Medicalphysics Hazemsakeek2014 PDF

‫جامعة األزهر – غزة‬
‫كلية العلوم – قسم الفيزياء‬
‫‪Medical Physics Lecture‬‬
‫إعداد‬
‫الدكتور حازم فالح سكيك‬
‫المحتويات‬
‫‪Physics and Measurements‬‬ ‫الوحدة األوىل‪ :‬علم الفيزياء والقياس‬

‫‪Static and Equilibrium‬‬ ‫الوحدة الثانية‪ :‬علم السكون واالتزان‬
‫‪Properties of matters‬‬ ‫الوحدة الثالثة‪ :‬خواص املادة‬
‫الوحدة الرابعة‪ :‬احلرارة ودرجة احلرارة ‪Heat and Temperature‬‬
‫‪Fluid Mechanics‬‬ ‫الوحدة اخلامسة‪ :‬ديناميكا املوائع‬
‫‪Electricity‬‬ ‫الوحدة السادسة‪ :‬الكهربية‬
‫مقدمة‬
‫منذ نشأأ ا ليقة ع س حأأألر لرشع إلن لننيأأاء عيأأافي و وة ةع ياء لرش أأةاف ي و حأأ‬
‫ياء ها‪ .‬هذل للعياؤي واء لفعه للأل ةعع لل ضءلةع لدى لل رش للذ و مععهم لهلل بنعمع للع ل يللع كري‪.‬‬
‫يلكو بيأ اهل لننياء لل د م يوءفه فننه واء عوي وءله للأل ةعع ىل ياء وءى واعوع ههءلع‬
‫فع أدهأا وان أا ا ا لئيأأ ءلع و ب ا ه‪ .‬يلكو مي مو د مو لئت واال يلاوعشأأافاال ي لفي لىلااع ىل‬
‫لاورتلن يلابعكاع ا عك اء للأل ةعع حتكمها وءلنني مرتلبألع ت بط بني نشأأاتاته وننيأأاء ي توعه بالعامل‬
‫لجلامد يللعامل لىلي س د حءلف‪.‬‬
‫ىلء للعقم للذي دعس للأل ةعع للعي وق ها لهلل ح أ نانه يتعا ت تكامل يتناحأأد ىلبدل ي عل ي هء " قم‬
‫لل ةو اف" للذي حأم ود " قم للأل ةعع"‪ .‬يل د لحأعألان لننيأاء لل دل ي للعء ل ىل بع م اهةم‬
‫هذل للعقم نعةجع ىلااعه لقنصءي س للألعام ف ابعكاعه لعمقةع للصةد بال مر واء قةه اء كءء مدعو أا‬
‫لكمةعني فةو ا ةعني احأاحأةعني ا لئيافع يللومو يمو م واء قةه مع فع ة ع لجليم للني ةع لةعمكو‬
‫مو ىل ابع هدفه‪.‬‬
‫ت لىل ة ع مكو اء ن ءي اء قم لل ةو اف هء للعقم للذي هيعم باناابع و اي حأأللي دا بأأأأأ "ئاذل"‬

‫فعس ح أ ةل لئلاي تيأأافي للعامل نةءتو "ئاذل ح أ ألا للع ا ع ىل اح أ ل " يباناابع و هذل لليأأللي‬
‫تء أأل نةءتو ىل ي أأي لل أانءء للعأام لقجاذبةع للذي بط لل ءى للعجاذبةع بني للكءلو يلرشو ع‪.‬‬
‫يبعد فهم ت ةعع هذه لل ءى متكو لننيأاء مو ي ي او ع نا ةع تديع ءي لرشع ت مدلعلال ابعع‬
‫افا ال لل رش ع ت هااال د دا ي س عاحها هاي لاتصااال‪.‬‬
‫أهمية علم الفيزياء‬

‫ىلء تألءع قم لل ةو اف هء نعةجع ت ةعةع ىلااع لننيأاء ىل ىلاا ت يأري لقوءله للأل ةعةع يفهم حقءوها‬
‫يلل ءى لئل ا قةها مو وتي لحأأعن اق وءلنني ت ت ط ب عضأأها‪ .‬ىلء للعألءع للعكنءلءاي لئقنء ت‬
‫مجةي لئجااال حأأءلف ت للأل اي لدندحأأع اي لل ضأأاف اي لاتصأأااال اي للكم ةءت يهريها ما هء ىلا‬
‫تأل ة اال لنعا ج ابناث يلوعشأأافاال فةو ا ةع‪ .‬فعس حأأ ةل لئلاي قم لل ةو اف هء قم احأأا ت هاي‬
‫حأأءلف واء باحأأعمدلم ا أأعع لوئ اي للنوا لئشأأعع اي لل نني‬ ‫للأل يأأعمدم ت تشأأمةر لئ‬
‫لئغناتةيسأأ اي لرشمءلف فءا للصأأءتةع ةت تععع مجةعها تأل ة اال رشبناث يلوعشأأافاال فةو ا ةع يا‬
‫مكو اء كءء هناك تف بديء تشمةر فكق تألءعال يحا ل للعشمةر امكو لل ضاف س ام ل‬
‫وأانا فعاوع اما لدندحأأع بجمةي ف ي ها يهاافا فهي تأل ةد مع لعقم لل ةو اف فملت حتء ل للألاوع‬
‫لىل لع ع ىل تاوع وةع احأاحأها وءلنني فةو ا ةع لحأعمدمها لئهندحءء لئةكانةكةءء ت تصمةم يحةقع‬
‫للن أل يلئن ك منأذ نمو بعةأد‪ .‬امأا بالنيأأ ع ئجاي لاتصأأااال ف د أأهد تألءعل مقنءوا مي تألءع‬
‫لاوعشأافاال لل ةو ا ةع ف د ا ى لوعشأاا للكه باف يفهم وءلنةنها ىل لحأعمدلمها وءحأأةقع لتتصااال‬
‫و ت د ىلعحأاي لئعقءماال س أكل ن ضأأاال وه با ةع وتي لرشحأتك للنناحأةع‪ .‬يبعد لوعشأأاا‬
‫لل ةو ا ةني رش أعع للقةوع يلرشلةاا للضأء ةع حتءلا تكنءلءاةا لاتصأأااال مو لحعمدلم للكه باف ىل‬
‫لحأأعمدلم للضأأءف ئا ت ذل مو مةولال ت ءا حأأاب عها بكلري‪ .‬اما بالني أ ع ىل قم للكم ةءت فهء ملاي‬
‫يل أأر لقعأل ة أاال لل ةو أا ةأع ف عد فهم ت ةعع لئءل يوءل أأها للكه بةع يمو م لوعشأأاا ا أأ اه‬
‫لئء أأتال ا أ نا هذه لئءل لل نةع لرشحأأاحأأةع لقديل لنلكرتينةع لقكم ةءت يا أ اء للع دم‬
‫لئقنء ت تكنءلءاةا أأنا ع للكم ةءت هء نعةجع لقع دم ت لرشبناث يلاوعشأأافاال لل ةو ا ةع فملت‬
‫ل عقا للشأا أاال للعي تيأعمدم لل قءعلال لليأا قع لل للشأا أاال للع قةد ع ف ر للكم ةءت بكل‬
‫ىلمكاناته بنجم وعاب غري‪.‬‬
‫مو هذه لرشملقع ندعك اء قم لل ةو اف هء قم احأأا ل هم باوي للعقءم يتألء ها يود ا عوا للديي‬
‫لئع دمع ا ةع قم لل ةو اف فشأأجعا س علحأأعه يايلعه لهع ما و ريل مو ةت م لرشبناث للعقمةع‬
‫يتشجةعها ت خمعقف لئجااال لل ةو ا ةع‪.‬‬
‫الشكوى من صعوبة دراسة الفيزياء‬

‫مو للشأأا ي بني للناس امع يللألق ع وا أأع اء ما ا لل ةو اف أأع ع يمع دا اد أل يهذل ت د ذلته هري‬
‫أأنةر فأنء علحأأع قءم لل ةو أاف حتعأاف مو للأدلعس ىل لحأأعمدلم مهاعته ت ىلمعاء لل ك يعبط‬
‫لئعقءماال لليأاب ع يلىلد لع مي بعضأها ب ع يلي يف باحعنعاف منأل ي م ني يرشء قم لل ةو اف هء‬
‫قم جت ي ععمأد س لل ةاس يبالعا تعاف ىل معا اال يوءلنني ع ا أأةع ت بط للكمةاال لل ةو ا ةع‬
‫يهأال أا مأا عنءي ت وةو للدلعس ئء أأءن لل ةو اف مو لل هم لل ةو ا ي ىل للععامل مي اعوام ه ا فت‬
‫يعألةي فهم معناها يمو هنا ص ر للععامل مي ول مي لع س ا ا مء ءن عس اد د يوءلنني اد دا‬
‫بال هم مو اء تق لئي لع ما هي ىلا تأل ةد آو لق انءء ن يه يلكو لليشف لجلد د ما هء ىلا ههءي آو‬
‫فةصأاب للدلعس بان اق ل شأقه ت ل لليللي‪ .‬يلكو ىلذل ما لت ي لرشحقءب للصنةر ت علحع هذل‬
‫للعقم فيعكءء علحعه مةرسا ي ة ع ادل‪.‬‬
‫لل ةو اف لةيا ع ا ةاال فهناك ف ا احي بني لا نعني‪ .‬لل ةو اف تيععني بائعا اال لل ا ةع ف ط بعد‬
‫حتد د للكمةاال لرشحأاحأةع للعي تل ت للنمءذف لل ةو ا ي حتا للدعلحع يباحعمدلم لئ اهةم لل ةو ا ةع‬
‫يع لل ا أأةاال لعنء ل للعتوع لل ةو ا ةع ىل‬ ‫مكو ىل أاي تأ ري بع تقأ للكمةأاال يبعأدها‬
‫معا لع ع ا ةع حتل يت يط ءعفا‪.‬‬
‫سبل االسفادة ن ذ ه املحدرضات يف حل املسدئل والفامري‬

‫ايي ل لرشملقع لئنقءلع ت للكعاب يء لاحععانع بالنو ىل لىلل لئءاء ‪.‬‬
‫لو ا ةغع لليللي لقملاي لئنقءي دا م لال ع تيعألةي فهم لليللي اةد أل‪.‬‬
‫د لئعألةاال يمو م لئألقءب مو لليللي‪.‬‬
‫د للأل ع للعي حعء ق ىل ىلاا ذل لئألقءب س ءف لئعألةاال يلل ءلنني‪.‬‬
‫واعء ق مي لىلل لئءاء ت للكعاب ميع ةد أل مو اوألا ‪.‬‬
‫آمل اء اوءء ود ودما رشبنا نا للدلعحأني مو وتي هذل للعمل لئعءل أي ما عةنهم س فهم يلحعةعاب‬
‫هذل لل ن مو ف ين لئع فع‪ .‬و ات دم بالشك لكل مو دم نصةنع ءي هذل للكعاب يمء ء اته‪.‬‬
‫يلهلل مو يعلف لل صد‬
‫د‪ /.‬حازم فالح سكيك‬

‫جامعـة األزهـر – غـزة‬
‫‪E-mail: skhazem@gmail.com‬‬
‫‪www.hazemsakeek.net‬‬
‫اوا مةأأع لل ةو أأاف هأأي أأاعا أأو مءوأأي للكأأرتين أأس أأ كع لانرتنأأا عأأءف‬
‫قةهأأأا لئأأأا ا لئيأأأاندا لقمنأأأاحلال ت أأأءعا إل فةأأأد ء لقمنأأأاحا مأأأي‬
‫همء أأع مأأو للءحأأا ل للععقةمةأأع لئيأأا دا لقألالأأ أأس فهأأم لئأأا ا للدعلحأأةع‪.‬‬
‫تشكل لاوا مةع يحةقع ت ا قةع بني لئناح يللألق ع‪.‬‬
‫موقع األكاديمية‬
‫‪www.physicsacademy.org‬‬
‫نبذة عن المحاضر‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪ ‬رئيس قسم الفيزياء بجامعة االزهر ‪ -‬غزة في الفترة ‪3991-3991‬‬

‫‪ ‬مؤسس وعميد كلية الدراسات المتوسطة بجامعة االزهر ‪ -‬غزة من الفترة ‪5002-3991‬‬
‫‪ ‬عميد القبول والتسجيل بجامعة االزهر ‪ -‬غزة في الفترتين ‪ 5000-3991‬و‪5001-5002‬‬
‫‪ ‬مدير الحاسب االلي بجامعة االزهر ‪ -‬غزة في الفترة من ‪5000-3991‬‬
‫‪ ‬رئيس وحدة تكنولوجيا المعلومات بجامعة االزهر ‪ -‬غزة في الفترة من ‪5002-5000‬‬
‫‪ ‬مؤسس موقع الفيزياء التعليمي‬
‫‪ ‬مؤسس اكاديمية الفيزياء للتعليم االلكتروني‬
‫‪ ‬مؤسس مركز الترجمة العلمي‬
‫‪ ‬مؤسس قناة الفيزياء التعليمي على اليوتيوب‬
‫‪ ‬مؤسس ورئيس تحرير مجلة الفيزياء العصرية‬
‫لمزيد من المعلومات يرجى زيارة‬

‫المؤسسة اإلعالمية لشبكة الفيزياء التعليمية‬
‫‪www.hazemsakeek.net‬‬
‫ علم الفيزياء والقياس‬:‫الوحدة األوىل‬
Physics and Measurements
Dr. Hazem Falah Sakeek | www.hazemsakeek.net | 2014

9/10/2012
Selected Topics in Physics

for
Medical Sciences Students
Unit 1
Units, Dimensions, and Vectors
Lecture 1
Physics Academy Dr. Hazem Falah Sakeek

www.physicsacademy.org
Al-Azhar University - Gaza
 Introduction
 Unit systems
 Dimensional Analysis
 Vector and Scalar
 Coordinate system
 Properties of Vectors
 The unit vector
 Components of a vector
 Product of a vector
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Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org
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9/10/2012
About Physics
 Explains Nature
 Fundamental science
 Most technology of today (cell phones, DVD player, etc)

are result of discoveries that happened in physics last
century.
 Develop problem solving and logical reasoning skills –
very important in any field of work!!!
3
What is Physics?
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Idealized Models
5
Physics and Measurements

 Physics is based on experimental observations and
quantitative measurements. These observations have
described by numbers and units.
 Numbers give us how large our measurement was, and
 the units tell us the nature of this measurement.
Height = 2.29 m
Number + Unit
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Physical Quantity
Basic
Physical Quantity
‫الزمن‬ ‫الطول‬ ‫الكتلة‬

Time Length Mass
7
Unit systems
Two systems of units are widely used in the world, the metric and the
British systems.
The metric system measures the length in meters whereas the British
system makes use of the foot, inch, …..
The metric system is the most widely used. Therefore the metric system
will be used in this course.
By international agreement the metric system was formalized in 1971
into the International System of Units (SI). There are seven basic units in
the SI as shown in table Below.
“For this Course only three units are used, the meter, kilogram, and second”.
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Basic units in the SI
9
Definition of Basic Quantities

Mass
The SI unit of mass is the Kilogram, which is defined as
the mass of a specific platinum-iridium alloy cylinder.
Time
The SI unit of time is the Second, which is the time
required for a cesium-133 atom to undergo
9,192,631,770 vibrations.
Length
The SI unit of length is Meter, which is the distance
traveled by light in vacuum during a time of
1/299,792,458 second.
10
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Power of ten prefixes

 3,000 m = 3  1,000 m 10x Prefix Symbol
= 3  103 m = 3 km x=18 exa E
 1,000,000,000 = 109 = 1G 15 peta P
 1,000,000 = 106 = 1M 12 tera T
 1,000 = 103 = 1k 9 giga G
6 mega M
 141 kg = ? g 3 kilo k
 1 GB = ? Byte = ? MB
2 hecto h
1 deca da
11
Power of ten prefixes
 0.003 s = 3  0.001 s 10x Prefix Symbol

= 3  10-3 s = 3 ms x=-1 deci d
 0.01 = 10-2 = centi
-2 centi c
 0.001 = 10-3 = milli
-3 milli m
 0.000 001 = 10-6 = micro
 0.000 000 001 = 10-9 = nano
-6 micro µ
 0.000 000 000 001 = 10-12
-9 nano n
= pico = p
-12 pico p
-15 femto f
 3 cm = ? m = ? mm -18 atto a
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Role of “UNITS” in problem solving
 Need to know conversion.

