Grid Calculation With Decentralised Generation Calculation Methods

Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus
Department of Power Distribution and High-Voltage Technology
Dr. Klaus Pfeiffer
Grid Calculation with LG 3

Walther-Pauer-Straße 5
Decentralised Generation 03046 Cottbus
Phone: (0355) 69-4035
Calculation Methods klaus.pfeiffer@tu-cottbus.de
April, 2008
Contents
1 Overview about grid calculation

2 Nodal approach (nodal method)
3 Mesh-current method
Exercises
Brandenburg University of Technology

Department of Power Distribution and High Voltage Technology Pfeiffer 1
Grid Calculation
1. Overview about grid calculation
a) Short-circuit calculation (= fault current calculation)
Calculation of
- initial short-circuit current for symmetrical an asymmetrical faults
- phase-to-ground voltage of the faultless phases
- peak short-circuit current for symmetrical faults
- thermal equivalent short-circuit current for symmetrical faults

Note: symmetrical = three-pole
b) Load flow calculation (for a faultless grid)
Calculation of
- line currents and load currents
- voltage drops
- transmission losses (system losses)
- reactive power demand (inductive and capacitive)
c) Network calculation methods
- Nodal method (German: Knotenpunktverfahren)
- Mesh-current method (German: Maschenverfahren)
Premise: Symmetrical grid conditions (symmetrical voltages, symmetrical

impedances), which means, that the relevant parameters are positive sequence
system parameters. The index “1” for the identification of the positive sequence
system can always be neglected.

Grid Calculation
2. Nodal method
Characteristics:
- All the infeeds and consumers (loads) will be represented by currents.
- One nodal point has to be selected, where the voltage is known or set to a certain
value. This is the reference node, called “slack”. In most cases one of the feeding
nodes will be selected.
- Application for grids, where loads are connected to the nodal points (application for
transmission and distribution grids).
Determination of plus/minus-sign:
- Voltages from node to reference node “0” are positive ⇒ arrow pointing to the
reference node
- Currents from node i to node j are positive, if Ui > Uj
- Power according to the following table:
Consumption Infeed
Active power P Plus Minus
Inductive reactive power QL Plus Minus
Capacitive reactive power QC Minus Plus

Grid Calculation
2.1 Derivation of the system of equations
The derivation of the systems of equations is shown by means of the following example for a
distribution grid (figure 1).
Figure 1: Example for a distribution grid
Figure 2: Equivalent circuit diagram of the distribution grid according to figure 1
01 neutral bar of the positive-sequence system

Grid Calculation
Negligence of the effective capacitances
The effective capacitances of lines (overhead lines or cables) will be neglected for short-
circuit calculations and load flow calculations in grids with nominal voltages smaller than or
equal to 110 kV. In this case the equivalent circuit diagram of a line consists only of the
effective impedance or of the effective admittance:
1 1
Y ik = = (1)
Z b ik Rik + j X ik
From figure 1 follows the equivalent circuit diagram in figure 2 with (n+1) nodal points. The
reference node (slack) is designated by “0”. The numbering of the other nodes is arbitrary.
The voltages are phase-to ground voltages.
The impedances of the infeeds and of the loads
Ui
Z= (2)
Ii
are not taken into the equivalent circuit diagram.

For the branch currents we get:
I ij = Y ij ⋅ ( U i − U j ) = −I ji (3)
For every nodal point we get the following equations, if we apply Kirchhoff’s current law:
n
I i + ∑ I ij = 0 i = 0,1, 2, 3 .... n (4)
j =0
j ≠i
n
I i = − ∑ Y ij ⋅ ( U i − U j ) (5)
j =0
j ≠i
n n
I i = −U i ⋅ ∑ Y ij + ∑ U j ⋅ Y ij ( ) (6)
j =0 j =0
j ≠i j ≠i
If we apply equation (6) for the equivalent circuit diagram in figure 2, then we get the
following system of equations:
I0 Y 00 Y 01 Y 02 0 Y 04 0 U0
I1 Y 10 Y 11 Y 12 0 0 0 U1
I2 Y 20 Y 21 Y 22 0 0 0 U2
= ⋅ (7)
I3 0 0 0 Y 33 Y 34 0 U3
I4 Y 40 0 0 Y 43 Y 44 Y 45 U 4
I5 0 0 0 0 Y 54 Y 55 U 5

Grid Calculation
For each element of the main diagonal we get the negative value of the sum of this line:
n
Y ii = − ∑ Y ij (8)
j =0
j ≠i
The admittance matrix is symmetrical:
Y ij = Y ji (9)
The general instruction for generation of the admittance matrix is:
- If there is between two nodal points a connection (line), so the admittance of this line
will be placed at the appropriate position in the matrix.
- No connection means, that the appropriate admittance is zero.
The determinant of the nodal admittance matrix is equal to zero, because the row sum is
zero too. This matrix is singular, which means there is no inverse matrix.
Hence the phase-to-ground voltages will be determined by means of the phase-to-ground
voltage at node “0” (reference node):
U i = U 0 + ∆U i0 (11)
n
After insertion of equation (11) in equation (7) we get (because of (Y ii + ∑Y
j =0
ij ) ⋅ U 0 = 0 ):
j ≠i
I1 Y 11 Y 12 0 0 0 ∆U10
I2 Y 21 Y 22 0 0 0 ∆U 20
I3 = 0 0 Y 33 Y 34 0 ⋅ ∆U 30 (12)
I4 0 0 Y 43 Y 44 Y 45 ∆U 40
I5 0 0 0 Y 54 Y 55 ∆U 50
(The first line and the first column of the original matrix have been eliminated.)
Equation (12) can be expressed by
i = Y ⋅ ∆u (13)
i column vector of the nodal point currents

u column vector of the voltage differences to the slack node
Y nodal admittance matrix (bus admittance matrix)

