (generators,
transformers, etc.) that have widely varying ratings
normally fall within a narrow range while their actual
ohmic values differ from equipment to equipment
having different ratings. Therefore, pu values can also
be selected, when ohmic values of impedances are
not available, from tables which provide average
values of various categories of equipment.

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Advantages of Per Unit Values

•Per unit values of quantities, when the base values
are appropriately selected, are independent of the
side of the transformer to which they are connected.
On the other hand, ohmic values have to be referred
to one side of the transformer.
•Per unit values are independent of the type of the
power system, that is, whether the power system is
single phase or three phase.

Advantages of Per Unit Values

•Although the voltage bases on the two sides of a
transformer in a three-phase circuit must have a
definite relationship, the pu values of impedances are
independent of the way in which transformers are
connected
•The equipment, supplied by manufacturers, provides
the equipment parameters in pu on the name plate
rating.
•Analyses of power systems are simplified
considerably by using pu values.

Formulas
• Single Phase Systems

• Three Phase Systems

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Conversion of pu Quantities
from One Base to Another Base

Example
1. A system operates at 220 KVA and 11 KV. Using
these quantities as base values, find the base
impedance and base current for the system.

Example
2. A three phase wye connected 6.25 kVA, 220 V
synchronous generator has a reactance of 8.4
ohms per phase. Using the rated kVA and voltage
as base values, determine the per-unit reactance.
Then refer this per unit value to a 230 V, 7.5 kVA
base.

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Example

Example

Symmetrical
Components

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Majority of Faults
• Unsymmetrical nature
• Unsymmetrical currents
• Magnitude have unequal phase
displacement

Unsymmetrical Faults

Faults on the power system, which

give rise to unsymmetrical fault
currents
- unequal fault
currents with
unequal phase
displacement

Solution

1. Kirchhoff’s laws
2. Symmetrical components method
• a simple method and gives more
generality to be given to fault
performance studies.
• provides a useful tool for the protection
engineers, particularly in connection with
tracing out of fault currents.

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Symmetrical Components Method

Symmetrical Components Method

A system of n unbalanced set of

phasors can be resolved into sets of
n - 1 balanced phasor systems of
different phase sequences plus one
zero-phase sequence system

Symmetrical Components Method

Three unbalanced phasors of a three-phase system

can be resolved into three balanced systems of
phasors as follows:
1. Positive-sequence components
2. Negative-sequence components
3. Zero-sequence components

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Positive-sequence components

consist of three phasors

equal in magnitude,
displaced in phase from
each other by 120°, and
having the same phase
sequence as the
original phasors

Negative-sequence components

consist of three
phasors equal in
magnitude, displaced
in phase from each
other by 120°, and
having phase
sequence opposite to
the original phasors

Zero-sequence components
consist of three
phasors equal in
magnitude, and with
zero phase
displacement from
each other

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Symmetrical Components
Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0
Vb = Vb1 + Vb2 + Vb0
Vc = Vc1 + Vc2 + Vc0

Operator “a”
• commonly used to
designate the
operator that causes a
rotation of 120° in the
counterclockwise
direction
• a complex number a = 1∟120° = -0.5+j0.866
a2 = 1∟240° = -0.5-j0.866
of unit magnitude a3 = 1∟360° = 1∟0° = 1
with an angle of 120° a4 = a3 . a = a

Symmetrical Components of
Unsymmetrical Phasors

Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0 -> Eq. 1

Vb = Vb1 + Vb2 + Vb0 -> Eq. 2
Vc = Vc1 + Vc2 + Vc0 -> Eq. 3

Vb1 = a2Va1 Vc1 = aVa1

Vb2 = aVa2 Vc2 = a2Va2 -> Eq. 4
Vb0 = Vao Vc0 = Vao

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Symmetrical Components of
Unsymmetrical Phasors
Repeating Eq. 1 and Substituting Eq. 4 to Eq. 2 and 3
Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0
Vb = a2Va1 + aVa2 + Va0
Vc = aVa1 + a2Va2 + Va0