 Do problems with all units in the same system.
 Only quantities with same units can be added or
subtracted.
13
40m  11cm  ?
The above expression yields:
a) 40.11 m
b) 4011 cm
c) A or B
d) Impossible to evaluate (dimensionally invalid)
1.5m  3.0kg  ?
The above expression yields:
a) 4.5 m kg
b) 4.5 g km
c) A or B
d) Impossible to evaluate (dimensionally invalid)
Express a speed of 50 kilometers per hour as meters per second.
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Derived Quantities
All physical quantities measured by physicists can be expressed in terms
of the three basic unit of length, mass, and time. For example, speed is
simply length divided by time, and the force is actually mass multiplied
by length divided by time squared.
[Speed] = L/T = LT-1

[Force] = ML/T2 = MLT-2
where [Speed] is meant to indicate the unit of speed, and M, L, and

T represents mass, length, and time units.
15
 Multiply and divide units just like numbers
 Derived quantities: area, speed, volume, density ……

 Area = Length  Length unit for area = m2
 Volume = Length  Length  Length unit for volume = m3
 Speed = Length / time unit for speed = m/s

 Density = Mass / Volume unit for density = kg/m3
 In 2008 Olympic Game, Usain Bolt sets world record at 9.69 s in

Men’s 100 m Final. What is his average speed?
100 m 100 m
speed     10.32 m/s
9.69 s 9.69 s
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Dimensional Analysis
 The word dimension in physics indicates the physical
nature of the quantity. For example the distance has a
dimension of length, and the speed has a dimension of
length/time.
 The dimensional analysis is used to check the formula,

since the dimension of the left hand side and the right hand
side of the formula must be the same.
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Example
Using the dimensional analysis check that this equation
x = ½ at2 is correct, where x is the distance, a is the
acceleration and t is the time.
Solution
x = ½ at2
The right hand side [x] = L
L
The left hand side [at 2 ]  2
T 2  L
T
This equation is correct because the dimension of the left and right side
of the equation have the same dimensions.
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Example
Show that the expression v = vo+at is dimensionally correct,
where v and vo are the velocities and a is the acceleration,
and t is the time.
Solutions:
The right hand side
L
[v ] 
T
The left hand side
L L
[at ]  2
T 
T T
Therefore, the expression is dimensionally correct

19
Example
Suppose that the acceleration of a particle moving in circle of radius r
with uniform velocity v is proportional to the rn and vm. Use the
dimensional analysis to determine the power n and m.
Solution
Let us assume a is represented in this expression
a = k rn vm
Where k is the proportionality constant of dimensionless unit.
The Left hand side
[a] = L
T2
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 The Right hand side
Ln  m
m
n  L
m
[k r v ]  L    m n
Therefore
T  T
L Ln  m

T2 Tm
Hence, n+m=1 and m=2
Therefore. n =-1 and the acceleration a is

a = k r -1 v2
k=1
v2
a
r
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Problem
 Which of the following equations are dimensionally
correct?
(a) vf = vi + ax
(b) y = (2 m) cos(kx), where k = 2 m-1
The position of a particle moving under uniform

acceleration is some function of time and the acceleration.
Suppose we write this position s = k am tn,
where k is a dimensionless constant.
Show by dimensional analysis that this expression is satisfied if m = 1
and n =2. Can this analysis give the value of k?
22
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for
Unit 1
Lecture 2

 Introduction
 Unit systems
 The unit vector
2 Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org
1
9/10/2012
 Sine, Cosine, Tangent
Sin  = ho/h
Cos  = ha/h
Tan  = ho/ha h
ho
= Sin-1(ho/h)
 = Cos-1(ha/h)
 = Tan-1(ho/ha)

NOTE: Tan-1 ≠ 1/Tan ha
h2 = ho2+ha2
 Scalars: One that can be described by a single number

(along with the unit)
 Water freezes at a temperature of 0o C or 32o F
 The mass of a book is 198.2 g
 The length of room is 5 m
 The car kinetic energy was 0.345 J
 Vectors: A quantity that deals with magnitude and

direction is called a vector quantity.
 The wind had a velocity of 25 km/h from the North
 The momentum was 1.234 kg m/s to the left
 Textbooks use either A or A

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Vector and Scalar Quantities
Vector Quantity Scalar Quantity

Displacement Length
Velocity Mass
Force Speed
Acceleration Power
Field Energy
Momentum Work
(1) The rectangular coordinates

This coordinate system
is consist of a fixed
reference point (0,0)
which called the origin.
A set of axis with
appropriate scale and
label.
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The x- and y-coordinates may be either

positive or negative
We can call this x-component,

a vector along the x-direction
of length x, and indicate that it
is a vector by x.
Likewise, we can call this

y-component, a vector along
the y-direction of length y, and
indicate that it is a vector by
y.
r=x+y
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(2) The polar coordinates

Sometimes it is more
convenient to use the polar
coordinate system (r,), where
r is the distance from the origin
to the point of rectangular
coordinate (x,y), and  is the
angle between r and the x axis.
The relation between coordinates
The relation between the

rectangular coordinates (x,y)
and the polar coordinates (r,)
is shown in Figure,
5
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It is common practice to measure the angle from the positive x-axis

and to measure it positive for a counterclockwise direction.
Example 1
The example shown below might be for an angle of θ = 53o .
Then, if r = 10, the components will be
x = r cos θ= )0.6( )10( =6
y = r sin θ = )0.8( )10( = 8
Of course, angle θ does not need to be limited to the first

quadrant. for θ = 150o, r = 10 for this numerical example.
For that case,
x = r cos θ = (10)(cos 150o) = (10)(-0.866)= -8.66

y = r sin θ = (10)( sin 150o) = (10)( 0.500) = 5.00
6
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notice the signs and compare them with the diagram.

x = - 8.66 is located to the left and y = 5.00 is located up .
‫ مع عقارب عكس عقارب الساعة‬x ‫من الممكن ان نقيس الزاوية لتحديد االتجاه من محور‬
.‫أو مع عقارب الساعة ولكن يجب ان نميز ذلك باشارة الزاوية‬
r = 10, θ = 210o r = 10, θ = -150o

7
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Example 2
 The polar coordinates of a point are
r = 5.5m and  =240o. What are the
Cartesian coordinates of this point?
 Solution
x = r cos  = 5.5×cos 240o = -2.75 m
y = r sin  = 5.5×sin 240o = -4.76 m
The unit vector

 A unit vector is a vector having a
magnitude of unity and its used to A
describe a direction in space.
a
:‫ كالتالي‬a ‫ يمكن تمثيله بمقدار المتجه ضرب متجه الوحدة‬A ‫المتجه‬
A= a A
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)x, y, z( ‫) لمحاور اإلسناد المتعامدة‬i, j, k( ‫ كذلك يمكن تمثيل متجهات وحدة‬

-:‫كما في الشكل التالي‬
i  a unit vector along the x-axis

j  a unit vector along the y-axis
k  a unit vector along the z-axis
 Instead of explicitly writing Ax = 5, Ay = 0; Bx = 5, By

= 5; Cx = -10, Cy = 0; and Dx = -5, Dy = 5, we can write
this same information in a different form. We can
write
A = 5 i + 0j
B = 5i + 5j
C = -10i + 0j
D = -5i +5j
R=A+B+C+D
R = (5 i + 0j)+(5i + 5j)+(-10i + 0j)+(-5i +5j)
R = (5+5-10-5)i + (0+5+0+5)j
R = -5i + 10j
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Any vector lying in xy plane can be

resolved into two components one
in the x-direction and the other in
the y-direction as shown in Figure
Ax=A cos
Ay=A sin
‫ عند التعامل مع عدة متجهات فإننا نحتاج إلى تحليل كل متجه إلى مركباته بالنسبب‬
‫) ممببا يسببهل إيجبباد المحالببل بببددا مببط اسببت دا ال ريق ب‬x,y( ‫إلببى محبباإلر ادسببناد‬
. ‫البياني ديجاد المحالل‬
The magnitude of the vector A
A Ax2  Ay2
The direction of the vector to the x-axis
Ay
 = tan-1
Ax
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A vector A lying in the xy plane, having rectangular components

Ax and Ay can be expressed in a unit vector notation
A = Axi + Ayj
‫ كما في‬B ‫ إل‬A ‫ريق تحليل المتجهات في جمع متجهيط‬ ‫ يمكط است دا‬:‫مالحظة‬
:‫الشكل التالي‬
y 
A  Ax i  Ay j

B  Bx i  By j
   
By R  R  A  B  ( Ax  Bx )i  ( Ay  By ) j
B
Ay 
A
x
Ax Bx
Example 3
Find the sum of two vectors A and B and given by
 
A  3i  4 j and B  2i  5 j
Solutions
Note that Ax=3, Ay=4, Bx=2, and By=-5
y
  
R  A  B  (3  2)i  (4  5) j  5i  j
The magnitude of vector R is
R  Rx  Ry  25  1  26  5.1
2 2
x

R The direction of R with respect to x-axis is
Ry 1
  tan 1  tan 1  11o
Rx 5
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Example 4
Solutions
Example 5
 A particle moves from a point in the xy plane having rectangular
coordinates (-3,-5)m to a point with coordinates (-1,8)m. (a) Write
vector expressions for the position vectors in unit vector form for
these two points. (b) What is the displacement vector?
Solution

(a) R1  x1i  y1 j  (3i  5 j )m

R2  x2i  y2 j  (i  8 j )m
  
(b) Displacement = R  R2  R1

R  ( x2  x1 )i  ( y2  y1 ) j  i  (3i)  8 j  (5 j )  (2i  13 j )m
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Example 6
A vector A has a negative x component 3 units in length and positive y
component 2 units in length.
(a) Determine an expression for A in unit vector notation.
(b) Determine the magnitude and direction of A.
(c) What vector B when added to A gives a resultant vector with no x
component and negative y component 4 units in length?
Solution
Ax = -3 units & Ay = 2 units
(a) A= Axi+Ayj=-3i+2j units

(b) A  Ax 2  Ay 2  (3) 2  (2) 2  3.61 units
 = tan-1(2/-3) = 33.7o (relative to the –x axis)
(c) What vector B when added to A gives a resultant vector with no x

component and negative y component 4 units in length?
     
Rx = 0 & Ry = -4; since R  A  B, B  R  A
Bx = Rx – Ax = 0-(-3) = 3
By = Ry – Ay = -4-2 = -6
Therefore

B  Bx i  By j  (3i  6 j ) units
13
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for
Unit 1
Lecture 3

 Introduction
 Unit systems
 The unit vector
1
9/10/2012
 There are two kinds of vector

product the first one is called
scalar product or dot
product because the result of
the product is a scalar quantity.
The second is called vector
product or cross product
because the result is a vector
perpendicular to the plane of the
two vectors.
dot ‫ ب ربر قلضرطي ر ل‬scalar product‫ يعر الضرب ر قلضريي ر ل‬

‫ وتكرروتلطتيارربلضربر ر قلضريي ر لر تا رريتلك ي ربلقي رريب ل‬product
‫وتكوتلهذهلضريي بل واببلإذضلك طتلضرزضويبلضر حصو ةلبريتلضر تا ريتل‬
‫ د ا ر ر رربلوتك ر ر رروتلضرطتيا ر ر رربل ر ر ر ر رببلإذضلك ط ر ر ررتلضرزضوي ر ر رربل‬90‫ ول‬0‫ب ر ر رريتل‬
‫ د ارربلوت ر ورلصر ضلإذضل‬180‫ ول‬90‫ضر حصررو ةلبرريتلضر تا رريتلبرريتل‬
.90‫ك طتلضرزضويبل‬
A.B = +ve when 0    90o
A.B = -ve when 90o    180o
A.B = zero when   90
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‫ يعرف الضرب القياسي لمتجهين بحاصل ضرب مقدار المتجه األول في مقدار‬
.‫المتجه الثاني في جيب تمام الزاوية المحصورة بينهما‬
 
A.B  A B cos 
:‫ يمكن إيجاد قيمة الضرب القياسي لمتجهين باستخدام مركبات كل متجه كما يلي‬

A  Axi  Ay j  Az k

B  Bxi  By j  Bz k
 The scalar product is
 
A.B  ( Axi  Ay j  Az k ).( Bxi  By j  Bz k )
:‫ ينتج التالي‬B ‫ في مركبات المتجه‬A ‫ بضرب مركبات المتجه‬

 
A.B  ( Ax i.Bx i  Ax i.B y j  Ax i.Bz k
 Ay j.Bx i  Ay j.B y j  Ay j.Bz k
 Az k .Bx i  Az k .B y j  Az k .Bz k )
Therefore
 
 A.B  Ax Bx  Ay B y  Az Bz
The angle between the two vectors is

 
A.B Ax Bx  Ay B y  Az Bz
cos   
AB AB
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Example 1
 Find the angle between the two vectors
 
A  2i  3 j  4k B  i  2 j  3k
Solution
Ax Bx  Ay B y  Az Bz
cos  
AB
Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz = (2)(1)+(3)(-2)+(4)(3)=8
A  2 2  32  4 2  29
B  12  (2) 2  32  14
8
cos   0.397    66.6
29 14
cross product ‫ بر ر‬vector product ‫ يع ر الضرب ر قلضالتا ر ه‬

‫ قي ربلهرذضل‬.‫ قلضالتار ه ر تا ريتلك يربل تا رب‬‫وتكوتلطتيابلضربر‬
 
‫ و‬A‫ وضتا ههلع ودرلعلىلكلل تلضر تا يتل‬C  A  B ‫ضر تاه‬
‫ ك ر لف ر ل‬B‫ إرررىلضر تاررهل‬A‫ وف ر لضتا ر هلدو ضتلب ي رربل ررتلضر تاررهل‬B
: ‫ضرشكللضرت ر‬
 
A B
  
B A  B  AB sin 


A
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 
A  B  AB sin 
 
A  B  Ax i  Ay j  Az k  Bx i  By j  Bz k 
To evaluate this product we use the fact that the angle

between the unit vectors i, j , k is 90o.
y
ii  0 i j  k ik   j
j
j j  0 jk  i j  i  k i
kk  0 k i  j k  j  i k
z x
 
A  B  Ay Bz  Az By i   Az Bx  Ax Bz  j  Ax By  Ay Bx k
  
If C  A  B , the components of C are given by
C x  Ay Bz  Az By
C y  Az Bx  Ax Bz
C z  Ax By  Ay Bx
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Example 2
     
 If C  A  B , where A  3i  4 j , and B  2i  3k , what is C ?
Solution
  
C  A B = (3i  4 j )  (2i  3k )
 which, by distributive law, becomes

C  (3i  2i)  (3i  3k )  (4 j  2i)  (4 j  3k )
  y
 Using equation A  B  AB sin  to evaluate
 each term in the equation above we get j
 i
C  0  9 j  8k  12i  12i  9 j  8k k
z x
 The vector C is perpendicular to both vectors A and B.
6
Lectures in General Physics
Unit 1
Problems
[1] Show that the expression x=vt+1/2at2 is dimensionally correct, where x is a coordinate
and has units of length, v is velocity, a is acceleration, and t is time.
[2] Which of the equations below are dimensionally correct?