Grid Calculation
If we solve the equation for the vector of voltages we get
∆u = Y −1 ⋅ i = Z ⋅ i (14)
or more detailed for the distribution grid in figure 1:
∆U10 Z11 Z12 Z13 Z14 Z15 I1

∆U 20 Z 21 Z 22 Z 23 Z 24 Z 25 I2
∆U 30 = Z 31 Z 32 Z 33 Z 34 Z 35 ⋅ I3 (15)
∆U 40 Z 41 Z 42 Z 43 Z 44 Z 45 I4
∆U 50 Z 51 Z 52 Z 53 Z 54 Z 55 I5
After inversion the impedance matrix is a fully occupied symmetrical matrix. All elements
have a negative sign.
Designation of the elements:
Zii driving point impedance (German: Kurzschlussimpedanz)
Zij transfer impedance (German: Transferimpedanz)
It is often advantageous to separate the complex values in real part and imaginary part.
Index w: real part or active component (German: Wirkanteil)
Index b: imaginary part or reactive component (German: Blindanteil)
Equation (12) is then as follows:
(iw + ji b ) = (G + jB ) ⋅ (∆uw + j∆ ub ) (16)
iw = G⋅ ∆uw − B⋅ ∆u b (17)
i b = B⋅ ∆uw + G⋅ ∆u b (18)
iw G − B ∆uw
= ⋅ (19)
ib B G ∆u b
G conductance (German: Wirkleitwert)

B susceptance (German: Blindleitwert)
The line admittances will be calculated by means of the line impedances:

1
Gij + jBij = (20)
Rij + jX ij
Rij
Gij = 2 2
(21)
Rij + X ij
- X ij
Bij = 2 2
(22)
Rij + X ij

Grid Calculation
The solve of equation (19) for the column vector of the voltages yields to
∆ uw R −X iw
= ⋅ (23)
∆ ub X R ib
Consideration of effective capacitance and leakage losses
First approach
The equivalent circuit diagram therewith contains all elements (figure 3)
Figure 3: Complete equivalent circuit diagram of a line
Rij line resistance between nodes i and j

Xb ij effective reactance between nodes i and j
Cb ij effective capacitance between nodes i and j
Gb ij effective conductance (equivalent for the leakage losses) between nodes i and j
The effective admittance of the shunt arm of a line is
Y b ij = Gb ij + jϖCb ij (24)
It is designated as shunt admittance (see figure 3).

G C
By addition of the branch currents Ii0,ij and Ii0,ij the current through the half of the effective
admittance results (see figure 3):
G C
I i0,ij = I i0,ij + jI i0,ij (25)
I i0,ij = U i ⋅ 0,5 ⋅ Y b ij (26)
At nodal point i several lines can be connected (figure 4).
Figure 4: Connection of lines ij until ik at nodal point i

Grid Calculation
The current Ii0 is the sum of the shunt arm currents at node i:
I i0 = I i0,ij + ..... + I i0,ik (27)
I i0 = U i ⋅ Y i0 = (Uw i + jUb i ) ⋅ (Gi0 + jBi0 ) (28)
I w i0 = Gi0 ⋅ Uw i − Bi0 ⋅ Ub i (29)
I b i0 = Bi0 ⋅ Uw i + Gi0 ⋅ U b i (30)
Y i0 is the shunt admittance at nodal point i. Please note, that this admittance should not be
confused with the line impedance.
The effective conductance Gb will be only considered in grids of nominal voltage greater than
or equal to 220 kV. If the effective conductance Gb is neglected, then current Ii0 is a
completely capacitive current.
In the sense of Kirchhoff’s current law the current Ii0 is a load current (consumer).
Equation (4) can be extended by this load current:
n
I i + I i0 + ∑ I ij = 0 i = 0,1, 2, 3 .... n (31)
j =0
j ≠i
From that follows that the column vector of the nodal point currents has to be extended.
These additional nodal point currents are designated by index 0. Equation (19) is now as
follows:
iw + iw 0 G − B ∆uw
= ⋅ (32)
ib + ib 0 B G ∆ub

Grid Calculation
Second approach
Another possibility is to put the shunt admittances into the admittance matrix. Then we have
only the consumer currents and feeder currents as nodal point currents (as did at the
beginning of this chapter, where the effective capacitances were neglected). The equivalent
circuit diagram is presented in figure 5. Compared with figure 2 the numbering of the nodes
has to be changed, because the zero bar of the positive-sequence system gets index “0”.
The zero bar of the positive-sequence system is the reference node. The voltage of the
reference node is
U0 = 0 (33)
and according to equation (11) we get
U i = ∆U i0 (34)
Figure 5: Equivalent circuit diagram of the grid according to figure 1

under consideration of the shunt admittances
The system of equations for this equivalent circuit diagram is:
I0 Y 00 Y 01 Y 02 Y 03 Y 04 Y 05 Y 06 0
I1 Y 10 Y 11 Y 12 Y 13 0 Y 15 0 U1
I2 Y 20 Y 21 Y 22 Y 23 0 0 0 U2
I3 = Y 30 Y 31 Y 32 Y 33 0 0 0 ⋅ U3 (35)
I4 Y 40 0 0 0 Y 44 Y 45 0 U4
I5 Y 50 Y 51 0 0 Y 54 Y 55 Y 56 U 5
I6 Y 60 0 0 0 0 Y 65 Y 66 U 6

