VARIABLES &

SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
VARIABLES
 Before you can use a statistical
tool to analyse data, you need to
have data which have been
collected.

 What is data?
 Data is defined as pieces of
information which are processed
or analysed to enable
interpretation.
 Quantitativedata consist of
numbers while qualitative data
consist of words and phrases.
 For example:
 the scores obtained from 30 students
in a mathematics test are referred to
as data.
 To explain the performance of the 30
students you need to process or
analyse the scores (or data) using a
calculator or computer or manually.
We collect and analyse data to explain
a phenomenon.
 So, what is phenomenon?
 A phenomenon is explained based on the
interaction between two or more
variables. Example:
 Intelligence Quotient (IQ) and
Attitude Influence Performance in
Mathematics
 Note that there are THREE variables
explaining the particular phenomenon,
namely,
 Intelligence Quotient,
 Attitude and
 Mathematics Performance.
 What is variable?
 Is a construct that is deliberately &
consciously invented or adopted for a
special scientific purpose.
 Example, the variable "Intelligence" is a
construct based on observation of
presumably intelligent and less intelligent
behaviours.
 can be specified by observing and measuring
using intelligence tests, interviewing teachers
about intelligent and less intelligent students.
 What is variable?
 Basically, a variable is something that
“varies” and has a value.
 Variable is something that varies, a symbol
to which numerals of values are assigned.

 Example:
variable “mathematics performance” is
assigned scores obtained from performance
on a mathematics test and may vary or
range from 0 to 100.
 What is variable?
 Can be a continuous variable (ordinal
variable) or categorical variable (nominal
variable).
 Example:
 continuous variable :
-Salary, age, IQ score
 categorical variable
- Gender, religion
 What is variable?
 A variable may have 2 or >2 value.
 Example:
 Gender = 2 value
(male & female)
 Religion= >2
(Islam, Christianity, Buddhism,
Hinduism, Sikhism)
Variable : 2 categories
 Independent variable (IV)
 Dependent variable (DV)
Variable
 Independent variable (IV)
 The variable that is presumed to cause
a change in the dependent variable
(DV) and can be manipulated.
 Other names:
treatment, factor, predictor varible.
Variable
 Dependent variable (DV)
 The variable that is dependent on other
variable (s).
 Other names:
outcome variable, results variable,
criterion variable
Variable
Example:
 There is a study to determine which
teaching method (discovery method
& lecture method) is effective in
enhancing the academic
performance in history of student.
 IV = teaching method
 DV = academic performance
Variable
 An independent variable (teaching
method) can be manipulated.
‘Manipulated’ means the variable
can be manoeuvred, and in this
case it is divided into
 ‘discovery method' and
 ‘lecture method’.
 Other example: gender, race,
socioeconomic status.
Variable
 The dependent variable in this study
is the academic performance which
cannot be manipulated by the
researcher.
 Academic performance is a score
 other examples : IQ (score from IQ
tests), attitude (score on an attitude
scale), self-esteem (score from a
self-esteem test).
What is the difference between an
Independent Variable and
Dependent Variable?
 The dependent variable (DV) is the
variable predicted to, whereas the
independent variable (IV) is
predicted from;
 the dependent variable is the
presumed effect, which varies with
changes or variation in the
independent variable.
 Operational Definition of Variable

 Is the means that variables used in the

study must be defined as it is used in the
context of the study.
 Example: “academic achievement”
 in your study, it may be computed based on
performance in the UPSR examination,
 in another study, it may be computed using a
battery of tests that developed.
 Operational Definition of Variable

 Why do you need to define variables

operationally?
 To facilitate measurement and to eliminate
confusion.
SAMPLING
SAMPLE

 2 main issues:
 Sample size
- Using formula
- Using sample size table
 Sampling techniques
 Sampling

 Population (universe) is an aggregate of

people, objects, items, etc. possessing
common characteristics.
 Sample is that part of the population or
universe we select for the purpose of
investigation.
 “The sample should be
representative of the population.”
Basic Sampling Techniques

 Simple random sampling

 Systematic sampling
 Stratified sampling
 Cluster sampling
Simple Random Sampling

 All individuals in the defined

population have an equal and
independent chance of being
selected as a member of the
sample.