(a) v = vo+at
(b) y = (2m)cos(kx),
where k = 2 m-1.
[3] Show that the equation v2 = vo2 + 2at is dimensionally correct, where v and vo represent
velocities, a is acceleration and x is a distance.
[4] The period T of simple pendulum is measured in time units and given by
l
T  2
g
where l is the length of the pendulum and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Show that the
equation is dimensionally correct.
[5] Suppose that the displacement of a particle is related to time according to the expression
s = ct3. What are the dimensions of the constant c?
[6] Two points in the xy plane have Cartesian coordinates (2, -4) and (-3, 3), where the units
are in m. Determine (a) the distance between these points and (b) their polar coordinates.
[7] The polar coordinates of a point are r = 5.5m and  = 240o. What are the cartisian
coordinates of this point?
[8] A point in the xy plane has cartesian coordinates (-3.00, 5.00) m. What are the polar
coordinates of this point?
[9] Two points in a plane have polar coordinates (2.5m, 30o) and (3.8, 120o). Determine (a)
the cartisian coordinates of these points and (b) the distance between them.
[10] A point is located in polar coordinate system by the coordinates r = 2.5m and  =35o.
Find the x and y coordinates of this point, assuming the two coordinate system have the same
origin.
 
[11] Vector A is 3.00 units in length and points along the positive x axis. Vector B is 4.00
units in length and points along the negative y axis. Use graphical methods to find the
   
magnitude and direction of the vectors (a) A + B , (b) A - B .
[12] A vector has x component of -25 units and a y component of 40 units. Find the
magnitude and direction of this vector.
[13] Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of three displacements having
components (3,2) m, (-5, 3) m and (6, 1) m.
       
[14] Two vector are given by A = 6i –4j and B = -2i+5j. Calculate (a) A+B , (b) A - B ,  A + B ,
     
(d)  A - B , (e) the direction of A + B and A - B .
Dr. Hazem Falah Sakeek 1

Lectures in General Physics
[15] Obtain expressions for the position vectors with polar coordinates (a) 12.8m, 150o; (b)
3.3cm, 60 o; (c) 22cm, 215 o.
 
[16] Find the x and y components of the vector A and B shown in Figure 1.1. Derive an
 
expression for the resultant vector A + B in unit vector notation.
y
 
B A
3m
3m
30o
x
Figure 1.1

[17] A vector has a magnitude of 35 units and makes an angle of 37o with the positive x
A
  
axis. Describe (a) a vector B that is in the direction opposite A and is one fifth the size of A ,
  
and (b) a vector C that when added to A will produce a vector twice as long as A pointing in
the negative y direction.
[18] Find the magnitude and direction of a displacement vector having x and y components of
-5m and 3m, respectively.
  
[19] Three vectors are given by A =6i, B =9j, and C =(-3i+4j). (a) Find the magnitude and
direction of the resultant vector. (b) What vector must be added to these three to make the
resultant vector zero?
[20] A particle moves from a point in the xy plane having Cartesian coordinates (-3.00, -5.00)
m to a point with coordinates (-1.00, 8.00) m. (a) Write vector expressions for the position
vectors in unit-vector form for these two points. (b) What is the displacement vector?
   
[21] Two vectors are given by A= 4i+3j and B= -i+3j. Find (a) A.B and (b) the angle
 
between A and B .
  
[22] A vector is given by A = -2i+3j. Find (a) the magnitude of A and (b) the angle that A
makes with the positive y axis.
 
[23] Vector A has a magnitude of 5 units, and B has a magnitude of 9 units. The two vectors
 
make an angle of 50o with each other. Find A . B .
     
[24] For the three vectors A =3i+j-k, B = -i+2j+5k, and C= 2j-3k, find C.( A  B )
 
[25] The scalar product of vectors A and B is 6 units. The magnitude of each vector is 4
units. Find the angle between the vectors.
2 Dr. Hazem Falah Sakeek

‫ السكون واالتزان‬:‫الوحدة الثانية‬
Static and Equilibrium

10/25/2009

for
Unit 2
Lecture 4

Contents
Statics & Equilibrium
•Introduction
•Torques
•Couples
•Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies
•Selected Topics
•Problems
1
10/25/2009
Introduction
 What is a “Force?”
 A force causes something with mass to move

(accelerate).
 From Newton’s Second Law of Motion

F=mxa
 The unit of force is Newton “N”
Example
 What are all of the forces acting on a car (mass m)
parked on a hill?
y x
Solution
2
10/25/2009
Car on Hill:
Use Newton’s 2nd Law: FNET = ma= 0
Resolve this into x and y components:
x: f - mg sin  = 0 x
y
f = mg sin 
N
y: N - mg cos  = 0 f
N = mg cos  
mg

Statics
 What is a “Statics?”
 Statics is the study of forces acting on an object

that is in equilibrium and at rest.
 e.g. Ladders, sign-posts, balanced beams,
 buildings, bridges, some parts of
 Human body, etc...
 Statics can help to understand levers in our body.

 Statics study the balance and stability of
 many structures.
3
10/25/2009
The Conditions of Equilibrium

 Any rigid Body is in equilibrium when two conditions
are satisfied:
Condition
di i (1) ( )
 The net force acting on the body is zero.
Condition (2)
 The net torque
q about anyy axis must be zero
An object extend in space that does not change its size or shape
when subjected to a force.
Static
Equilibrium
Translational Rotational
Equilibrium Equilibrium
‫ھذا ما سنركز عليه في ھذه الوحدة‬

4
10/25/2009
Torques
Torque
q makes things
g spin!
p
 
F F

F
which applied force will cause the wheel to spin the fastest?
 What makes something rotate in the first place?
TORQUE
How do I apply a force to make the rod rotate

about the axel? Not just anywhere!
AXEL
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10/25/2009
To make an object rotate, a force must be applied in

the right place.
the combination of force and point of application is
called TORQUE
lever arm, r
Axle
Force, F
Net torque = 0, net force ≠ 0
The rod will accelerate upward under these

two forces, but will not rotate.
6
10/25/2009
Net Force = 0 , Net Torque ≠ 0
10 N
10 N
• The net force = 0, since the forces are applied in

opposite directions so it will not accelerate.
accelerate
• However, together these forces will make the rod
rotate in the clockwise direction.
Torque
When object is subjected to equal opposite forces. The net
force is zero (the object is in translational equilibrium) But it
mayy not in rotational equilibrium.
q
For example when the line of

action of the two opposite force
are not on the same line, then
the object will rotate.
7
10/25/2009
Force and Torque

How are force and torque related?
moment arm.
A force can create a
torque by acting
through a moment
arm.
…produces a
torque here. A force here...
…but you don’t …but your hand

move very far. moves a long way.
If you hold the wrench If you hold the wrench

here, you need a lot of here, you don’t need as
force... much force...
8
10/25/2009
Torque
Torque, , is the force to rotate an object
about some axis
Door example: r
  Fr
SI unit: [N m]
–  is the torque
– r is the lever arm (or moment arm)
– F is the force
The lever arm is the distance between the axis of

rotation and the “line of action“.
The lever arm, r, is the
shortest (perpendicular) distance
from the axis of rotation to a
line drawn along the direction
of the force
r = L sin θ
It is not necessarily the

distance between the axis of
rotation and point where the
force is applied
9
10/25/2009
Example
A mechanic holds a wrench 0.3m from the center of a nut.
How large is the torque applied to the nut if he pulls at
right angles to the wrench with a force of 200N?
Since he exerts the force at right angles to the wrench, the

angle θ = 90o, and torque is
  Fr sin   0.3  200  60 Nm
An Alternative Look at Torque

The force could also be resolved
into its x- and y-components
– The x-component, F cosθ,
θ
produces 0 torque
– The y-component, F sinθ,
produces a non-zero torque
  rF sin 
r is the distance
θ is the angle between force and object
along the object
F is the force
10
10/25/2009
  rF ssin 
 we can write the equation as
  
  rF
 The torque is a vector

quantity and its direction
is determine by the right
hand rule,
If the turning tendency of

the force is
counterclockwise, the
torque will be positive
If the turning tendency is

clockwise, the torque
will be negative
11
10/25/2009
Torque is out of Page Torque is into Page
y y
F F
F
F
p r r x r p r x
Torque is +ve Torque is -ve
Couples
Is a pair of forces with equal magnitudes but opposite
directions acting along different lines of action.
Couples do not exert net
force on an object
Couples produce torque,
that is independent
p of the
point of the point P
12
10/25/2009
Example
Two forces with equal magnitudes but opposite directions act
on an object with different lines of action as shown in the
figure.
figure
F
Find the net torque on
x1 l
the object resulting P
f
from these
th forces.
f
-F
x2
Solution
P ‫نقوم بحساب االزدواج الناتج عن كل قوة عند النقطة‬
The torque resulting from the force at x2 is
 2  x2F
The torque resulting from the force at x1 is
 1  x1 F
The net torque is
   1   2  x1 F  x 2 F
  ( x1  x 2 ) F  lF
13
10/25/2009
 The minus sign means that the net torque tends to cause
clockwise rotation.
 The
Th torque is ddirectedd into the
h page.
 The torque is independent on the location of the point

P, since the distance between the lines of forces is
important.
Example 1 N
Determine the net torque: 4m 2m
Given:
weights: w1= 500 N 500 N 800 N
w2 = 800 N
lever arms: d1=4 m 1. Draw all applicable forces
d2=2 m
Find:
  (500 N )(4 m)  ()(800 N )(2 m)
 2000 N  m  1600 N  m
 = ?
 400 N  m 
Rotation would be CCW

14
10/25/2009
Where would the 500 N person have to

be relative to pivot for zero torque?
500 N 800 N
Example 2 N`
y
d2 m 2m
Given:
500 N 800 N
weights: w1= 500 N
w2 = 800 N 1. Draw all applicable forces and moment arms
lever arms: d1=4 m
 = 0
 RHS   (800 N )(2 m)
 LHS  (500 N )( d 2 m)
800  2 [ N  m]  500  d 2 [ N  m]  0  d 2  3.2
3 2m
Find: 
According to our understanding of torque
d2 = ? there would be no rotation and no motion!
What does it say about acceleration and force?
Thus, according to 2nd Newton’s law F=0 and a=0!  Fi (500 N )  N ' (800 N )  0
30 Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org N '  1300 N
15
10/27/2009

for
Unit 2
Lecture 5

Contents
•Introduction
•Torques
•Couples
•Selected Topics
•Problems
1
10/27/2009
Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies
Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies

First Condition of Equilibrium
• The net external force must be zero

F  0
Fx  0 and Fy  0
– This is a necessary, but not sufficient,
condition to ensure that an object is in
complete mechanical equilibrium
– This is a statement of translational
equilibrium
Second Condition of Equilibrium
• The net external torque must be
zero
  0
• This is a statement of rotational
equilibrium
2
10/27/2009
Example3
 Two children of weights w1
and w2 are balanced on a
board pivoted about its
center.
(a) What is the ratio of their

x1 x2
distances x2/x1 from the pivot?
(b) If w1=200N, w2=400N, and

x1=1m, what is x2?
Solution
(a) From the first equilibrium condition,
the force N must balance their weight
so that the net force is zero.
N  w1  w2  0 N  w1  w2
 From the second condition the
torque about the pivot P is zero
x1 x2
  0  1  x1w1
  1   2  0  2   x2 w2
x2 w1
x1w1  x2 w2  0 
x1 w2
3
10/27/2009
(b) If w1=200N, w2=400N, and

x1=1m, what is x2?
 From the equation
x2 w1

x1 w2
x1 x2
w1 200 N
x2  x1  (1m)( )  0.5m
w2 400 N
‫وھذا متفق مع افتراضنا أن احد الطفلين أثقل من األخر بمرتين ولذلك ھو أو‬
‫ھي يجب أن يجلس عند منتصف المسافة من نقطة االرتكاز‬
Example 4
 Find x2/x1 for the seesaw of the
preceding example, calculating
the torques
q about P1, where the
child of w1 is seated.
 Computing the torque about P1

 From the force diagram shown in the
figure we get
Force w1 produce torque = 0

Force w2 produce torque = -(x1+x2)w2
Force N produce torque = x1N
4
10/27/2009
In equilibrium the sum of these torques must be

zero
  0
- (x1 + x2)w2 + x1N = 0
And the Net forces must be zero
N – w1 – w2 = 0 N = w1 + w2
Substitute for N we get,

- (x1 + x2)w2 + x1(w1 + w2) = 0
x2w2 =x1w1
x2 w1

x1 w2
‫وھي نفس النتيجـة التـي حصـلنا عليھـا سـابقاَ وھـذا يعنـي انـه يمكننـا ان نبسـط الحـل‬
.‫باختيار جيد لنقطة المحور‬
Example 5
 A model for the forearm in the position shown in
the figure is pivoted bar supported by a cable.
The weight w of the forearm is 12N and can be treated as

concentrated at the point shown.
Find the tension T exerted by the biceps muscle and the
force E exerted by the elbow joint.
5
10/27/2009
Applying the First condition of equilibrium

F=0
Then
T – E –w = 0
Applying the Second condition of equilibrium

  0
Force E produce torque = 0
Force w produce torque = -(0.15)w
Force T produce torque = (0.05)T
In equilibrium the sum of these torques must be zero

  0
-0.15 w + 0.05 T = 0
or
T = 3 w = 3x12 = 36 N
From the First equation we get the value of E
E = T – w = 36 – 12 = +24N
‫ موجبة فھذا يعني اننا افترضنا اتجاھھا كان صحيح واذا ظھرت‬E ‫حيث ان اشارة‬
.‫ عكس االتجاه المفترض‬E ‫ سالبة فيعني ذلك ان اتجاه‬E ‫اشارة‬
‫ المبذولة بواسطة العضلة والقوة المبذولـة علـى الكـوع‬T ‫لماذا كانت قوة الشد‬
‫؟‬w ‫ أكبر كثيرا من قوة الوزن‬E
6
10/27/2009
Example 6
 An advertising sign is hung from a hinged beam
that is supported by a cable (see the figure).
 The
Th sign
i has
h a weight
i ht w=1000N,
=1000N andd the
th weights
i ht off the
th
beam and the cable are negligible.
 Find the tension in the cable and the forces exerted by
the hinge.
Draw a free body-diagram for all the forces.