Grid Calculation
The properties of this admittance matrix are the same as described for the admittance matrix
in equation (7). The admittance matrix is singular again.
Due to the fact that U0 = 0 and current I0 is not needed, column “0” can be neglected. So we
can reduce the admittance matrix by erasing column “0” and line “0” (same procedure as did
with equation (12))). Now we can invert the admittance matrix.
Shunt admittances can also represent fault admittances or/and constant consumer
admittances.
Equation (35) has to be separated into known (index B: German “bekannt”) and unknown
(index U: German “unbekannt”) values. In general we get:
i B Y BB Y BU u B
= ⋅ (36)
iU Y UB Y UU uU
Equation (36) can be solved for u U . We get

−1
uU = −Y UU ⋅ [Y UB ⋅ u B − i U ] (37)
If the loads in the grid are represented by load admittances, the unknown nodal point
currents are not existent and we get
iU = 0 (38)
If the phase-to-ground voltage at node “1” in the equivalent circuit diagram according to
figure 5 is known, then we get the desired sub matrices from equation (35).
Y 22 Y 23 0 0 0
Y 32 Y 33 0 0 0
Y UU = 0 0 Y 44 Y 45 0 (38)
0 0 Y 54 Y 55 0
0 0 0 Y 65 Y 66
Y 21
Y 31
Y UB = 0 (39)
Y 51
0
I2
I3
iU = I4 (40)
I5
I6
u B = U1
The separation into real part and imaginary part yields to:
−1
uw U G − BUU ⎡G − BUB uw B iw U ⎤
= − UU ⋅ ⎢ UB ⋅ − ⎥ (41)
ub U BUU GUU ⎣ BUB GUB ub B ib U ⎦

Grid Calculation
2.2 Application for short-circuit calculation
It is to be assumed, that a three-phase short circuit is a symmetrical load. For the calculation
we use the system of equations without consideration of the effective capacitances
(equations (14) and (15)). In case of a three-phase short-circuit without base load (pre-load)
exists only one “consumer” current. The related grid is shown in figure 6.
Figure 6: Three-phase short circuit at node i

It is
U i = U 0 + ∆U i0 = 0 (42)
∆U i0 = -U 0 (43)
From equation (15) we get
- U 0 = Z ii ⋅ I i (44)
− U0
Ii = (45)
Z ii
The driving point impedance therefore is the resulting impedance (short-circuit impedance)
between infeed and fault location.
If we strictly apply complex calculation right from the beginning and we define the voltage at
the reference node as positive real, than we get based on equations (43) and (23) the
following equations:
∆Uw i0 = −U0 (46)
∆Ub i0 = 0 (47)
− U0 = Rii ⋅ Iw i − X ii ⋅ Ib i (48)
0 = X ii ⋅ Iw i + Rii ⋅ Ib i (49)
The short-circuit current can be calculated from equations (48) and (49):
− U0
Iw i + jIb i = (50)
Rii + jX ii

Grid Calculation
2.3 Application for load flow calculation
The load flow calculation will be done by means of equation (13). Symmetrical load
conditions are assumed. For constant consumer power first the nodal currents have to be
determined from the nodal apparent powers:
S i = U i ⋅ I *i (51)
S*i = U *i ⋅ I i (52)
-1
I i = U *i ⋅ S*i (53)
or in matrix notation 1
p uw − ub iw
= ⋅ (54)
q ub uw − i b
s = U ⋅ i* (55)
p u ub iw
= w ⋅ (56)
- q - ub uw i b
s* = U * ⋅ i (57)
−1
iw uw ub p
= ⋅ (58)
ib - ub uw −q
−1
i = U* ⋅ s* (59)
s column vector of nodal powers with active and reactive powers

i column vector of nodal currents with active and reactive currents
U matrix of phase-to-ground voltages with active and reactive voltages
The sub matrices uw and ub are diagonal matrices.

If we insert equation (59) into equation (14) we get
−1
∆u = Z ⋅ U * ⋅ s* (60)
−1
U * ⋅ ∆u = U * ⋅ Z ⋅ U * ⋅ s* 2
(61)
U * ⋅ ∆u = Z ⋅ s* (62)
1
Assumption for the following equations (54) until (59): inductive reactive power: +jQ
2 * * −1 * *
Note: U ⋅ Z ⋅ U = Z , because U is a diagonal matrix. In case that U is fully occupied, this equation is not valid.

Grid Calculation
Equation (62) is non-linear because of the quadratic dependence on the voltage. Hence an
approximation method has to be applied, like
- Newton-Raphson approximation method
- Iteration, which means that the nodal currents will be calculated with approximated
voltages
Iteration
First iteration step For the first iteration step it is assumed, that at all nodal points we
have the same phase-to-ground voltage U0.
−1
∆u (1 ) = Z ⋅ U *(0 ) ⋅ s* (63)
u (1 ) = u 0 + ∆u (1 ) (64)
with
1 U0
. .
0
. .
n U0
U *(0 ) = (65)
1 U0
. .
0
. .
n U0
1 U0
. .
. .
n U0
u0 = (constant for all iteration steps) (66)
1 0
. .
. .
n 0
Result:
1 Uw1 1 Uw 1 Ub 1
. . . . .
. . . . .
n Uwn n Uw n Ub n
u (1) = ⇒ U *(1) = (67)
1 U b1 1 - Ub 1 Uw 1
. . . . .
. . . . .
n U bn n - Ub n Uw n

