DESIGN OF STEEL

STRUCTURES
TOPIC II
DESIGN BASIS, LOADS, AND
LOAD COMBINATIONS
By Dr. Souhail Elhouar, PE
 Topic Outline
• Design Basis and Methods:
– The LRFD Design Method
– The ASD Design Method
• The Probabilistic Basis of LRFD
• Load Factors and Load Combinations

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 2
 Design Basis
“The design of members and connections shall be
consistent with the intended behavior of the
framing system and the assumptions made in the
structural analysis.”
AISCS- Section B1

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 3
 Design Basis

• The design should be based on the principle

that no applicable strength or serviceability
limit state is exceeded when the structural
system is subjected to all appropriate load
combinations (AISCS, Section B3).

Design Basis: Loading ≤ Resistance

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 4
 Design Basis

• The designer must ensure that required

strength and service deformations do not
exceed the acceptable limits that are set by
the provisions of the specification.

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 5
 Design Methods
AISCS allows the use of one of two design
methods at the designer’s discretion.

These are:
1) Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
2) Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 6
 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
(AISCS, Section B3.1 (Old B3.3))

The LRFD specification was originally based on:

• a probabilistic model.
• a calibration of the new criteria with the 1978
AISC-ASD specification using a live load to dead
load ratio of 3.
• the evaluation of the resulting criteria by judgment
and past experience.

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 7
 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
(AISCS, Section B3.1 (Old B3.3))

General Format: Ru ≤ φRn

• Ru: Required strength based on LRFD load combinations
Ru = Σ γi Ri
• Ri: Required strength obtained from the application of
one specific load
• γi: Load factor associated with the type of load
• Rn: Nominal strength as determined based on AISCS
• φ: Resistance factor as specified in AISCS

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 8
 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
(AISCS, Section B3.1 (Old B3.3))

• (Load factor x Loading) < (Resistance Factor x Nominal Strength)

• Based on probability of failure
• Load Factors ( > 1.0 ) and Resistance Factors ( < 1.0 )
provide factor of safety
• Load Factors account for variability in loading
• Resistance Factors account for variability in
design procedure, fabrication, and erection.

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 9
 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
(AISCS, Section B3.1 (Old B3.3))

• In LRFD, the designer compares the effect of

factored loads to the provided strength.
LRFD Load Combinations must be used
• The Load Factors, γ, and the resistance factors, φ,
reflect the fact that loads, load effects, and the
resistance can be determined only to imperfect
degrees of accuracy.

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 10
 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
(AISCS, Section B3.1 (Old B3.3))
• These factors account for:
– uncertainties in the determination of loads.
– unavoidable inaccuracies in theory.
– variations in material properties.
– variations in dimensions.
– variations in erected positions
• They do not account for:
– gross error
– negligence

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 11
 Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
(AISCS, Section B3.2 (Old B3.4))

• Design is based on the principle that the

maximum stress in a member or component
should not exceed a certain allowable stress
under service loading conditions.
• The allowable stress is obtained by dividing the
nominal strength by a safety factor Ω

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 12
 Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
(AISCS, Section B3.2 (Old B3.4))

General Format: Ra ≤ Rn/ Ω

• Ra: Required strength based on ASD load combinations
Ra = Σ ci Ri
• Ri: Required strength obtained from the application of
one specific load
• ci: Load coefficient associated with the type of load
• Rn: Nominal strength as determined based on AISCS
• Ω: Factor of safety as specified in AISCS

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 13
 Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
(AISCS, Section B3.2 (Old B3.4))

• Actual Stress ≤ Allowable Stress

• Based on maximum stress condition
• Working (or service) loads are used to calculate actual
stress
(ASD load combinations must be used)
• Allowable Stress includes Factor of Safety
• AISCS assumes the same safety level for both design
methods (LRFD and ASD); Consequently, Ω is related to
φ using the expression:
Ω=1.5/φ
CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 14
 Loads
Structures and structural components are designed
to support specific loading conditions. Loads can
be classified under 3 distinct categories:

• Dead Loads
• Live Loads
• Loads that are due to natural causes

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 15
 Dead Loads
• Weight of the structure
• Weight of fixed partitions
• Weights of mechanical and electrical fixtures
• Weights of permanent parts of cranes and other lifting
devices
• Weights of other permanently attached non-structural
components

The AISC Manual has a useful listing of weights of

building components and many solid and non-solid
materials in the Miscellaneous section
(AISCM15 pages 17-25 to 17-27)
CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 16
 Dead Loads

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 17
 Example 2.1 - Dead Loads
A typical 4½” floor of an office building consists of a
normal weight concrete slab on a 1½“ steel deck. The
floor has ceramic tiles above it and a suspended ceiling
system with metal lathing and ½“ gypsum board
underneath it. If mechanical and electrical fixtures will
contribute 5 psf to the system, what is the total dead load
to be supported?