‫ على الحبل في‬T ‫ وقوة الشد‬،‫ لألسفل بفعل قوة الجاذبية األرضية‬w ‫قوة وزن اليافطة‬
‫ فھي غير معلومة ولكن‬H ‫ أما القوة الناتجة عن تثبيت الحامل في الحائط‬،‫اتجاه الحبل‬
‫ وتربطھما العالقة‬Hy ‫ ومركبة‬Hx ‫نعلم أن لھذه القوة مركبة‬
7
10/27/2009
Hy ‫ و‬Hx ‫ و‬T ‫ معادالت إليجاد القوى‬3 ‫نحتاج إلى‬

Applying the First condition of equilibrium

F  0
Fx  0 and Fy  0
Hx – T cos30 = 0 (1)
Hy + T sin30 – 1000 =0 (2)
Applying the Second condition

of equilibrium
  0
‫يمكننا اختيار أي نقطة لتطبيق ش رط االت زان ولك ن م ن األنس ب أن نخت ار النقط ة عن د‬
.‫ يساوي صفر‬Hy ‫ و‬Hx ‫نقطة التعليق الن االزدواج الناتج عن‬
T sin30 x 1m – 1000N x 2m = 0 (3)
From eqn (3) The tension in the cable T is
From eqn (1) and (2) we get
.‫ تشير إلى ان االتجاه الصحيح ھو عكس االتجاه المفترض‬Hy ‫االشارة السالبة للمركبة‬
8
10/27/2009
We can now find H and θ
.‫ﻻﺣظ إن ﻗﻳﻣﺔ اﻟﺷد واﻟﻘوة اﻟﻣؤﺛرة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺣﺎﻣﻝ اﻛﺑر ﺑﻛﺛﻳر ﻣن وزن اﻟﻳﺎﻓطﺔ‬
‫ﻛﻳف ﻳﻣﻛن ﺗﻘﻠﻳﻝ اﻟﺷد ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺣﺑﻝ؟‬
Exercise
9
10/27/2009
Exercise 1
A 30kg pile of rocks is balanced by a 5.0kg block of wood on a scale, as
shown below. The rocks are 0.30m from the pivot point. How far, to the
other side of the pivot point, must the block of wood be placed (ignore
)
the mass of the scale)?
0.30m d
Answer: d=1.8m
Exercise 2
10
10/27/2009
Exercise 3
F=583N
R=533N
Exercise 4
T=313N
R=580N
Θ=71.1o
11
10/31/2009

for
Unit 2
Lecture 6
Examples

Contents
•Introduction
•Torques
•Couples
•Selected Topics
•Problems
1
10/31/2009
Exercise 1
A 30kg pile of rocks is balanced by a 5.0 kg block of wood on
a scale, as shown below. The rocks are 0.30 m from the pivot
point. How far, to the other side of the pivot point, must the
bl k off woodd be
block b placed
l d (ignore the
h mass off the
h scale)?
l
0.30m d
Answer: d=1.8m
Example 1
Given M = 120 kg.
Neglect the mass of the beam.
a) Find the tension

in the cable
b) What is the force

between the beam and
the wall
2
10/31/2009
Solution
a) Given: M = 120 kg, L = 10 m, x = 7 m
Find: T
Basic formula
  0 Axis
TL  Mgx  0
Solve for T = 824 N
Solution
b) Given: M = 120 kg, L = 10 m, x = 7 m, T = 824 N
Find f
Basic formula
F y 0
f
T  Mg  f  0
Solve for f = 353 N
3
10/31/2009
Exercise 2
A seesaw consisting of a uniform board of mass M and length l
supports a father and daughter with masses mf and md, respectively, as
shown in Figure 12.8. The support (called the fulcrum) is under the
center of gravity of the board, the father is a distance d from the center,
g
and the daughter is a distance !/2 from the center.
(A) Determine the magnitude of the upward force n exerted by the
support on the board.
(B) Determine where the father should sit to balance the system.
 Because the system in equilibrium then the net force = zero
4
10/31/2009
 Applying the second condition of the equilibrium
Exercise 3
A person holds a 50.0-N sphere in his hand. The forearm is
horizontal, as shown in Figure. The biceps muscle is attached 3.00
cm from the joint, and the sphere is 35.0 cm from the joint. Find the
upward force exerted by the biceps on the forearm and the
downward force exerted by y the upper
pp arm on the forearm and
acting at the joint. Neglect the weight of the forearm.
F=583N
R=533N
5
10/31/2009
 Solution:
 We simplify the situation by modeling the
forearm as shown in the figure, where F is the
upward force exerted by the biceps and R is the
downward force exerted by the upper arm at the
joint. From the first condition of equilibrium we
have,
 From the second condition of equilibrium about

point O we have,
Exercise 4
A uniform horizontal beam with a length of 8.00 m and a
weight of 200 N is attached to a wall by a pin connection. Its
far end is supported by a cable that makes an angle of 53.0°
with the beam. If a 600-N person tands 2.00 m from the wall,
fi d the
find h tension
i ini the
h cable
bl as wellll as the
h magnitude
i d and d
direction of the force exerted by the wall on the beam.
T=313N
R=580N
Θ=71.1o
6
10/31/2009
 Applying the first condition of the equilibrium
 From the second condition of equilibrium

q about
point O we have,
Exercise 5
Suppose that you placed a 10 m ladder (which

weights 100 N) against the wall at the angle of
30°. What are the forces acting on it and when
would it be in equilibrium?
30
7
10/31/2009
Solution:
Given:
mg
weights:
g w1= 100 N 
length: l=10 m
angle: =30°
 = 0
1. Draw all applicable forces
Find: 2. Choose axis of rotation at bottom corner ( of f and n are 0!)
Torques: Forces:
f= ?
F
L
n=?
P=?
   mgg 2 cos 30  PL sin 30  0 x f  P  0
1 1 f  86.6 N
0  100 N   0.866  P 1
2 2 F y n  mg  0
P  86.6 N n  100 N

f 86.6 N
Note: f = s n, so s    0.866
n 100 N
8
11/3/2009

for
Unit 2
Lecture 7
Center of Gravity
Contents
•Introduction
•Torques
•Couples
•Selected Topics
•Problems
1
11/3/2009
Center of Gravity
 The force of gravity
acting on an object
must be considered.
considered
 In finding the torque

produced by the force
of gravity, all of the
weight of the object can
be considered to be
concentrated at one
point
Calculating the Center of Gravity

The object is divided up into a large number of
very small particles of weight (mg).
Each particle will have a set of coordinates
indicating its location (x,y).
(x y)
The torque produced by each particle about the
axis of rotation is equal to its weight times its
lever arm.
We wish to locate the point of application of the
single force, whose magnitude is equal to the
weight of the object,
object and whose effect on the
rotation is the same as all the individual particles.
 This point is called the center of gravity of
the object.
2
11/3/2009
Coordinates of the Center of Gravity

 The coordinates of the center of gravity can be found from
the sum of the torques acting on the individual particles being
set equal
q to the torque
q produced
p byy the weight
g of the object
 m i xi  mi yi
x cg  and y cg 
 mi mi
 The center of gravity of a homogenous, symmetric body must
lie on the axis of symmetry.
y y
 Often, the center of gravity of such an object is the geometric
center of the object.
Example: Find center of gravity of the following system:
Given:
masses: m1= 5.00 kg

m2 = 2.00 kgg
m3 = 4.00 kg
lever arms: d1=0.500 m
d2=1.00 m
Find:
xcg 
m x i i

m1 x1  m2 x2  m3 x3
Center of gravity
m i m1  m2  m3
5.00 kg (0.500 m)  2.00 kg (0 m)  4.00 kg (1.00 m)

11.0 kg
 0.136 m
3
11/3/2009
Experimentally Determining the Center of Gravity
The wrench is hung freely

from two different pivots
The intersection of the lines

indicates the center of gravity
Center of Gravity of Humans

Another technique used to determine the center of gravity of
humans is described in the figure below.
A board of length l is supported at its ends resting on scales
adjusted to read zero with the board alone.
When a person lies on the board the scales read w1 and w2.
4
11/3/2009
 The condition for the torque   0 can be used to Find X.

 The torque about point P is
Xw1  (l  X ) w2  0
lw2
X
w1  w2
Why things fall over

 Every object has a special point called the center of
gravity (CG). The CG is usually right in the center of
the object.
object
 if the center of gravity is supported, the object will not fall
over.
 You generally want a running back with a low CG then

it’s harder to knock him down.
 The lower the CG the more stable an object is. stable 
not easy to knock over!
5
11/3/2009
Condition for stability
If the CG is above
the edge,
g , the object
j
will not fall
CG
when does it fall over?
If the vertical line

extending down from
the CG is inside the
edge the object will
return to its upright
position  the torque
due to gravity brings
STABLE NOT STABLE it back.
6
11/3/2009
Stable structures
Structures are
wider at their
base to lower their
center of gravity
A box is placed on a ramp in the configurations

shown below. Friction prevents it from sliding. The
center of mass of the box is indicated by a dot in
each case.
– In which cases does the box tip over?
1 2 3
3
1 2
7
11/3/2009
The b
Th beam iis The b
Th beam iis nott
in equilibrium in equilibrium
8
11/3/2009
The Spinal Column

 The human spinal column is
made of 24 vertebrae separated
by fluid-filled disks.
disks
 When the person bends, the spine

is consider as lever, producing a
very large force on the
lumbrosacral disk,
disk which
separate the last vertebra from
the sacrum.
•The pivot exert force R

•The muscles of the back produce
a force T
•When the back is horizontal
α=12o.
•w is 65% of the total body weight.
9
11/3/2009
Incorrect way to Correct way to

lift a weight lift a weight
10
10/9/2012
Example
• The illustration below shows an athlete’s outstretch arm
(length 60cm) holding w2 = 5kg. The tension T in the
deltoid muscle is applied at an angle of 17 degree. The
mass of the arm w1 is 4.5 kg (at 30 cm from shoulders
joint). Determine the tension T in the muscle, which is 15
cm away from w1, and the force exerted by the shoulders
joint F and its direction. Consider g = 10 m. s
Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek

1
Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek

2
1
10/9/2012
• Since the outstretched arm is at equilibrium start

applying the laws of equilibrium, that is, apply the
first law of equilibrium
• Fx = 0, and  Fy = 0 , notice the arrow head of
each vector or vector's component.
Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek

3
• Solve for , we have
• From equation 1, we have
• and from equation 2, we have
Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek

4
2
<<
www.physicsacademy.org/estudy
<<
<<
Unit 2
Static and Properties of Matter
Selected Problemsٍ
Dr. Hazem Falah Sakeek
Physics Academy 1 Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek

1. Define and Explain
Rigid Body
Torque
Couple
Equilibrium
Static
Center of Gravity
2. Find the magnitude and sign of the torque due to each of the weights in Figure
1 relative to point P.
Figure 1
3. Find the magnitude and sign of the torque due to each of the weights in Figure
1 relative to point Q.
4. Using a wrench 0.4m long. A force of a 100N is needed to turn a nut. (a) How
large a torque is required? (b) How large a force is needed to turn the nut
using wrench 0.15m long?
5. In figure 2 find the torque due to F1 and F2 relative to point P.
Figure 2

6. The bar in Figure 2 is pivoted at point P. Will it tend to start rotating if it is
initially at rest? Explain, and indicate in which direction it would rotate if
your answer is yes.
7. A weightless bar supported by two vertical ropes has four weights hung from
it as shown in figure 1 Find the tensions T1 and T2 in the ropes.
8. Figure 3 shows the forearm when the person is holding a 12N weight (w1) in
the hand (w is the weight of the forearm). (a) Find the force T exerted by the
elbow joint.
Figure 3
9. Find the tension in the ropes in figure 4
Figure 4
10. In figure 5 an object is supported by a hinged, weightless rod and a cable. Find
the tension in the cable and the force exerted by the hinge.

Figure 5
11. In figure 6 the hinged rod and cable are weightless. The cable will break when
the tension exceeds 2000N. What is the maximum weight w that can be
supported?
Figure 6
12. In figure 7, the weight of the upper body is w=490N. Find the force T exerted
by the spinal muscles and the components Rx and Ry of the force R exerted by
the pivot (sacrum) if the weight w1 is (a) zero; (b) 175N
Figure 7

‫ خواص املادة‬:‫الوحدة الثالثة‬
Properties of Matter

‫‪11/7/2009‬‬
‫‪Selected Topics in Physics‬‬

‫‪for‬‬
‫‪Medical Sciences Students‬‬
‫‪Unit 3‬‬
‫‪Elastic Properties of Materials‬‬
‫‪Lecture 8‬‬
‫‪Physics Academy‬‬ ‫‪Dr. Hazem Falah Sakeek‬‬

‫‪www.physicsacademy.org‬‬
‫‪Al-Azhar University - Gaza‬‬
‫‪Elastic Properties of Materials‬‬

‫‪ ‬لقد افترضنا في الدروس السابقة ان القوة التي يتعرض لھا جسم‬
‫ي ھذه الحالة ببـ‬
‫األجسامم في‬
‫وسميت ج‬‫حجمه‪ ،‬و ي‬‫ى شكله أوو ج‬ ‫ال ؤ‬
‫تؤثرر على‬
‫‪ Rigid Body‬وھي تلك األجسام التي ال يتغير فيھا شكلھا أو‬
‫حجمھا نتيجة لتعرضھا إلى قوة خارجية‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬ولكن في الواقع العملي فإن ھذا غير صحيح حيث انه إذا تعرض‬
‫الجسم إلى قوة فإنھا تؤدي إلى تغيير في شكله أو حجمه‪ ،‬فمثال‬
‫يتقوس لوح من الخشب تحت تأثير قوة عليه‪ ،‬وإذا زادت القوة‬
‫المؤثرة لتتجاوز قوة تحمل اللوح فينكسر‪ .‬كذلك يطول أو يقصر‬
‫ساق من الحديد إذا تعرض إلى قوة شد أو قوة ضغط على امتداد‬
‫طوله‪.‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
11/7/2009
‫ وكما نعلم ان األجسام مكونة من جزيئات تترابط مع بعضھا ال بعض بواس طة ق وى‬
‫كھربية ويمكن من خالل إجراء بع ض الحس ابات أن نق وم بتق دير س مك الل وح م ن‬
.‫الخشب أو من أي مادة أخرى ليتحمل وزن معين‬
::‫التالية‬
‫سوف ندرس المواضيع التالية‬
• Stress
• Strain
• Young’s Modulus
Introduction
 In our first topic, Static Equilibrium, we
examined structures in which we assumed the
object were rigid
 Rigid means that the object did not deform due

to the applied force.
real we have deformation “change

 In real, change in shape
and size “.
2
11/7/2009
Deformation
off Solids
S ld
Stress Strain
Stress and Strain

 Stress is a quantity that is proportional to the
force causing
g a deformation
 Stress is the external force acting on an object

per unit cross-sectional Area.
 Strain is the result of stress,

stress which is the
measure of the degree of deformation
3
11/7/2009
Types of
Stress
Tension Compression
Shear stress
Stress Stress
Types of Stress
Tension Stress: is the force per unit area producing elongation of an object.
Compression Stress: is the force per unit area producing compression of an

object.
Shear stress: is the opposite force "sliding forces " applied to parallel
faces of the object. Producing change in shape of material without changing
its volume
Tension Compression
p
Shear
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11/7/2009
Stress
• Stress : Force per unit Area
F
σ
A
F : Force applied in Newton
A : cross sectional area in m²
σ : stress in N/m2
A
F F
Strain
Ratio of elongation of a material to the original length
Δl lo
ε
lo
lf
Δl : elongation (m)
lo : original length of a material (m)
ε : strain Dimensionless
Elongation Δl  l f - lo
lf : loaded length of a material (m)

5
11/7/2009
Relation Between Stress and Strain

 The relation between the stress and the strain
for a material under tension can be found
experimentally.
• A plot of Strain vs. Stress.