Grid Calculation
Second iteration −1
∆u (2 ) = Z ⋅ U *(1 ) ⋅ s* (68)
step
u (2 ) = u 0 + ∆u (2 ) (69)
Iteration step ν −1
∆u (ν ) = Z ⋅ U *(ν −1 ) ⋅ s* (70)
u (ν ) = u 0 + ∆u (ν ) (71)
Abbort of the Ui (ν −1) − U i (ν )

<ε (72)
iteration U i (ν −1)
relative error ε = 10-3 … 10-5
The activel and reactive components of the nodal currents will be calculated according to
equation (58):
Pi ⋅ Uw i + Qi ⋅ Ub i
Iw i = 2 2
(73)
Uw i + Ub i
Pi ⋅ Ub i − Qi ⋅ Uw i
Ib i = 2 2
(74)
Uw i + Ub i

Grid Calculation
2.4 Exercises
2.4.1 Application of nodal approach
Goal of this exercise: to get familiar with the method of the nodal approach.
The following grid is given:
Line parameter X1 = 0,4 Ω/km

R and C will be neglected in this example
Tasks:
1. Define the slack (reference node “0”). Calculate the line reactances (in this example it is
to be assumed, that the reactances are in the positive real axis ⇒ negligence of “j”)
2. State the admittance matrix of the grid.
3. Calculate the
- nodal point voltages (phase-to-ground voltages)
- branch currents
Solution:
1.

Grid Calculation
2. Complete admittance matrix of the grid:

0 1 2 3
0 -0,35 0,25 0,1 0
Y= 1 0,25 -0,375 0 0,125
2 0,1 0 -0,1 0
3 0 0,125 0 -0,125
This matrix is singular. An inverse matrix can not be calculated. Hence the first line
and the first column will be erased. It remains a (3x3)-matrix.
0 1 2 3
0 -0,35 0,25 0,1 0
1 0,25 -0,375 0 0,125
Y=
2 0,1 0 -0,1 0
3 0 0,125 0 -0,125
3. For the calculation of the nodal point voltages we use

∆ u = Y −1 ⋅ i = Z ⋅ i
We have to calculate the inverse admittance matrix.
1 2 3
1 -4 0 -4
Z=
2 0 -10 0
3 -4 0 -12
∆U10 − 4 0 −4 0
∆U20 = 0 − 10 0 ⋅ 300 (Z in Ω; I in A)
∆U30 − 4 0 − 12 250
∆U10 = −1000 V = −1 kV
∆U20 = −3000 V = −3 kV
∆U30 = −3000 V = −3 kV
110 kV
U0 =
3
U1 = U0 + ∆U10 = 62,5 kV
U2 = U0 + ∆U20 = 60,5 kV
U3 = U0 + ∆U30 = 60,5 kV

Grid Calculation
I13 = (∆U10 − ∆U30 ) ⋅ Y13 = (− 1 kV + 3 kV ) ⋅ 0,125 S = 0,25 kA

I01 = (∆U00 − ∆U10 ) ⋅ Y01 = (0 kV + 1 kV ) ⋅ 0,25 S = 0,25 kA
I02 = (∆U00 − ∆U20 ) ⋅ Y02 = (0 kV + 3 kV ) ⋅ 0,1 S = 0,30 kA

Grid Calculation
2.4.2 Admittance matrix
Given is the following grid. State for this grid the admittance matrix Y.
0 1 2 3 4
0 Y00 Y01 0 0 0
1 Y10 Y11 Y12 0 Y14
Y=
2 0 Y21 Y22 Y23 0
3 0 0 Y32 Y33 Y34
4 0 Y41 0 Y43 Y44
G -B
Y=
B G
Rij - X ij
Gij = 2 2
Bij = 2 2
Rij + X ij Rij + X ij
R X G B
[Ω] [Ω] [S] [S]
Grid 0 -1 0,035 0,353 0,28 -2,81
Cable 1-2 0,019 0,036 11,68 -21,62
Cable 1-4 0,048 0,090 4,67 -8,65
Cable 2-3 0,010 0,018 23,36 -43,25
Cable 3-4 0,015 0,027 15,57 -28,83

Grid Calculation
The calculation of the elements in the main diagonal includes the elements in the 1st row and
1st column.
-0,28 0,28 0 0 0 -2,81 2,81 0 0 0

0,28 -16,63 11,68 0 4,67 2,81 -33,08 21,62 0 8,65
0 11,68 -35,04 23,36 0 0 21,62 -64,87 43,25 0
0 0 23,36 -38,94 15,57 0 0 43,25 -72,08 28,83
0 4,67 0 15,57 -20,25 0 8,65 0 28,83 -37,48
Y=
2,81 -2,81 0,00 0,00 0,00 -0,28 0,28 0,00 0,00 0,00
-2,81 33,08 -21,62 0 -8,65 0,28 -16,63 11,68 0 4,67
0 -21,62 64,87 -43,25 0 0 11,68 -35,04 23,36 0
0 0 -43,25 72,08 -28,83 0 0 23,36 -38,94 15,57
0 -8,65 0 -28,83 37,48 0 4,67 0 15,57 -20,25
Erase of 1st row and 1st column
-16,63 11,68 0 4,67 -33,08 21,62 0 8,65