 Use a Table of Random Numbers

 Simple Random Sampling

 Example:
there are 10,000 Form 1 students in a
particular district and you want to select a
simple random sample of 500 students,
when we select the first case, each student
has one chance in 10,000 of being selected.
Once the student is selected, the next
student to be selected has a 1 in 9999
chance of being selected.
 Simple Random Sampling

To select a sample,
 1st:
 obtain a list of all Form 1 students in Daerah
Petaling and assign a number to each
student.
 2nd:
 get a table of random numbers which
consists of a long series of three or four digit
numbers generated randomly by a computer.
 Simple Random Sampling

 3rd:
 Using the table, randomly select a row or
column as a starting point, then select all the
numbers that follow in that row or column.
 If more numbers are needed, proceed to the
next row or column until enough numbers
have been selected to make up the desired
sample.
 Simple Random Sampling

 Example: In your list has 500 students,

you need 30 samples.
 Simple Random Sampling
 random choose, eg. line
3; select student #265,
followed by student
#313 and student #492.
When come to ‘805’, skip
the number because only
need numbers between 1
and 500.

 Proceed to the next number, i.e. student #404.

Again, skip ‘550’ and proceed to select student
#426. You continue until you have selected all 500
students to form your sample.
 Systematic sampling
 Is random sampling with a system. From
the sampling frame, a starting point is
chosen at random, and thereafter at
regular intervals.
 every Nth record
 Is different from random sampling
because each number of the population
is not chosen independently.
 Advantage: it spreads the sample more
evenly over the population & easier to
select.
 Systematic sampling
 Nth record
 Example:20 from 100
 Nth = 100/20 = 5
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91
2 12 22 32 42 52 62 72 82 92
3 13 23 33 43 53 63 73 83 93
4 14 24 34 44 54 64 74 84 94
5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95
6 16 26 36 46 56 66 76 86 96
7 17 27 37 47 57 67 77 87 97
8 18 28 38 48 58 68 78 88 98
9 19 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Stratified sampling

 The sampling frame is divided into

non-overlapping groups or strata &
a sample is taken from each
stratum.
 Advantage: ensures better coverage
of the population.
 Stratified sampling

POPUPLATION: 10,000 persons.

CHARACTERISTICS:
-Gender: 5,100 males & 4,900 females.
-Socioeconomic status: 2500 high, 4000
middle, 3500 low.
-Ethnicity: 5000 Malays, 3000 Chinese, 1000
Indians, 1000 Ibans.
GENERALISATION SAMPLING
SAMPLE: n=500 persons.
CHARACTERISTICS:
Selected -Gender: 255 males & 245 females. Sample
-Socioeconomic status: 125 high, 200 middle, from
175 low.
population
-Ethnicity: 250 Malays, 150 Chinese, 50 (5%)
Indians, 50 Ibans.
 Stratified sampling
 Explanation of how the sample selected is representative of
the population. Population= 10,000 and sample= 500

Example 1:
 Males from population = 5100, so sample=?

 Calculate with the following formula:

 a/10,000 x 500 = 5100/ 10,000 x 500

= 255
Example 2:
 Malays from population = 5000, so sample=?

 Calculate with the following formula:

 a/10,000 x 500 = 5000/ 10,000 x 500

= 250
 Cluster sampling

 The unit of sampling is not the individual

but rather a natural group of individuals.
 Advantage: save time & money.
 Clusters are chosen to be as
heterogeneous as possible
 the subjects within each cluster are diverse
and each cluster is somewhat representative
of the population as a whole.
 Used ratio.
 Cluster sampling

 Example: in a particular district there are

10,000 households and they are clustered
into 25 sections.
 1st: draw a random sample of 5 sections or
clusters from the list of 25 sections or
clusters.
 2nd: study every household in each of the 5
sections or clusters.
THANK YOU