• The diagram gives us the behavior of the
material and material properties.
p p
• Each material produces a different stress-strain
diagram.
Elastic Limit Ultimate

or tension
Yield Point strength
C
Linear B
Limit
Fracture
Point
D
A
Plastic
Region
Stress-Strain
Elastic Diagram
Region
Strain (  )
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11/7/2009
Elastic Limit
7
11/7/2009
Example
 A bar has dimensions 1cm
by 1cm by 20cm. It is
subjected
j to a 10000N
tension force and
stretches 0.01cm. Find
(a) the stress;
(b) the strain;
(c) If the stress-strain graph is
straight line, how much does
the bar stretch when the
applied force is increased to
50000N?
Solution
(a) The stress is the ratio of the force applied and cross-
sectional area. Thus,
F 10000 N
σ   108 N / m 2
A ( 0.01m ) 2
(b) The strain is the fractional elongation

Δl 0.01cm
ε   5  10  4
lo 20cm
(c) If the stress-strain graph is a straight line, the two are
proportional. When the applied force increased by a
factor of 5 (50000/10000) then the elongation
increases to 0.05cm
8
11/10/2009

for
Unit 3
Elastic Properties of Materials
Lecture 9
Hook’s Law

Young’s Modulus
In the linear region of the Strain vs. Stress diagram, the
p equals
slope q the stress-to-strain ratio and is calledYoung’
g
Modulus or Elastic Modulus (E) of the material
σ
Y

1
11/10/2009
Deformation types and define an elastic modulus
1. Young’s modulus, which measures the resistance

of a solid to a change
g in its length.
g
2. Shear modulus, which measures the resistance

to motion of the planes within a solid parallel to
each other.
3 Bulk modulus,
3. modulus which measures the resistance of
solids or liquids to changes in their volume.
Young’s Modulus: Elasticity in Length
σ F/A
Y  Young’s modulus
 L / L0
 Young
Young’ss modulus is typically used to
characterize a rod or wire stressed under
either tension or compression.
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11/10/2009
Shear Modulus: Elasticity of Shape

σ F/A
Y  shear modulus
 x / h
Where ∆x is the horizontal distance that the sheared face moves and h is
the height of the object.
Bulk Modulus: Volume Elasticity
σ F / A P
Y   bulk modulus
 V / Vi V / Vi
 A negative sign is inserted in this

defining equation so that Y is a
positive number. This maneuver is
necessary because an increase in
pressure (positive ∆P) causes a
decrease in volume (negative ∆V) and
vice versa.
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11/10/2009
Example
How much pressure is needed to compress the volume of
an iron block by 0.10 percent? Express answer in N/m2,
and compare it to atmospheric pressure (1.0 x 105 N/m2).
Solution:
Y for iron = 90x1010 N/m2
P
Y 
V / Vi
V 0.1
V P
  10 3 90 1010  
Vi 100 10 3
 P  90  10 6 N / m 2
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11/10/2009
Hook’s Law
The linear stress-strain region in the diagram is also called
Hook’s Law region. In this region, since the stress is
linearlyy related to the strain. The force is linearlyy related to
the elongation.
σ
Y

σ  Y
ε
Δl F
σ
lo A
F l
Y
A lo
F l
Y
A lo
Thus, in tension or compression the force on an object is proportional
to its elongation.
F  kl Hook’s law
Where k is the spring constant
YA
k
lo
strain ‫ واالنفع ال‬stress ‫ينطبق قانون ھوك على المواد التي في منطقة التغير الخطي بين اإلجھ اد‬
.‫ كبيرة كلما زاد مساحة المقطع وقل طوله‬k ‫وتكون قيمة‬
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11/10/2009
Example 10-2
In example 10-1, a 108N/m2 stress produces a
strain of 5x10-4.
What is Young’s modulus for this bar?
Solution
108
σ
Y   20  1010 N / m 2
 5
5  10 4
Example
A solid brass sphere is initially surrounded by air,
pressure exerted on it is 1.0 x105 N/m2
and the air p
(normal atmospheric pressure). The sphere is
lowered into the ocean to a depth where the
pressure is 2.0 x 107 N/m2. The volume of the
sphere in air is 0.50 m3. By how much does this
volume change once the sphere is submerged?
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11/10/2009
Solution
 From the definition of bulk modulus, we have
P
Y 
V / Vi
Vi P
V  
Y
(0.50m 2 )(2.0  10 7 N / m 2  1.0  105 N / m 2 )
V  
6.1 1010 N / m 2
V  1.6  10 4 m 3
The negative sign indicates that the volume of the sphere decreases.
Example
A vertical steel girder (‫ )عارضة خشبية‬with a cross-
sectional area of 0.15 m2 has a 1550 kg sign
hanging
g g from its end. ((Ignore
g the mass of the
girder itself.)
 (a)What is the stress within the girder?

 (b)What is the strain on the girder?
 (c) If the girder is 9.50
9 50 m long,
long how much is it
lengthened?
7
11/10/2009
Solution
 A = 0.15 m2, m = 1550 kg, lo = 9.5m
 F = mg = 1550 x 9.8 = 15200 N
F mg 15200
1 200
σ    1.0 105 N / m 2
A A 0.15
σ
Y

σ 1.0  10 5
    5.0  10 7
Y 200  10 9
Δl  ε  l o  4.8 10 6 m
Example
A 15 cm long animal tendon (‫ )وتر‬was found to stretch 3.7
mm by a force of 13.4 N. The tendon was approximately
round with an average diameter of 8.5 mm.
 Calculate the elastic modulus of this tendon.
Solution
 ∆l = 3.7 mm, l0 = 15 cm, 2r = 8.5 mm and F = 13.4 N
 ∆l = 3.7x10-3 m, l0 = 0.15 m, r = 4.25x10-3 m
 The cross sectional area A = r2 = 5.7x10-5 m2
 F/A
Y   9.5  106 N / m
ε l/l0
8
11/10/2009
Problem
 A nylon tennis string on a racquet is under a
tension of 250 N. If its diameter is 1.00 mm,, by
y
how much is it lengthened from its
un-tensioned length?
9
11/18/2009

for
Unit 3
Lecture 10
Elastic Strain Energy

Example 1
A 200-kg load is hung on a wire having a length of

4.00 m, cross-sectional area 0.200 x 10-4 m2, and
g modulus 8.00 x1010 N/m2. What is its
Young’s
increase in length?
1
11/18/2009
Example 2
A child slides across a floor in a pair of rubber-soled shoes.
The friction force acting on each foot is 20.0 N. The
footprint area of each shoe sole is 14.0 cm2, and the
thickness of each sole is 5.00 mm. Find the horizontal
distance by which the upper and lower surfaces of each sole
are offset. The shear modulus of the rubber is 3.00 MN/m2.
F/A hF
Y x 
x / h YA
Elastic Strain Energy

When we stretch a wire, a work done on the wire. We are
stretching the bonds between the atoms. If we release the wire, we can
recover the energy stored in the wire due to stretch, which is called the
elastic strain energy.
Ideally we recover all of it, but in
reality a certain amount is lost as
heat. This lost energy is called
hysteresis. The energy is the area
under the force-extension graph (the
area of the triangle). So we can use this
result to say:
1
E Fl
2
2
11/18/2009
1
E Fl
2
 Substituting for F, we get
YA 2
E l
2l
 Example, What is the elastic strain energy contained in a copper
wire of diameter 0.8 mm and 16 cm length that has stretched by 4
mm under a load of 400 N?
1
E Fl  0.5  400 N  4  10 3 m  0.8 J
2
Bone Fracture: Energy Considerations

 Knowledge of the maximum energy that parts of the body can
safely absorb allows us to estimate the possibility of injury
under various circumstances. We shall first calculate the
amount of energy required to break a bone of area A
and length l.
 Assume that the bone remains elastic until fracture. Let us
designate the breaking stress of the bone as B. The
corresponding force FB that will fracture the bone is, from
Eq.,
Eq
FB l YA
Y FB  l
A lo lo
3
11/18/2009
YA
FB   B A  l
lo
 The compression ∆l at the breaking point is, therefore,
 B lo
l 
Y
YA 2
E l
 From 2 l , the energy stored in the compressed bone at
the point of fracture is
Al 
2
YA   B l o 
2
E   E o B
2l  Y  2Y
Example
Discuss the possibility of fracture of two leg bones
that have a combined length of about 90 cm and an
g area of about 6 cm2 when a 70 kg
average g person jump
from a height of 60 cm.
Solution
First we calculate the maximum energy the two legs
can absorb before fracture:
The breaking stress of the bone B is 1.5×108 N/m2,
and Young’s modulus for the bone is 1.5×1010 N/m2.
4
11/18/2009
 The total energy absorbed by the bones of one leg at the

point of compressive fracture is
Al o B
2
E
2Y
( 6  10  4 )( 0 .9 )(1 .5  10 8 ) 2
E  192 .5 J
1 .5  10 10
 The combined energy in the two legs is twice this value, or
385 J
 Now we have to calculate the energy gained by jumping
E = m g h = 70 (9.8) (0.6) = 412 J
The energy produced by jumping is higher than the maximum energy can
be safely absorbed by the two legs so if all this energy is absorbed by the
leg bones, they may fracture.
5
4/10/2013

for
Unit 3
Lecture 11
Problems
Problems
 (1) A 2 m long bar has a rectangular cross section. 0.02 m by 0.04
m. If it is subjected to a 10,000 N force along its length, what is
the stress?
 (2) A pipe has an inner radius of 0.02 m and an outer radius of

0.23 m. If it is subjected to a tension stress of 5x107 N/m2, how
large is the applied force?
 (3) A 0.4 m pip under compressional stress changes length by

0.005 m. What is the strain in the pipe?
1
4/10/2013
 (4) The largest tension strain that can occur before fracture in
aluminum is 0.003. What is the maximum change in length of 1 m
aluminum pipe?
 (5) A rubber rod of length 0.5 m and radius 10-3 m stretches 0.1 m
when a 140 N force is applied. How large a force is needed to stretch a
rubber rod 0.1 m if its length is 0.5 m and its radius 2x10-3?
 (6) A steel wire 10 m long has a radius of 1 mm. Its linear limit is
2.5x108 N/m2, and its ultimate tension strength is 5x108 N/m2. The
wire is attached at one end and hangs vertically with a weight at its
lower end. (a) If the wire is just at its linear limit, how much large is
the weight? (b) What is the largest load the wire can support?
 (7) A rod with a radius of 0.005 m and length of 2 m stretches

0.002 m when subjected to a tension force of 10,000 N. What is
Young’s modulus for this rod?
 (8) An aluminum wire is 20 m long and has a radius of 2x10-3 m.

The linear limit for aluminum is 0.6x108 N/m2 (a) How large a
tension force must be applied to stretch the wire to its linear
limit? (b) How much will the wire stretch when this force is
applied?
 (9) What is the spring constant of human femur under

compression of average cross-sectional area 10-3 m2 and length
0.4 m?
2
4/10/2013
 (10) A 200-kg load is hung on a wire with a length of 4 m, a cross-

sectional area of 0.2x10-4 m and a Young’s modulus of 8x1010 N/m2.
What is its increase in length?
 (11) If the elastic limit of copper is 1.5x108 N/m2, determine the

minimum diameter a copper wire can have under a load of 10.0 kg if
its elastic limit is not to be exceeded.
 (12) When water freezes, it expands by about 9%. What would be the
pressure increase inside your automobile’s engine block if the water in
it froze? (The bulk modulus of ice is 2x109 N/m2.)
 (13) Assume that Young’s modulus for bone is 1.5x1010 N/m2 and that a bone
will fracture if more than 1.5x108 N/m2 is exerted. (a) What is the maximum
force that can be exerted on the femur bone in the leg if it has a minimum
effective diameter of 2.50 cm? (b) If a force of this magnitude is applied
compressively, by how much does the 25.0-cm-long bone shorten?
 (14) The average cross-sectional area of a woman femur is

10-3m2 and it is 0.4 m long. The woman weights 750 N (a) what is the length
change of this bone when it supports half of the weight of the woman? (b)
Assuming the stress-strain relationship is linear until fracture, what is the
change in length just prior to fracture?
 B lo
l 
6
Y
3
4/10/2013
 (15) A man leg can be thought of as a shaft of bone 1.2 m long. If

the strain is 1.3x10-4 when the leg supports his weight, by how
much is his leg shortened?
 (16) What is the spring constant of a human femur under

compression of average cross-sectional area 10-3m2 and length 0.4
m?
 (17) (a) Find the minimum diameter of a steel wire

18 m long that elongates no more than 9 mm when a load of 380
kg is hung on its lower end. (b) If the elastic limit for this steel is
3x108 N/m2, does permanent deformation occur with this load?
4
10/21/2013

for
Unit 3
Lecture 11
Problem Solution
Problem Solution
 (1) A 2 m long bar has a rectangular cross section. 0.02 m by 0.04
m. If it is subjected to a 10,000 N force along its length, what is
the stress?
F 10000 N
σ   12.5  10 6 N / m 2
A 0.02  0.04
1
10/21/2013
 (2) A pipe has an inner radius of 0.02 m and an outer radius of

0.23 m. If it is subjected to a tension stress of 5x107 N/m2, how
large is the applied force?
rout
A  r 2
out  r 2
in rin

A   0.232  0.02 2  0.16m 2 
‫لدينا االجهاد على هذه االنبوبة ونريد ان نحسب القوة‬
F  σA  5 107 N / m 2  0.16m 2  8  106 N
 (3) A 0.4 m pip under compressional stress changes length by

0.005 m. What is the strain in the pipe?
2
10/21/2013
 (4) The largest tension strain that can occur before fracture in
aluminum is 0.003. What is the maximum change in length of
1 m aluminum pipe?
Δl
ε
lo
Δl  εl o  0.003 1  0.003m
 (5) A rubber rod of length 0.5 m and radius 10-3 m stretches 0.1
m when a 140 N force is applied. How large a force is needed to
stretch a rubber rod 0.1 m if its length is 0.5 m and its radius
2x10-3?
‫ من معطيات الشق األول نحسب معامل ينج ونعوض عنه في معطيات‬
‫المطلوب الثاني‬
F l
Y
A lo
F lo 140  0.5
Y   2.2  108 N / m 2
Al   (10 )  0.1
3 2
How large a force

l
F Y A F  560 N
lo
3
10/21/2013
 (6) A steel wire 10 m long has a radius of 1 mm. Its linear limit is 2.5x108
N/m2, and its ultimate tension strength is 5x108 N/m2. The wire is
attached at one end and hangs vertically with a weight at its lower end. (a)
If the wire is just at its linear limit, how much large is the weight? (b) What
is the largest load the wire can support?
(a) If the wire is just at its linear limit, how much large is the
weight?
Flinear limit  σlinear limit A  2.5 108 N / m 2   (110 3 ) 2 m 2  785 N
(b) What is the largest load the wire can support?