11,68 -35,04 23,36 0 21,62 -64,87 43,25 0
0 23,36 -38,94 15,57 0 43,25 -72,08 28,83
4,67 0 15,57 -20,25 8,65 0 28,83 -37,48
Y=
33,08 -21,62 0 -8,65 -16,63 11,68 0 4,67
-21,62 64,87 -43,25 0 11,68 -35,04 23,36 0
0 -43,25 72,08 -28,83 0 23,36 -38,94 15,57
-8,65 0 -28,83 37,48 4,67 0 15,57 -20,25

Grid Calculation
2.4.3 Earth fault current in cable network
Goal of this exercise: to get an idea of the range of magnitude of earth fault current
The following grid is given:
Cable parameter R’20 = 0,0967 Ω/km

X1 = 0,179 Ω/km
CE = 0,456 µF/km
Cb = CE
The earth fault current has to be calculated according to the method of symmetrical
components:
Calculation of impedances
Definition of the symmetrical component networks
Interconnection of the symmetrical component networks
Calculation of the currents in 012-system
Calculation of the earth fault current
Calculation of the voltages in 012-system
Calculation of the voltages in abc-system
Calculation of earth fault factor
Drawing of the phasor diagrams

Grid Calculation
Solution
First step: Calculation of impedances
Z1Q =
(110 kV )2 = 6 ,05 Ω
110-kV-grid
2000 MVA
6,05 Ω
ü 2 = 110 Z1Q = = 0,05 Ω
110
X1Q = 0,995 ⋅ Z1Q = 0,0498 Ω
R1Q = 0,1 ⋅ X1Q = 0,0049 Ω
Transformer Correction factor for transformer impedance will be neglected
Z1T = 0,1 ⋅
(10,5 kV )2 = 0,551 Ω
20 MVA
R1T = 0,01 ⋅
(10,5 kV )2 = 0,055 Ω
20 MVA
2 2
X1T = Z1T − R1T = 0,548 Ω
X 0T = 0,95 ⋅ X1T = 0,521 Ω (Z0m is there included)
Cable 1 1
R1K = ⋅ 0,0967 Ω/km ⋅ 10 km = 0,48 Ω
2
1
X1K = ⋅ 0,179 Ω/km ⋅ 10 km = 0,9 Ω
2
C1K = 2 ⋅ 0,456 µF/km ⋅ 10 km = 9,12 µF
Cable 2 R1K = 0,0967 Ω/km ⋅ 5 km = 0,48 Ω

X1K = 0,179 Ω/km ⋅ 5 km = 0,9 Ω
C1K = 0,456 µF/km ⋅ 5 km = 2 ,28 µF
Zero-sequence impedances of the cable:

Because data for the zero-sequence impedance of the cable are not available, we use the
following estimated values:
R0K = 4 ⋅ R1K
X 0K = 4 ⋅ X1K

Grid Calculation
Second step: Definition of the symmetrical component networks
Zero-sequence system
Positive-sequence system
Negative-sequence system
Calculation of the impedances (from capacitances)

1 1
ZC = = −
= − j 698 Ω
jωC j 314s ⋅ 4,56 µF
1
1 1
ZC = = −
= − j 2792 Ω
jωC j 314s ⋅ 1,14 µF
1
1 1
ZC = = −
= − j 559 Ω
jωC j 314s 1 ⋅ 5,7 µF
Third step: Interconnection of the symmetrical component networks
From lecture EDS II we know:
I 0 = I1 = I 2
U 0 + U1 + U 2 = 3 Z F ⋅ I 0
This means, the symmetrical component networks have to be connected in series at fault
location.

Grid Calculation
In the next step we can simplify the three equivalent circuit diagrams.
Zero-sequence system
Due to the very large values of the impedances of the capacitances we can neglect the
impedances of cable 1 and cable 4 and get the parallel connection of the four capacitances:
1 1
ZC = = = − j 279 Ω
jωC j 314s ⋅ (2 ⋅ 4,56 µF + 2 ⋅ 1,14 µF )
−1
Positive-sequence system
Negative-sequence system
The simplified equivalent component networks we can now interconnect:

Grid Calculation
It is to be seen, that
- the impedance in the zero-sequence system is equivalent to the zero capacitance
- the shunt impedance in the positive sequence system is equivalent to the effective
capacitance
- the positive current is not flowing over the effective capacitance, because the
impedance in the parallel branch is smaller
- the impedance in the negative sequence system is very small and can therefore be
neglected
Fourth step: Calculation of the currents in 012-system
Due to the fact, that the voltage in negative-sequence system is negligible we can assume,
that U0 = U1
10 kV
I0 = = j 0,02069 kA ≈ j 21 A (completely capacitive current)
3 ⋅ (− j 279 Ω )
Fifth step: Calculation of earth fault current
ICE = 3 ⋅ I0 = j63 A
10 kV
Verification: ICE = 3 ⋅ ϖ ⋅ CE ⋅ UY = 3 ⋅ 314 s −1 ⋅ 11,4 µF ⋅ = 62 A
3

Grid Calculation
Fifth step: Calculation of the voltages in 012-system
10 kV
U0 ≈ −
3
10 kV
U1 ≈
3
U2 ≈ 0
Sixth step: Calculation of the voltages in abc-system
10 kV 10 kV
Ua = U0 + U1 + U2 = − + +0 =0
3 3
10 kV 10 kV
U b = U0 + a 2U1 + aU2 = − + a2 +0
3 3
(
Ub = a2 − 1 )10 kV
3
= ja 3⋅
10 kV
3
= ja10 kV
10 kV 10 kV
U c = U0 + aU1 + a 2U2 = − +a +0
3 3
(
Uc = a − 1 )10 kV
3
= − ja 2
3⋅
10 kV
3
= − ja210 kV
Seventh step: Calculation of earth fault factor
10 kV
δ= = 3
10 kV
3
Eighth step: Phasor diagrams