Resolving three unsymmetrical phasors into their

symmetrical components, yields:
Va0 = 1/3(Va + Vb + Vc)
Va1 = 1/3(Va + aVb + a2Vc)
Va2 = 1/3(Va + a2Vb + aVc)

Symmetrical Components of
Unsymmetrical Phasors
The same applies to currents
Ia = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 Ia0 = 1/3 (Ia + Ib + Ic)
Ib = a2Ia1 + aIa2 + Ia0 Ia1 = 1/3 (Ia + aIb + a2Ic)
Ic = aIa1 + a2Ia2 + Ia0 Ia2 = 1/3 (Ia + a2Ib + aIc)
Current In in the return through the neutral
In = Ia + Ib + Ic In = 3Ia0
In the absence of path through the neutral or a delta-
connected load of a three-phase system, In is zero and
the line currents contain no zero-sequence
components

Sequence Impedances
of Power System
Elements and Sequence
Networks

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Sequence Impedances
• Each element of power system will offer
impedance to different phase sequence
components of current which may not be the
same.
• The impedance which any piece of equipment
offers to positive sequence current will not
necessarily be the same as offered to negative
sequence current or zero sequence current.

Sequence Impedances
• In unsymmetrical fault calculations, each piece of
equipment will have three values of impedance

1. Positive sequence impedance (Z1)

2. Negative sequence impedance (Z2)
3. Zero sequence impedance (Z0)

Sequence Impedances of
Power System Elements
•The concept of impedances of various elements of
power system to positive, negative and zero
sequence currents is of considerable importance in
determining the fault currents in a 3-phase
unbalanced system.
•The following three main power system elements
are considered:
1. Synchronous machines
2. Transformers
3. Transmission lines

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Synchronous Machines
Positive Sequence Impedances
The positive sequence impedance of
synchronous machines varies
depending on the time period after the
machine experiences fault, and these
are:
• Subtransient reactance Xd” (at an
instant of fault)
• Transient reactance Xd’ (1/2 to 4
cycles after)
• Synchronous reactance Xd (more
than 4 cycles)

Synchronous Machines
Negative Sequence Impedances
Generally somewhat less than the positive sequence
impedance and varies with the type of winding, type
of machine, # of poles, etc.

Synchronous Machines
Zero Sequence Impedances
• Usually less than the positive and
negative sequence impedance
• Any impedance Zg in the earth
connection of a star-connected system
has the effect to introduce an
impedance of 3*Zg per phase. It is
because the three equal zero-sequence
currents, being in phase, do not sum to
zero at the star point, but they flow back
along the neutral earth connection.

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Transformers
Positive and Negative Sequence Impedances
Since transformers have the same impedance with
reversed phase rotation, their positive and negative
sequence impedances are equal; this value being equal
to the impedance of the transformer.

Transformers
Zero Sequence Impedances
The zero sequence networks of three-phase
transformers is dependent on the type of transformer
connections and whether a path is available to the
flow of zero sequence currents.

Transformers
Equivalent Sequence Circuits for Three Phase Two
Winding Transformers

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Transformers
Equivalent Sequence Circuits for Three Phase Two
Winding Transformers

Transmission Lines
Positive and Negative Sequence Impedances
The same model as the positive-sequence network is
used for transmission lines in as much as the positive
sequence and negative sequence impedances of
transmission lines are the same

Transmission Lines
Zero Sequence Impedances
• The zero-sequence network model for a transmission
line is the same as that of the positive- and negative-
sequence networks.
• The sequence impedance of the model is the zero-
sequence impedance of the line. This is normally
higher than the positive- and negative-sequence
impedances because of the influence of the earth’s
resistivity and the ground wire/s.

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Sequence Networks
• the path for the flow of that sequence current in
the system
• composed of impedances offered to that
sequence current in the system.

Sequence Networks
Positive-sequence network:

Va1 = Ea - I a1Z1

Sequence Networks
Negative-sequence network:

Va2 = - I a2Z2

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Sequence Networks
Zero-sequence network:

Va0 = - I a0Z0

Positive Sequence Network

Example

Negative Sequence Network

Example

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Zero Sequence Network Example

Are you ready now to

calculate
FAULT
CURRENT?

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