Fultimate tension  σ ultimate tension A  5 108 N / m 2   (110 3 ) 2 m 2  1570 N
 (7) A rod with a radius of 0.005 m and length of 2 m stretches

0.002 m when subjected to a tension force of 10,000 N. What is
Young’s modulus for this rod?
4
10/21/2013
 (8) An aluminum wire is 20 m long and has a radius of 2x10-3 m. The

linear limit for aluminum is 0.6x108 N/m2 (a) How large a tension force
must be applied to stretch the wire to its linear limit? (b) How much will
the wire stretch when this force is applied? (YAl=7x1010 N/m2)
(a)
(b)
 (9) What is the spring constant of human femur under

compression of average cross-sectional area 10-3 m2 and length
0.4 m?
Young’s modulus for the bone is 1.5×1010 N/m2
YA
k
lo
YA
k  3.75  106 N / m
lo
5
10/21/2013
 (10) A 200-kg load is hung on a wire with a length of 4 m, a cross-

sectional area of 0.2x10-4 m and a Young’s modulus of 8x1010 N/m2.
What is its increase in length?
 (11) If the elastic limit of copper is 1.5x108 N/m2, determine the

minimum diameter a copper wire can have under a load of 10.0 kg if
its elastic limit is not to be exceeded.
6
10/21/2013
 (12) When water freezes, it expands by about 9%. What would be the
pressure increase inside your automobile’s engine block if the water in
it froze? (The bulk modulus of ice is 2x109 N/m2.)
 (13) Assume that Young’s modulus for bone is 1.5x1010 N/m2 and that a
bone will fracture if more than 1.5x108 N/m2 is exerted. (a) What is the
maximum force that can be exerted on the femur bone in the leg if it has a
minimum effective diameter of 2.50 cm? (b) If a force of this magnitude is
applied compressively, by how much does the 25.0-cm-long bone shorten?
7
10/21/2013
 (14) The average cross-sectional area of a woman femur is 10-3m2 and it is 0.4 m long.
The woman weights 750 N (a) what is the length change of this bone when it supports
half of the weight of the woman? (b) Assuming the stress-strain relationship is linear
until fracture, what is the change in length just prior to fracture?
 (15) A man leg can be thought of as a shaft of bone 1.2 m long. If

the strain is 1.3x10-4 when the leg supports his weight, by how
much is his leg shortened?
8
10/21/2013
 (16) What is the spring constant of a human femur under

compression of average cross-sectional area 10-3m2 and
length 0.4 m?
 (17) (a) Find the minimum diameter of a steel wire 18 m long that
elongates no more than 9 mm when a load of 380 kg is hung on its lower
end. (b) If the elastic limit for this steel is 3x108 N/m2, does permanent
deformation occur with this load?
‫الن قيمة االجهاد هنا اكبر من‬

‫حد المرونة المعطى في السؤال‬
‫فان تشوه دائم سيحدث‬
9
‫ احلرارة ودرجة احلرارة‬:‫الوحدة الرابعة‬
Heat and Temperature

11/23/2009

for
Unit 4
Temperature and Heat
Lecture 12

•Temperature
p
•Thermal expansion q
of solids and Liquids
•Ideal Gas Equation
•Heat and the first law of thermodynamics
1
‫‪11/23/2009‬‬
‫درجة الحرارة والغاز المثالي‬

‫‪Temperature and Ideal Gases‬‬
‫‪ ‬تعتبر الحرارة احد مصادر الطاقة الرئيسية التي بدأ علماء الفيزياء في دراسة‬
‫وفھم قوانينھا الھميتھا ولتطبيقاتھا الواسعة على حياتنا‪ ،‬فلو نظرنا من حولنا‬
‫المثال ل ة‬
‫الثالجة‬ ‫سبيل ل ل‬
‫فعلى ل‬ ‫كل شيء ل‬ ‫الطاقة في ل‬
‫للوجدنا أأن لالحرارة ھي اساس لط ة‬
‫المنزلية ومكيفات الھواء ما ھي اال تطبيقات على الفيزياء الحرارية وكذلك‬
‫المحركات البخارية والمحركات الحديثة تعتمد على تحويل الطاقة الحرارية إلى‬
‫طاقة ميكانيكيا حيث أن حرق الوقود يؤدي إلى ارتفاع في درجة حرارة الغاز‬
‫الذي يضغط على مكبس المحرك الذي يؤدي حركة ميكانيكية اساسھا ارتفاع في‬
‫درجة الحرارة وھذه المحركات ھي اساس فكرة عمل السيارات والطائرات‬
‫محطات الت ل د‬
‫التوليد‬ ‫من طات‬ ‫تصلنا ن‬
‫الكھرباء ففھي ت لنا‬
‫وھو الك ا‬
‫آخر ھ‬‫مثاالً آخ‬
‫انواعھا‪ ،‬كذلك ثاال‬
‫بمختلف ان اع ا‬
‫ختلف‬
‫التي تقوم بحرق الفحم أو الوقود الذي يحرك التوربينات التي تولد الطاقة الكھربية‬
‫وھناك االمثلة الكثيرة األخرى‪.‬‬
‫• سنقوم في ھذه المحاضرة بدراسة علم الفيزياء الحرارية والذي يسمى علم‬
‫الثيرموديناميكا ‪ thermodynamics‬وھذا العلم ھو علم تجريبي يھتم بدراسة‬
‫الظواھر المتعلقة بتبادل الطاقة الحرارية بين األجسام عند درجات حرارة مختلفة‪.‬‬
‫الفيزيائية مثل الكتلة ‪mass‬‬
‫دراسة الكميات ز‬‫ى ر‬‫ركزنا على‬
‫دراسة علمم الميكانيكا ر ز‬
‫• عند ر‬
‫والقوة ‪ force‬والطاقة ‪ energy‬حيث كانت تلك الكميات الفيزيائية ھي االساسات‬
‫الرئيسية لذلك العلم‪ ،‬ولكن في دراستنا للحرارة فإننا نحتاج إلى مفاھيم أخرى ھي‬
‫درجة الحرارة ‪ temperature‬والتبادل الحراري ‪ heat‬والطاقة الداخلية ‪internal‬‬
‫‪energy‬‬
‫‪‬‬
‫• لذلك سنتناول خالل ھذه المحاضرة دراسة تلك المفاھيم وتوضيحھا وشرح كل‬
‫الحرارةة‬
‫درجة ال ا‬
‫من د ة‬ ‫كالً ن‬
‫تأثير كال‬
‫دراسة تأث‬
‫وسيشمل ذلك د ا ة‬
‫شل‬ ‫المتعلقة ا‬
‫بھا‬ ‫العلمية ال ت لقة‬
‫األمور ال ل ة‬
‫األ‬
‫‪ temperature‬والضغط ‪ pressure‬والحجم ‪ volume‬على الغاز المثالي ‪ideal‬‬
‫‪gas‬‬
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‫القانون الصفري للديناميكا الحرارية‬

‫‪The zeroth law of thermodynamics‬‬
‫‪ ‬عند الحديث عن درجة حرارة جسم ما فإننا نقصد بذلك كم ھي درجة سخونة‬
‫أو برودة ذلك الجسم عند لمسه باليد‪ ،‬حاسة اللمس ھي إحدى النعم التي انعم‬
‫كيفي ليس‬
‫وليس‬ ‫الجسم تقدير كيف‬
‫وبناء عليھا يمكن ان نقدر درجة حرارة الج‬
‫ﷲ بھا علينا بنا‬
‫كمي‪ ،‬وفي بعض األحيان نشعر ببرودة جسم ما أكثر من جسم أخر بالرغم من‬
‫انھما عند نفس درجة الحرارة ألن ھناك عامل مھم وھو سرعة توصيل‬
‫الحرارة فالمعادن مثالً أسرع في توصيل الحرارة منھا إلى اليد من قطعة من‬
‫البالستيك‪ ،‬لذلك توجب ان يكون ھناك مقياس دقيق لدرجة الحرارة نعتمد عليه‬
‫في تحديد درجة حرارة األجسام‪.‬‬
‫‪‬‬
‫‪ ‬قبل ان نبدأ في الحديث عن المقاييس المستخدمة لقياس درجات الحرارة دعنا‬
‫نشرح بعض المفاھيم الرئيسية التي اعتمدت عليھا أجھزة قياس درجات‬
‫الحرارة‪.‬‬
‫‪thermal‬‬ ‫الحراري‬ ‫االتصال‬ ‫‪ ‬مفھوم‬

‫‪contact‬‬
‫‪ ‬االتصال الحراري يكون بين جسمين إذا‬
‫كان من الممكن أن يتبادال الطاقة الحرارية‬
‫بذل شغل‪.‬‬
‫بدون ذل‬
‫‪‬‬
‫‪thermal‬‬ ‫الحراري‬ ‫االتزان‬ ‫‪ ‬مفھوم‬

‫‪equilibrium‬‬
‫ي بين جسمين يحدث إذا كان‬‫‪ ‬االتزان الحراري‬
‫بينھما اتصال حراري وكذلك يكون صافي‬ ‫يوضح الشكل اعاله انتقال الحرارة من الجسم‬
‫االكثر ارتفاعا ً في درجة الحرارة إلى الجسم األقل التبادل الحراري بينھما يساوي صفر‪.‬‬
‫درجة حرارة الى ان تتساوي درجات الحرارة‬
‫ويصل إلى حالة االتزان الحراري‪.‬‬
‫يوضح السھم في الشكل اتجاه انسياب الحرارة‬
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‫مبدأ عمل مقياس درجة الحرارة )الثيرموميتر(‬

‫‪‬افترض ان ھناك جسمان ‪ A‬و ‪ B‬ينھما مادة عازلة‬
‫أي أنھما غير متصلين حراريا ً وقمنا باحضار جسم ثالث‬
‫‪ C‬وھذا الذي يمثل الثيرموميتر( ليكون اآلداة‬
‫المستخدمة لتحديد ما إذا كان الجسمان ‪ A‬و ‪ B‬في‬
‫حالة اتزان حراري ‪ thermal equilibrium‬أأم‬
‫ال؟ فإننا سنستخدم الجسم ‪ C‬ونضعه على اتصال‬
‫حراري مع الجسم ‪ A‬حتي نصل إلى حالة االتزان‬
‫الحراري بين ‪ A‬و ‪ C‬ونحدد درجة حرارة االتزان‬
‫الحراري بواسطة ‪ ،C‬نقوم بتكرار الخطوة السابقة مع‬
‫الجسم ‪ .B‬فإذا كانت درجة الحرارة للجسم ‪ A‬المقاسة‬
‫بواسطة ‪C‬تساوي درجة الحرارة للجسم ‪ B‬فإننا‬
‫كالً من ‪ A‬و ‪ B‬في حالة اتزان‬ ‫نستطيع ان نجزم ان كال‬
‫حراري‪.‬‬
‫معنى ذلك أنه إذا وجد جسمين معزولين وكالً منھما في حالة اتزان حراري مع جسم ثالث فإن ذلك يؤدي إلى أن‬
‫الجسمين أيضا في حالة اتزان حراري مع بعضھما البعض‪ .‬وسمي ھذا بالقانون الصفري للديناميكا الحرارية‬
‫‪ zeroth law of thermodynamics‬وسمي بالصفري ألنه من المسلمات البديھية ويعتبر ھذا القانون‬
‫األساس العملي لفكرة الثيرمومتر المستخدم لقياس درجات الحرارة‪.‬‬
‫الثيرمومتر ومقياس درجات الحرارة‬

‫‪Thermometer and temperature scale‬‬
‫‪ ‬الثيرموميتر ‪ thermometer‬ھو أداة تستخدم لقياس درجات الحرارة‪ ،‬والثيرمومتر يعمل من‬
‫خالل تغير في أحد الخصائص الفيزيائية بتغير درجة الحرارة‪ ،‬مثل خاصية تمدد األجسام مع‬
‫وفيما ييلي‬
‫ي‬ ‫الحرارة‪ .‬و ي‬
‫درجات ر ر‬‫ير ر‬
‫ي بتغير‬
‫الكھربي‬
‫مقاومة السلك ھر‬
‫ير الضغط أوو و‬ ‫الحرارة ووتغير‬
‫درجة ر ر‬ ‫زيادة ر‬‫زي‬
‫نذكر األنواع المختلفة للثرمومتر‪.‬‬
‫‪Type of thermometer‬‬ ‫‪Material‬‬ ‫‪Physical property‬‬
‫نوع الثيرمومتر‬ ‫المادة‬ ‫الكمية الفيزيائية‬
‫‪(1) Liquid thermometer‬‬ ‫‪Mercury or Alcohol‬‬ ‫‪Change in length‬‬

‫‪(2) Gas Thermometer‬‬ ‫‪Hydrogen‬‬ ‫‪Change in pressure‬‬
‫‪(3) Resistance thermometer‬‬ ‫‪Platinum‬‬ ‫‪Change in resistance‬‬
‫‪(4) Thermocouple thermometer Chromel and Alumel‬‬ ‫‪Change in electric potential‬‬
‫‪(5) Radiation Thermometer‬‬ ‫‪Pyrometer‬‬ ‫‪Change in radiation colour‬‬
‫‪(6) Magnetic thermometer‬‬ ‫‪Change in susceptibility‬‬
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‫المقياس المئوي ‪Celsius scale‬‬