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 18
 Example 2.1 - Dead Loads
Solution:
Assuming top and bottom steel deck channels are of equal size, the
average concrete thickness is:
(3+4½)/2 = 3.75”
The floor must then support:
Steel deck (from deck catalog) 2.5 psf
Concrete (3.75/12) x 150 pcf 47 psf
Ceramic tiles (Manufacturer or AISCM) 10 psf
Metal lath (AISCM) 0.5 psf
½ “ Gypsum board (AISCM) 2 psf
Mechanical/electrical fixtures 5 psf
Total 67.0 psf

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 19
 Live Loads
• Loads that are caused by the occupancy and use of the
structure. They include:
– Weight of occupants and furniture
– Weight of moveable partitions
– Crane rated capacity
– Construction loads
• Refer to Applicable Building Code for minimum values.
• Note minimum distributed and concentrated load
requirements

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 20
 ASCE 7-10
Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 21
 ASCE 7-10
Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 22
 ASCE 7-05
Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads
Bottom of the Table:

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 23
 Summary of Typical Values
of Distributed Live Load
No Occupancy or Use Live Load
(psf) (kPa)
1. Hotel guest rooms, School classrooms, private 40 1.92
apartments, hospital private rooms
2. Offices 50 2.40
3. Assembly halls, fixed seat library reading rooms 60 2.87
4. Corridors, above first floor in schools, libraries, 80 3.83
and hospitals
5. Assembly areas; theater lobbies; dining rooms and 100 4.79
restaurants; office building lobbies main floor;
retail stores assembly hall; movable seats
6. Wholesale stores; all floors light manufacturing; 125 6.00
light storage warehouses
7. Armories and drill halls; stage floors; library 150 7.18
stack rooms
8. Heavy manufacturing; sidewalks and driveways 250 11.97
subject to trucking; heavy storage warehouses
CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 24
 Example 2.2 - Gravity Loads
A typical hotel building floor is constructed using
a series of two-bay frames that are spaced 20-ft
apart.
The frames are connected using hot-rolled beams
that are spaced at 7’6”. A lightweight 6-in
reinforced concrete one-way slab is then supported
by the beams. Frame girders are continuous over
interior columns, and the beams are attached to the
frame girders using simple shear connections.

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 25
 Example 2.2 - Gravity Loads

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 26
 Example 2.2 - Gravity Loads
(Continued)
Assuming the floor is to be used for guest rooms, draw
the gravity load diagrams that need to be considered in the
design of an interior beam and an interior frame girder.
Assume that structural steel weight is about 6 psf for
beams and 8 psf for girders, and that additional flooring
weight is about 10 psf. The floor must also support 5 psf
of mechanical and plumbing load, 6 psf for fixed
partitions, and a channel suspended ceiling system with a
½ in gypsum board.

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 27
 Example 2.2 - Gravity Loads
• Solution – Filler Beams
Magnitude
Load Description (psf) Reference
Dead loads:
6-in slab (LWC, 110 pcf) 55
Floor system 10
Mechanical and plumbing 5
Fixed partitions 6
Channel suspended ceiling system 1 AISCLRFDM2011,
ASISCM15 p. 17-27p 17-26
1/2-in gypsum board 2 AISCLRFDM2011,
ASISCM15 p. 17-27p 17-26
Beam weight 6
Total beam dead load= 85
Live loads:
Hotel guest rooms 40

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 28
 Example 2.2 - Gravity Loads
• Solution – Filler Beam Reactions
Beam tributary width= 7.5 ft
Beam Uniformly distributed load:
Dead= 637.5 plf
Live= 300 plf
Beam span= 20 ft
Beam end reactions
RD= 6.4 kip
RL= 3 kip

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 29
 Example 2.2 - Gravity Loads
• Solution – Girder Loads
Girder Weight= 8 psf
Girder Spacing (Tributary width)= 20 ft
Linear load due to girder weight= 160 plf

PD PD PD= 12.8 kip

PL PL PL= 6 kip wD= 0.16 kip/ft

4 @ 7'-6"=30'

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 30
 Loads that are Due to Natural
Causes
• Snow Load
• Rain Load
• Ice Load
• Wind Load
• Seismic Load

For these loads, refer to the applicable building code

(ASCE 7-10, IBC, local codes …)
CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 31
 Load Combinations
(Reference: AISCS, Section B2)
Load combinations recognize that when several
loads are applied to a structural system, only one
assumes its maximum lifetime value at a given
time, while the others are at their "Arbitrary-Point-
in-Time" (APT) values.

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 32
 Load Combinations
Definition of Terms
• D =Dead Load
• L = Live Load
• Lr= Roof Live Load
• R = Rain load
• S = Snow Load
• W= Wind Load
• E = Earthquake Load

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 33
 ASD Load Combinations
(Reference: ASCE 7-10, Section 2.3)
Not in ASICM15

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 34
 LRFD Load Combinations
(Reference: ASCE 7-10, Section 2.3)
Not in ASICM15

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 35
 LRFD Load Combinations
Definition of Terms

CE442-Design of Steel Structures – Topic 2-Steel Design Basis, Loads, and Load Combinations 36