Grid Calculation
3. Mesh-current method
Characteristics:
- Definition of meshes, which include supply voltages, grid impedances and load
impedances
- Voltage drops over the grid impedances and load impedances are included in the
meshes
- Loads are represented by its impedance ⇒ nodal currents as consumer currents

are not considered
- If the load impedances are not constant (as usual in transmission grids or
distribution grids), then the impedance matrix has to be changed after each
iteration step ⇒ the application of the mesh-current method for transmission grids
and distribution grids is disadvantageous
Application:
- Calculation of asymmetrical faults in three-phase grids
o Calculation of fault currents and voltages in symmetrical component networks

(interconnection of 012-component networks
o Calculation of fault currents in a three-phase equivalent circuit
3.1 Derivation of the system of equations
1. Definition of a “tree”, which connects all the nodes of the equivalent circuit.
Each node must be reached only on one route by the “tree”.
2. The branches of the equivalent circuit, which are not part of the “tree” are called
independent branches.
The number of independent branches can be calculated by means of the

following equation:
f = z − k +1 (75)
f number of independent branches

z total number of branches (a branch has to include minimum one impedance)
k number of nodes
3. Definition of the meshes

Each independent branch must be passed only by one mesh.
Branches, which are part of the tree, can be passed by more than one mesh.

Grid Calculation
4. The (positive) direction of the mesh currents must be defined.
5. Impedance matrix
The impedance matrix is symmetrical.
o Size of the matrix: (m x m) m number of the meshes
o Main diagonal
The value of each main diagonal element is the sum of the impedances of
the corresponding mesh.
o Outside the main diagonal the impedances between the two

corresponding meshes will be placed.
Impedances which belong to more than one mesh will get a
- positive sign, if the meshes have the same direction when passing the
impedance
- negative sign, if the meshes have opposite direction when passing the
impedance
6. The mesh voltage will get a positive sign, if the mesh current direction and the
direction of the voltage are opposite.
According to these regulations the impedance matrix and the voltage vector must be
constituted.
uM = Z M ⋅ iM (76)
The mesh currents can be calculated from

−1
i M = Z M ⋅ uM (77)
uM column vector of the mesh voltages

ZM impedance matrix of the mesh-current method
iM column vector of the mesh currents

Grid Calculation
Exercise
Load flow calculation by means of mesh-current method
Given is the following single-line:
R’1 X’1
[Ω/km] [Ω/km]
NYY-0 3x(1x400) 0,051 0,086
NYY 3x70/35 0,271 0,082
Table 1: Impedances of the cable
Tasks:
– Calculation of all the necessary impedances
– Definition of the equivalent circuit
– Definition of the meshes
– Calculation of the mesh-currents or branch currents respectively
– Calculation of voltage at load A3

Grid Calculation
Calculation of the impedances (according to VDE 0102)

2
1,0 ⋅ U nQ 1 1,0 ⋅ (10 kV )2 1
10-kV-grid ZQ = ⋅ 2 = ⋅ = 1,902 mΩ
′′
SkQmin ü 250 MVA ⎛ 10,5 ⎞
2
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0,724 ⎠
X Q = 0,995 ⋅ ZQ = 1,89 mΩ
RQ = 0,1 ⋅ X Q = 0,19 mΩ
2
Transformer U (0,724 kV)2
ZT = ukr ⋅ rT = 0,06 ⋅ = 12,58 mΩ
SrT 2,5 MVA
2
U (0,724 kV)2
RT = uRr ⋅ rT = 0,008 ⋅ = 1,68 mΩ
SrT 2,5 MVA
(12,58 mΩ )2 − (1,68 mΩ )2
2 2
XT = ZT − RT = = 12,47 mΩ
10,5
ü= = 14,50
0,724
l K1 25 m Ω
Cable RK1 = ⋅ R1′ = ⋅ 0,051 = 0,212 mΩ
nK1 6 km
l K1 25 m Ω
X K1 = ⋅ X1′ = ⋅ 0,086 = 0,358 mΩ
nK1 6 km
100 m Ω
RK2 = ⋅ 0,051 = 1,70 mΩ
3 km
100 m Ω
X K1 = ⋅ 0,086 = 2,87 mΩ
3 km
50 m Ω
RK3 = ⋅ 0,271 = 13,55 mΩ
1 km
50 m Ω
X K3 = ⋅ 0,082 = 4,10 mΩ
1 km
(0,69 kV ) = 0,635 Ω
2 2
Loads U
Z A1 = n =
SA1 0,75 MVA
R A1 = Z A1 ⋅ cosϕ A1 = 0,635 Ω ⋅ 0,9 = 0,571 Ω
X A1 = Z A1 ⋅ sinϕ A1 = 0,635 Ω ⋅ 1 − cos 2ϕ A1 = 0,277 Ω

Grid Calculation
Z A2 =
(0,69 kV )2 = 0,952 Ω
0,5 MVA
R A2 = 0,952 Ω ⋅ 0,85 = 0,8094 Ω
X A2 = 0,952 Ω ⋅ 1 − cos 2ϕ A2 = 0,5018 Ω
Z A3 =
(0,69 kV )2 = 4,761 Ω
0,1 MVA
R A3 = 4,761 Ω ⋅ 0,8 = 3,809 Ω
X A3 = 4,761 Ω ⋅ 1 − cos 2ϕ A3 = 2,857 Ω
Equivalent circuit
′ U nQ 1 10 kV 1
U Q = ⋅ = ⋅ = 398,2 V
3 ü 3 14,5
Definition of the meshes
branches z=6
nodes k=4
independent meshes f=z–k+1=3
number of independent branches = number of independent meshes
In independent branches must flow one mesh-current only.