‫‪‬تعتمد فكرة المقياس المئوي على وجود نقطتين ال‬
‫تتغير فيھما درجة الحرارة مع تزويد المادة بحرارة‬
‫وعلى ھذا االساس اعتمد العالم ‪ Celsius‬في ابتكاره‬
‫عمليا ً ثثبوت‬
‫المالحظ ل ا‬
‫حيث اانه من ال ال ظ‬
‫المئوي ث‬ ‫للتدريج ال ئ‬
‫للت‬
‫درجة حرارة الماء عند نقطة الغليان أي عندما يتحول‬
‫من الحالة السائلة إلى الحالة الغزية أو العكس وكذلك‬
‫تثبت فيھا درجة حرارة الماء عند تحوله إلى ثلج وھي‬
‫درجة االنصھار أي من الحالة السائلة إلى الحالة‬
‫الصلبة أو العكس‪ ،‬فاطلق سيليزس على درجة‬
‫االنصھار بالقيمة صفرا وعلى نقطة الغليان القيمة‬
‫‪ 100‬وتم تقسيم التدريج إلى ‪ 100‬كل جزء يساوي‬
‫درجة‪ ،‬ولذلك سمي بالتدريج المئوي ويسمى ايضا‬
‫بتدريج سيليزس‪ .‬وتبلخ درجة حرارة االنسان على ھذا‬
‫التدريج ‪oC.37‬‬
‫المقياس الفھرنھايتي ‪Fahrenheit scale‬‬

‫‪‬يعتمد ھذا التدريج لقياس درجة الحرارة على نفس المبدأ‬
‫السابق للتدريج المئوي أي على نقطة تحول الماء إلى الحالة‬
‫الغازية او الصلبة‪ ،‬ولكن اعتبر فھرنھايت درجة االنصھار ھي‬
‫درجة‬
‫ي رج‬ ‫ن للماء ووھي‬
‫الغليان‬
‫ودرجة ي‬
‫الصفر‪ ،‬و رج‬
‫ر‬ ‫درجة ‪ 32‬ببدالً من‬
‫ن‬ ‫رج‬
‫ً‬
‫‪ 212‬بدال من ‪.100‬‬
‫‪ ‬ولتوضيح العالقة بين التدريج المئوي والتدريج الفھرنھايتي‬
‫استعن بالشكل التالي‪:‬‬
‫إذا للتحويل من درجة حرارة بمقياس‬

‫فھرنھايت إلى مقدارھا بالمقياس‬
‫المئوي أو العكس نستخدم المعادلتين‬
‫التاليتين‪:‬‬
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‫‪11/23/2009‬‬
‫المقياس المطلق ‪Kelvin scale‬‬

‫‪‬مما سبق نجد أن كال التدريجين اعتمدا على نوع مادة‬
‫السائل وھو الماء حيث تم اعتبار نقطة االنصھار ونقطة‬
‫الغليان كأساس للتدريج‪ ،‬وحيث أن ھاتين النقطتين‬
‫األخرى‪ ،‬لذا‬‫العوامل األ‬
‫الضغط وعدد من ال ا ل‬
‫على ال ط‬ ‫تعتمدان ل‬
‫تت ا‬
‫فإننا بحاجة إلى تدريج مطلق ال يعتمد على طبيعة المادة‬
‫وھذا ما قام به العالم كلفن ‪ Kelvin‬في تحديد تدريج‬
‫مطلق لدرجة الحرارة‪.‬‬
‫‪Gas‬‬ ‫قام العالم كلفن باستخدام الثيرمومتر المعتمد على التغير في الضغط‬
‫‪ thermometer‬ودرس العالقة بين الضغط ودرجة الحرارة‪ ،‬وذلك ألكثر من غاز‬
‫ووجد أن جميع الغازات يقل ضغطھا بنقصان درجة الحرارة وأن الضغط يصبح‬
‫صفر نظريا ً )أي عند مد المنحنيات كما في الشكل على استقامتھا( عند درجة حرارة‬
‫وقدرھا ‪ .273-‬وقد تم اعتبار ھذه الدرجة ھي الصفر المطلق وأنھا ال تتغير بتغير‬
‫المطلق‪.‬‬
‫للصفر ال طلق‬
‫بالنسبة لل ف‬
‫األخرى الن ة‬
‫التدريجات األخ‬
‫ات‬ ‫باقي الت‬
‫معايرة اق‬
‫وعليه تتم ا ة‬
‫ننوع الغاز ل ه‬
‫‪‬إعتبر العالم كلفن نقطة تالشي الضغط للغازات عند ‪ 273.15-‬درجة مئوية بأنھا‬
‫نقطة مرجعية لتدريج جديد ال يعتمد على نوع المادة المستخدمة )مثل الماء( في‬
‫تصميم التدريج واعتبرت ھذه النقطة ھي الصفر المطلق والتي تساوي بتدريج‬
‫سيليزس )التدريج المئوي( ‪ 273.15-‬وسمي ھذا التدريج بالتدريج المطلق ‪absolute‬‬
‫‪.scale‬‬
‫‪l‬‬
‫‪ ‬وعليه فإن العالقة بين التدريج المئوي والتدريج المطلق ھي‪:‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
11/23/2009
Example
Example
7
‫‪11/23/2009‬‬
‫درجات الحرارة‬
‫تعرف درجة حرارة جسم ما على انھا‬
‫مقياس للطاقة الداخلية للمادة عند‬
‫تلك الدرجة‪.‬‬
‫تتراوح درجات الحرارة في ھذا الكون‬
‫الفسيح بين االف الماليين كلفن إلى‬
‫ما يقارب الصفر كلفن‪ ،‬علماً بأن اقل‬
‫درجة حرارة وصل االنسان اكثر قليال‬
‫من الصفر المطلق )كما في الشكل‬
‫المقابل( والحدود ألعلى درجة‬
‫سجلت حتى االن فتصل درجة حرارة‬
‫االنشطار النووي للھيلوم إلى ‪100‬‬
‫مليون كلفن ‪.‬‬
‫‪Thermal Expansion‬‬
‫• معظم األجسام تتمدد ‪ expand‬عندما تزداد درجة حرارتھا‪ .‬ھذه‬
‫الظاھرة تلعب دوراً رئيسيا في العديد من التطبيقات الھندسية‪،‬‬
‫فعلى سبيل المثال يتم ترك مسافات بين الوصالت الحديدية في‬
‫السريعة لتعطي‬
‫ي‬ ‫رق ري‬ ‫الحديدية ووالطرق‬
‫يي‬ ‫ور ووالسكك‬
‫والجسور‬
‫ي و ج‬ ‫المباني‬
‫ب‬
‫المجال للتمدد واالنكماش وإذا لم يتم فعل ذلك يمكن ان يتصدع‬
‫المبنى أو تنھار الجسور وتلتوي السكك الحديدية بفعل التمدد‬
‫الحراري للمواد المصنوعة منه‪.‬‬
‫• إن التمدد الحراري ‪ thermal expansion‬لألجسام ھو نتيجة‬
‫عن للتغير الذي يحدث للمسافات الفاصلة بين جزيئات وذرات‬
‫المادة‪ .‬ولفھم أدق لما ذكرناه لننظر إلى الشكل الموضح حيث‬
‫تحتوي‬
‫والتي ت ت‬
‫الصلبة الت‬
‫الحالة ال ل ة‬
‫لمادة ففي ال الة‬
‫البلوري ل ا ة‬
‫التركيب ال ل‬
‫يعبر عن الت ك‬
‫على مصفوفة مرتبة من الذرات المترابطة مع بعضھا البعض‬
‫بفعل القوى الكھربية )الزنبرك في الشكل يمثل القوى الكھربية(‪.‬‬
‫‪8‬‬
‫‪11/23/2009‬‬
‫‪Thermal Expansion‬‬
‫يحدث التمدد على كافة ابعاد الجسم‬
‫كالطول والعرض والسمك وتكون‬
‫نسبة الزيادة حسب األبعاد الھندسية‬
‫يتناسب‬
‫الزيادة ت ا‬
‫ومقدار ال ا‬
‫قا‬ ‫للمادة‬
‫لل ا‬
‫ً‬
‫طرديا مع الطول األصلي لذا تكون‬
‫الزيادة في الطول اكثر منھا في‬
‫العرض أو السمك‪.‬‬
‫‪coefficient of linear expansion‬‬
‫‪Coefficients of Thermal Expansion at 20 oC‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
11/23/2009
Example
10
11/23/2009
11
12/2/2009

for
Unit 4
Lecture 13
Ideal Gas Equation

•Temperature
p
1
‫‪12/2/2009‬‬
‫‪Ideal Gas Equation‬‬

‫‪‬الغاز المثالي ھو الغاز )بغض النظر عن نوعه( والذي تنطبق عليه الشروط‬
‫التالية‪:‬‬
‫)‪(1‬حجم جزيئات الغاز مھملة بالنسبة للوعاء الذي يحتويه أي تحت ضغط منخفض‪.‬‬
‫)‪ (2‬التصادمات بين جزيئات الغاز تصادمات مرنة‪.‬‬
‫)‪ (3‬حركة جزيئات الغاز حركة عشوائية دون مؤثرات خارجية‪.‬‬
‫‪‬لھذا فإن الغازات الموجودة عند درجة حرارة الغرفة وتحت ضغط يساوي الضغط‬
‫الجوي تعتبر غازات تتصرف كغاز مثالي‪.‬‬
‫‪‬ال شك أن الغاز المثالي ال وجود له في الطبيعة ولكن في علم الفيزياء يتم‬

‫وضع مثل ھذه الفروض لتسھيل دراسة تأثير المتغيرات الفيزيائية في حالة‬
‫ظروف مثالية لتسھيل المعادالت الرياضية والوصول إلى عالقات رياضية تحكم‬
‫تصرف الغاز المثالي ثم يتم مقارنتھا مع الغاز الحقيقي‪ .‬والمتغيرات الفيزيائية ھنا‬
‫ھي درجة الحرارة والحجم والضغط‪ ،‬ولدراسة العالقة بين ھذه المتغيرات على‬
‫الغاز المثالي سنقوم بتثبيت متغير واحد ودراسة العالقة بين المتغيرين اآلخرين‪،‬‬
‫وھذا ما قام به العالمان بويل ‪ Boyle‬وتشارل ‪Charle‬‬
‫‪Boyle's Law‬‬
‫‪When gas is kept at constant temperature its pressure is‬‬
‫‪inverselyy proportional‬‬
‫‪p p‬‬ ‫‪to the volume.‬‬
‫‪P  1/v‬‬
‫‪at constant temperature‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
12/2/2009
Charle's Law
When the pressure of the gas kept constant the volume
directlyy pproportional
p to the temperature.
p
V  T at constant pressure
These result can be summarized in one equation called the equation of state
for an ideal gas

Where n is the number of moles, R is a constant for a specific gas, which can
be determined experimentally, and T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin
When the pressure goes to zero then the quantity PV/nT become the same
value of R for all gasses, therefore R called the universal gas constant ( ‫الثابت‬
‫)العام للغازات‬
R = 8.31 J/mole.K
3
12/2/2009
The ideal gas law can be expressed in terms of the total number of
molecules N where N = nNA
where NA is the Avogadro's number = 6.022x1023molecules/mole
where K is called Boltzmann's constant,, which has the value R/N

/ A
K = R/NA = 1.38x10-23J/K
One mole of substance is that mass of the substance that contains

Avogadro's number of molecules
Conversion between the different pressure unit systems
4
12/2/2009
 Example (1)
An ideal gas occupies a volume of 100cm3 at 20oC and a
pressure of 100Pa. Determine the number of moles of gas in
the container.
 Solution
PV = nRT
 What is the number of molecules in the container?
 Example (2)
Pure helium gas is admitted into a tank containing a movable piston. The
initial volume, pressure and temperature of the gas are 15x10-3m3, 200kPa
and 300K respectively. If the volume is decreased to 12x10-3m3 and the
pressure is increased to 350KPa, find the final temperature of the gas.
 Solution
S l ti
Since the gas can not escape from the tank then the number of moles is
constant, therefore, PV = nRT at the initial and final points of the
process
p1V 1 p 2V 2

T1 T2
p 2V 2 3.5 atm .12 liters

T2  ( ) T1  (300K )  420 K
p1V 1 2 atm .15 liters
5
12/2/2009
Example (2)
 One mole of oxygen gas is at a pressure of 6 atm and a
temperature of 7°C. (a) If the gas is heated at constant
volume
l until
til the
th pressure triples,
ti l what
h t is
i the
th final
fi l
temperature? (b) If the gas is heated until both the pressure
and the volume are doubled, what is the final temperature?
Solutions
 (a) T1 = 273 + 7 = 280 K,
p1 3 p1 1 3
p 2  3 p1    
T1 T 2 T1 T 2
So T 2  3T 1  280  3  840 K
 (b) p 2  2 p1 ,V 2  2V 1
p1 V 1 p V pV 4p V
 2 2 1 1  1 1
T1 T2 T1 T2
T 2  4 T 1  4  280  1120 K
6
9/22/2014

for
Unit 4
Lecture 14
Heat and the first law of
thermodynamics

•Temperature
•Thermal expansion of solids and Liquids
1
9/22/2014
Example
A 0.1 mole of 𝑂2 gas at standard conditions.
What will the pressure be if the volume is changed to 1 Liter at
constant temperature,
and find the density of the gas after change?
Solutions
The standard condition means that the temperature of the gas 𝑇=
273𝐾, and its pressure p=1𝑎tm=1.013x105 Pa. The gas is expanded
at constant temperature, so that
P1V1 = nRT = P2V2
nRT 0.1(8.314)273
P2    2.27 105 Pa  2.24atm
V2 1103
 To find the density of the O2 gas, we can write the ideal gas law as
m m
P2V2  nRT  P2  RT
 Mw
P2 M w

RT
2.27 105 (32 103 )
  3.2kg / m3
8.314  273
one mole of a gas is the quantity that contains 𝑁𝐴 = 6.02×1023
molecules/mole (Avogadro's number) and equals the molecular weight of
the substance expressed in grams.
N m
n 
NA Mw
2
‫‪9/22/2014‬‬
‫‪Heat as a form of energy‬‬

‫‪‬نعلم من المحاضرة السابقة أنه عند وضع جسمين عند درجات حرارة‬
‫مختلفة وكان بينهما اتصال حراري ‪ thermal contact‬فإن الحرارة تنتقل من‬
‫الجسم األعلى درجة حرارة إلى الجسم األقل درجة حرارة‪ ،‬ويسمى هذا‬
‫تدفق حراري ‪ heat flow‬ويستمر حتى يصل الجسمين إلى نفس درجة‬
‫الحرارة وعندها يكونا في حالة اتزان حراري ‪Thermal Equilibrium‬‬
‫‪‬حاول العلماء في القرن السابع عشر تفسير ظاهرة التدفق الحراري‬