This is realised by the definition of IM1, IM2, IM3.

Grid Calculation
System of equations
uM = Z M ⋅ iM
′
U Q Z Q + Z T + Z C1 + Z A1 − Z A1 0 I M1
0 = − Z A1 Z C2 + Z A2 + Z A1 − Z A2 ⋅ I M2
0 0 − Z A2 Z C3 + Z A3 + Z A2 I M3
Separation in active and reactive part
u Mb XM RM i Mw
= ⋅
u Mw RM − XM i Mb
′ ′
Assumption: U Q =U Qw + j0 (completely real)
0 IM1w
0 IM2w
0 X RM I
= M ⋅ M3w
′
U Qw RM − XM IM1b
0 IM2b
0 IM3b
X Q + X T + X C1 + X A1 − X A1 0 R Q + R T + R C1 + R A1 − R A1 0
− X A1 X C 2 + X A 2 + X A1 − X A2 − R A1 R C 2 + R A 2 + R A1 − R A2
0 − X A2 X C3 + X A3 + X A2 0 − R A2 R C3 + R A3 + R A2
R Q + R T + R C1 + R A1 − R A1 0 − (X Q + X T + X C1 + X A1 ) X A1 0
− R A1 R C 2 + R A 2 + R A1 − R A2 X A1 − (X C 2 + X A 2 + X A 1 ) X A2
0 − R A2 R C3 + R A 3 + R A 2 0 X A2 − (X C 3 + X A 3 + X A 2 )
ZM [1,1] = 291,8 mΩ
ZM [2,2] = 781,7 mΩ
ZM [3,3] = 3362,9 mΩ
ZM [1,4] = 572,9 mΩ
ZM [2,5] = 1382,1 mΩ
ZM [3,6] = 4631,9 mΩ

Grid Calculation
0,292 − 0,277 0 0,573 − 0,571 0

− 0,277 0,7817 − 0,502 − 0,571 1,382 − 0,809
0 − 0,502 3,363 0 − 0,809 4,632
ZM = [Ω]
0,573 − 0,571 0 − 0,292 0,277 0
− 0,571 1,382 − 0,809 0,277 − 0,7817 0,502
0 − 0,809 4,632 0 0,502 − 3,363
Solve of the equation for the mesh currents
−1
i M = Z M ⋅ uM = Y M ⋅ uM
1,408 0,694 0,127 2,366 1,006 0,159

0,694 0,684 0,126 1,006 1,033 0,163
-1 0,127 0,126 0,125 0,159 0,163 0,167
ZM = YM = [1/Ω=S]
2,366 1,006 0,159 − 1,408 − 0,694 − 0,127
1,006 1,033 0,163 − 0,694 − 0,684 − 0,126
0,159 0,163 0,167 − 0,127 − 0,126 − 0,125
Calculation of the mesh-currents and branch currents respectively
IM1w 1,408 0,694 0,127 2,366 1,006 0,159 0

IM2w 0,694 0,684 0,126 1,006 1,033 0,163 0
I 0,127 0,126 0,125 0,159 0,163 0,167 0
⋅ M3w = ⋅
IM1b 2,366 1,006 0,159 − 1,408 − 0,694 ′
− 0,127 UQw
IM2b 1,006 1,033 0,163 − 0,694 − 0,684 − 0,126 0
IM3b 0,159 0,163 0,167 − 0,127 − 0,126 − 0,125 0
I M1 = (2,366 S − j 1,408 S ) ⋅ 398,2 V = 2,753 S ⋅ 398,2 V = 942,1 A − j 560,6 A = 1096,2 A
I M2 = (1,006 S − j 0,694 S ) ⋅ 398,2 V = 1,22 S ⋅ 398,2 V = 400,6 A − j 276,3 A = 486,7 A
I M3 = (0,159 S − j 0,127 S ) ⋅ 398,2 V = 0,203 S ⋅ 398,2 V = 63,3 A − j 50,6 A = 81 A
I A1 = I M1 − I M2
I A1 = (2,366 S − 1,006 S + j (− 1,408 S + 0,694 S )) ⋅ 398,2 V
I A1 = (1,36 S − j 0,714 S ) ⋅ 398,2V = 1,54 S ⋅ 398,2 V = 611,6 A
I A2 = I M2 − I M3
I A2 = (1,006 S − 0,159 S + j (− 0,694 S + 0,127 S )) ⋅ 398,2 V
I A2 = (0,847 S − j 0,567 S ) ⋅ 398,2V = 1,019 S ⋅ 398,2 V = 405,9 A
I A3 = I M3 = 81 A

Grid Calculation
Calculation of the phase-to-ground voltage at load A3
∆Uw = R ⋅ Iw − X ⋅ I b
∆U b = X ⋅ Iw + R ⋅ Ib
The voltage drops ∆U have to be calculated for all the three “sections” in the equivalent
circuit.
∆U1w = (RQ + RT + RC1 ) ⋅ IM1w − ( X Q + XT + X C1 ) ⋅ IM1b
∆U1b = ( X Q + XT + X C1 ) ⋅ IM1w − (RQ + RT + RC1 ) ⋅ IM1b
∆U1w = 2,08 mΩ ⋅ 942,1 A − 14,718 mΩ ⋅ (- 560,6 A ) = 1,96 V + 8,25 V = 10,21 V
∆U1b = 14,718 mΩ ⋅ 942,1 A + 2,08 mΩ ⋅ (- 560,6 A ) = 13,86 V − 1,16 V = 12,7 V
∆U 2w = RC2 ⋅ IM2w − X C2 ⋅ IM2b
∆U 2b = X C2 ⋅ IM2w + RC2 ⋅ IM2b
∆U2w = 1,70 mΩ ⋅ 400,6 A − 2,866 mΩ ⋅ (- 276,3 A ) = 0,681 V + 0,792 V = 1,47 V
∆U 2b = 2,866 mΩ ⋅ 400,6 A + 1,70 mΩ ⋅ (- 276,3 A ) = 1,148 V − 0,469 V = 0,678 V
∆U 3w = RC3 ⋅ IM3w − X C3 ⋅ IM3b
∆U 3b = X C3 ⋅ IM3w + RC3 ⋅ IM3b
∆U3w = 13,55 mΩ ⋅ 63,3 A − 4,10 mΩ ⋅ (- 50,6 A ) = 0,857 V + 0,207 V = 1,065 V
∆U3b = 4,10 mΩ ⋅ 63,3 A + 13,55 mΩ ⋅ (- 50,6 A ) = 0,259 V + 0,685 V = -0,425 V
∆Uw = ∆Uw1 + ∆Uw2 + ∆Uw3 = 10,21 V + 1,47 V + 1,065 V = 12,745 V
∆U b = ∆U b1 + ∆U b2 + ∆U b3 = 12,7 V + 0,678 V − 0,425 V = 12,952 V
′
UA = U Q − ∆U
UA = (398,2 V − 12,745 V )2 + (0 V − 12.95 V )2 = 385,67 V phase-to-ground voltage
U A ∆ = 3 ⋅ 385,67 V = 668 V phase-to-phase voltage


Grid Calculation With Decentralised Generation Calculation Methods

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Grid Calculation With Decentralised Generation Calculation Methods

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Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus

Department of Power Distribution and High-Voltage Technology

Dr. Klaus Pfeiffer

Grid Calculation with LG 3

Phone: (0355) 69-4035

Calculation Methods klaus.pfeiffer@tu-cottbus.de

1 Overview about grid calculation

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1. Overview about grid calculation

a) Short-circuit calculation (= fault current calculation)

- initial short-circuit current for symmetrical an asymmetrical faults

- phase-to-ground voltage of the faultless phases

- peak short-circuit current for symmetrical faults

- thermal equivalent short-circuit current for symmetrical faults

b) Load flow calculation (for a faultless grid)

- line currents and load currents

- transmission losses (system losses)

- reactive power demand (inductive and capacitive)

c) Network calculation methods

- Nodal method (German: Knotenpunktverfahren)

- Mesh-current method (German: Maschenverfahren)

Premise: Symmetrical grid conditions (symmetrical voltages, symmetrical

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- All the infeeds and consumers (loads) will be represented by currents.

- Currents from node i to node j are positive, if Ui > Uj

- Power according to the following table:

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2.1 Derivation of the system of equations

Figure 1: Example for a distribution grid

Figure 2: Equivalent circuit diagram of the distribution grid according to figure 1

01 neutral bar of the positive-sequence system

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Negligence of the effective capacitances

are not taken into the equivalent circuit diagram.

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The admittance matrix is symmetrical:

The general instruction for generation of the admittance matrix is:

- No connection means, that the appropriate admittance is zero.

i column vector of the nodal point currents

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If we solve the equation for the vector of voltages we get

or more detailed for the distribution grid in figure 1:

∆U10 Z11 Z12 Z13 Z14 Z15 I1

(iw + ji b ) = (G + jB ) ⋅ (∆uw + j∆ ub ) (16)

G conductance (German: Wirkleitwert)

The line admittances will be calculated by means of the line impedances:

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Consideration of effective capacitance and leakage losses

The equivalent circuit diagram therewith contains all elements (figure 3)

Figure 3: Complete equivalent circuit diagram of a line

Rij line resistance between nodes i and j

The effective admittance of the shunt arm of a line is

It is designated as shunt admittance (see figure 3).

I i0,ij = U i ⋅ 0,5 ⋅ Y b ij (26)

At nodal point i several lines can be connected (figure 4).

Figure 4: Connection of lines ij until ik at nodal point i

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I i0 = I i0,ij + ..... + I i0,ik (27)

I i0 = U i ⋅ Y i0 = (Uw i + jUb i ) ⋅ (Gi0 + jBi0 ) (28)

I w i0 = Gi0 ⋅ Uw i − Bi0 ⋅ Ub i (29)

I b i0 = Bi0 ⋅ Uw i + Gi0 ⋅ U b i (30)

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and according to equation (11) we get

Definition of the symmetrical component networks

Interconnection of the symmetrical component networks

Calculation of the currents in 012-system

Calculation of the earth fault current

Calculation of the voltages in 012-system

Calculation of the voltages in abc-system

Calculation of earth fault factor

Drawing of the phasor diagrams