‫بافتراض جسيمات غير مرئية تدعى الكلوريك ‪ ،Caloric‬تعمل على نقل‬
‫الحرارة بين األجسام‪ .‬ولكن كان هذا االفتراض غير صحيح حيث ال يمكن‬
‫تفسير العديد من الظواهر الحرارية مثل عدم تغير درجة الحرارة عند حالة‬
‫التحول من الحالة السائلة إلى الحالة الغازية مثل غليان الماء‪ ،‬ولكن العالم‬
‫جول ‪ Joule‬اثبت بالتجربة العملية أن التدفق الحراري ما هو إال انتقال‬
‫للطاقة وأن الحرارة صورة من صور الطاقة‪.‬‬
‫‪‬تعريف الحرارة ‪Heat‬‬

‫‪‬كلمة حرارة هي اختصار لالنسياب الحراري أو التدفق الحراري ألنه ال يوجد حرارة إال إذا‬
‫انتقلت من مكان إلى آخر ولتعريف االنسياب الحراري نقول أنه هو انتقال الطاقة من‬
‫مكان آلخر نتيجة الختالف درجات الحرارة بينهما‪.‬‬
‫‪The word of ''heat flow'' is an energy transfer that take place as a‬‬
‫‪consequence of temperature difference only.‬‬
‫أي أن التدفق الحراري أو االنسياب الحراري هو انتقال للطاقة‪.‬‬
‫‪‬تعريف درجة الحرارة ‪Temperature‬‬

‫‪‬يجب أال نخلط بين الحرارة ودرجة الحرارة فكما ذكرنا قبل قليل إن حرارة تعني انتقال‬
‫للطاقة أما درجة الحرارة فهي مقياس للطاقة الداخلية للمادة‪ ،‬وكلما زادت درجة‬
‫الحرارة زادت الطاقة الداخلية أي زادت الطاقة الحركية لجزيئاته‪.‬‬
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‫‪9/22/2014‬‬
‫‪‬وحدة الحرارة ‪Unit of Heat‬‬

‫‪‬قبل ان يتمكن العلماء من معرفة أن الحرارة هي طاقة أي قبل تجربة العالم‬
‫جول الشهيرة التي اثبت فيها أن الحرارة هي صورة من صور الطاقة والتي‬
‫سنشرحها بعد قليل فقد اعطى العلماء وحدة الكلوري ‪ calorie‬للحرارة وعرفت‬
‫‪ ‬تعرف الكلوري على إنها مقدار الحرارة الالزمة (الطاقة) لرفع درجة حرارة جرام‬
‫واحد من الماء من ‪ 14.5oC‬إلى ‪15.5oC‬‬
‫‪The unit of heat is ''calorie'' which is defined as the amount of‬‬

‫‪heat (energy) required to raise the temperature of 1g of water‬‬
‫‪from 14.5oC to 15.5oC.‬‬
‫‪‬وبعد أن اثبت العالم جول أن الحرارة هي طاقة فيمكن التعبير عن وحدة الحرارة‬
‫بالجول وقد اثبت عملياً أن‪:‬‬
‫‪1cal = 4.186J‬‬ ‫‪or‬‬ ‫‪1J = 0.2389cal‬‬
‫‪‬المكافئ الميكانيكي للحرارة ‪The‬‬

‫‪mechanical equivalent of heat‬‬
‫‪‬قام العالم جول بتصميم التجربة الموضحة في‬
‫الشكل المقابل والتي اثبت فيها أن الطاقة‬
‫الميكانيكية تتحول إلى حرارة وان الحرارة ما هي‬
‫إال صورة من صور الطاقة ويمكن تحويلها من‬
‫صورة إلى أخرى‪ .‬تعتمد التجربة على قياس‬
‫التغير في طاقة الوضع لألثقال التي تحرك‬
‫المروحة داخل اإلناء المعزول‪ ،‬نتيجة لالحتكاك‬
‫بين المروحة والماء ينتج عنها ارتفاع في درجة‬
‫حرارة الماء‪ ،‬وبدراسة التغير في طاقة الوضع‬
‫‪ mgh‬مع ارتفاع درجة حرارة الماء في اإلناء وجد‬
‫العالم جول ان العالقة بين طاقة الوضع واالرتفاع‬
‫في درجة الحرارة هي عالقة طردية‪ .‬وأن ثابت‬
‫التناسب يساوي ‪ 4.186J/Kg.Co‬وهذا يعني أن مقدار‬
‫‪ 4.18‬جول من الطاقة تلزم لرفع درجة حرارة جرام واحد من‬
‫الماء درجة مئوية واحدة من ‪ 14.5oC‬إلى ‪ 15.5oC‬وهذا‬
‫هو نفسه تعريف الكالوري إذا فإن‬
‫‪1cal = 4.186J‬‬
‫‪4‬‬
9/22/2014
Example
A student eats a dinner rated at 2000 (food) Calories. He
whishes to do an equivalent amount of work in the gymnasium by
lifting 50Kg mass. How many times must he raise the weight to
expend this much energy? Assume that he raises the weight a
distance of 2m each time and no work is done when the weight
is dropped to the floor.
Solution
1 (food) Calories = 1000 cal
then the work required is 2x106cal.

Converting this to joule, then the work required is
W = 2x106cal x 4.186J/cal = 8.37x106J
ً‫ والشعغل‬mgh ‫ يسعاوي‬h ‫الشغلًالمبذولًلرفععًاالثقعالًلمسعافة‬

ً‫ وعليعهًفعإن‬nmgh ‫الكليًلرفعًاألثقالًععدةًمعراتًيعطعيًبالعالقعة‬
:‫عددًمراتًرفعًاالثقالًهو‬
W = nmgh = 8.37x106J
Since m = 50 Kg, and h = 2m
n = 8.54x103 times
ً‫ مرةًلحرقًالسعرات‬8500ً‫ايًانهًيلزمًالطالبًرفعًالثقلًماًيقارب‬
ً‫ ثواني‬5ً‫الحراريةًالمطلوبةًولوًكانًيؤديًكلًرفعةًفيًزمنًمقداره‬
!!‫ ساعةًالنجازًالمهمة‬12ً‫فهذاًيعنيًانهًيلزمه‬
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‫‪9/22/2014‬‬
‫‪Heat capacity and specific heat‬‬

‫‪ ‬سنستخدم اآلن تعبير كمية الحرارة للداللة على مقدار الطاقة الحرارية‬
‫التي يكتسبها الجسم‪ ،‬وللعلم يمكن تزويد الجسم بكميات من الحرارة‬
‫من مصادر مختلفة فالمصدر المعتاد هو اللهب الناتج من النار او الحرارة‬
‫المكتسبة من أشعة الشمس اضافة إلى الحرارة التي يكتسبها الجسم‬
‫نتيجة االحتكاك مثل احتكاك اطارات السيارة عند التوقف المفاجئ وحك‬
‫اليدين بسرعة لتدفئتها‪ ،‬لذا سنطلق على كل هذه الصور المختلفة‬
‫لمصادر الحرارة بكمية الحرارة ‪.heat quantity‬‬
‫‪ ‬وجد بالتجربة العملية أن كمية الحرارة الالزمة لرفع درجة حرارة المادة‬
‫تختلف حسب طبيعة المادة‪ ،‬فعلى سبيل المثال كمية الحرارة الالزمة‬
‫لرفع درجة حرارة ‪ Kg1‬من الماء درجة مئوية واحدة تساوي ‪ J4186‬ولكن‬
‫لرفع درجة حرارة ‪ Kg1‬من النحاس درجة مئوية واحدة يلزم ‪ .J387‬ولهذا‬
‫فإننا نحتاج إلى تعريف كمية فيزيائية جديدة تأخذ في الحسبان طبيعة‬
‫المادة المكتسبة او الفاقدة للحرارة وهذه الكمية هي السعة الحرارية‬
‫‪ .heat capacity‬وتعرف السعة الحرارية بأنها مقدار الطاقة الحرارية‬
‫الالزمة لرفع درجة حرارة المادة درجة مئوية واحدة‬
‫‪ The heat capacity is defined as the amount of heat energy‬‬

‫‪needed to raise the temperature of a sample by 1 degree Celsius.‬‬
‫‪ ‬ومن تعريف السعة الحرارية نستنتج أن كمية الحرارة التي تضاف للمادة‬
‫تساوي التغير في درجات الحرارة مضروبة في السعة الحرارية‪.‬‬
‫‪J/Co‬‬ ‫ووحدة السعة الحرارية هي‬

‫‪6‬‬
‫‪9/22/2014‬‬
‫‪ ‬منًالمؤكدًبأنًالسعةًالحراريةًتتناسبًطردياًمعًكتلةًالمادةًولعذلكًسعنقومً‬
‫بتقسيمًالسعةًالحراريةًعلىًالكتلةًحتىًنحصلًعلىًكميةًفيزيائيعةًجديعدةً‬
‫الًتعتمععدًعلععىًالكتلععةًوهععيًالسعععةًالحراريععةًالنوعيععة ‪specific heat‬‬
‫‪ capacity‬والتيًتعتمدًفقطًعلىًنوعًالمادة‪.‬‬
‫‪ where c is called the specific heat capacity or specific heat.‬‬

‫‪ ‬ووحدة السعة الحرارية النوعية ‪ ،J/kg.Co‬فمثال السعة الحرارية النوعية للماء‬
‫تساوي ‪ 4186J/kg.Co‬وهذا يعني اننا نحتاج إلى ‪ 4186‬جول من الطاقة تلزم‬
‫لرفع واحد كيلو جرام من الماء درجة مئوية واحدة‪ .‬ونالحظ ان الماء هو اكثر‬
‫العناصر سعة حرارية في الطبيعة وذلك الن اجسامنا تحتوي على ‪ %70‬من‬
‫الماء وهذا يجعل درجة حرارة الجسم ثابتة طوال اليوم واال ارتفعت درجة‬
‫الحرارة في النهار وانخفضت في الليل‪ ،‬كما ان مياه المحيطات والبحار ال تتغير‬
‫درجة حرارتهم بسرعة حفاظاً على الكائنات الحية التي فيها وهذا من حكمة‬
‫هللا عز وجل بأن يكون للماء اكبر سعة حرارية أي االقل تأثراً بتغير درجات‬
‫الحرارة‬
‫‪ ‬يوضحًالجدولًالتاليًالسعةًالحراريةًلبعضًالموادًعندًدرجةًحعرارةً‪ 25‬درجعةً‬
‫مئوية( درجةًحرارةًالغرفة )وعندًالضغطًالجوي ‪.‬‬
‫نالحظًأنًالماءًلهًاكبرًسعةًحراريةًنوعيةًبحيثًأنهًيلزمً‪ 4186‬جولًلرفعًدرجةًحعرارةً‪1‬‬
‫كيلوجرامًمنًالماءًدرجةًمئويةًواحدةًبينماًيلزمً‪ 900‬جولًمنًالحرارةًلأللمنيوم‬
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‫‪ ‬يمكنناًاآلنًانًنعبرًعنًكميةًالحرارة ‪ Q‬التيًتنتقلًإلىًمادةًكتلتها ‪ m‬وتتغيعرً‬

‫درجةًحرارتهاًمنًدرجعةًحعرارةًابتدائيعة ‪ Ti‬إلعىًدرجعةًحعرارةًنهائيعة ‪ Tf‬علعىً‬
‫النحوًالتالي‪:‬‬
‫‪ ‬منًهذهًالمعادلةًيتضحًأنهًعندماًتكتسب المادةًحعرارةًفعإنًكعالًمعنًكميعة‬
‫الحرارةًوالتغيرًفيًدرجةًالحرارةًيكونًموجبا‪ً،‬وعندماًتفقد المادةًحرارة فعإنً‬
‫التغيرًفيًدرجةًالحرارةًيكونًبالسالبًوتكونًكميةًالحرارةًسالبة‪.‬‬
‫‪Example‬‬
‫‪A 0.05kg of metal is heated to 200oC and then dropped into a‬‬
‫‪beaker containing 0.4kg of water initially at 20oC. If the final‬‬

‫‪equilibrium temperature of the mixed system is 22.4oC find the‬‬
‫‪specific heat of the metal. What is the total heat transferred‬‬
‫?‪to water in cooling the metal‬‬
‫‪8‬‬
9/22/2014
Solution
‫ وهنا‬،‫ يعتبر هذا المثال بمثابة تجربة عملية لتعيين السعة الحرارية للمواد‬
‫ درجة مئوية وأسقطت في كمية‬200 ‫قمنا بتسخين المعدن إلى درجة حرارة‬
‫ درجة مئوية ولتصبح درجة‬20 ‫من الماء ذات كتلة محددة عند درجة حرارة‬
‫ وبالتالي فإن الحرارة المفقودة‬.‫ درجة مئوية‬22.4 ‫حرارة المعدن والماء‬
.‫بواسطة المعدن تساوي الحرارة المكتسبة بواسطة الماء‬
Heat lost by the metal = heat gained by water
mx cx (Ti-Tf) = mw cw (Tf-Ti)
(0.05Kg) cx (200oC-22.4oC) = (0.4kg)(4186J/kg.Co)(22.4oC-20oC)

cx = 453J/kg.Co
(b) Q = m c (Ti-Tf) = 0.05 ´ 453 ´ (200-22.4) = 4020J
Example
 A man fires a silver bullet of mass 2g with a velocity of
200m/sec into a wall. What is the temperature change
of the bullet?
 Solution
‫ تكتسب الرصاصة طاقة حركة تتحول إلى حرارة عند اصطدامها‬
.‫بالجدار وبهذا يتضح أن الحرارة صورة من صور الطاقة‬
 The kinetic energy of the bullet Ek = 1/2 m v2 = 40J

 Q = m c DT
 where c for silver is 234Jkg.Co

 DT = Q/mc = 85.5Co
9
9/22/2014
Example
A quantity of hot water at 91°C and another cold one at 12°C.
How much kilogram of each one is needed to make an 800 liter of
water bath at temperature of 35°C.
 Solution
Assume the mass of hot water 𝑚𝐻 and cold one is 𝑚𝐶,
800 liter of water is equivalent to 800 kg,
so 𝑚𝐻+𝑚𝐶=800,
From the conservation of energy
mHCw(TH-Tf) = mCCw(Tf-TC)
TH = 92oC, TC=12oC, Tf=35oC,
56 𝑚𝐻 = 23 𝑚𝐶,
 𝑠o
𝑚𝐶 = 2.43 𝑚𝐻
 So by substitution
3.43 𝑚𝐻= 800,
𝑚𝐻 = 233 𝑘g, and 𝑚𝐶 = 567 𝑘g
10
12/7/2009

for
Unit 4
Lecture 15
Heat Transfer

•Temperature
p
•Heat Transfer
1
12/7/2009
Heat Transfer
 The heat is a transfer of the energy from a high
temperature object to a lower temperature one.
 Heat transfer changes the internal energy of both

systems
 Heat can be transferred by three ways:

1. conduction,,
2. convection
3. radiation.
Heat conduction
 Conduction is heat transfer by means of molecular agitation within
a material without any motion of the material as a whole.
Conduction is the transfer of heat within a substance, molecule by

molecule.
If you put one end of a metal rod over a fire,
that end will absorb the energy from the flame.
Th molecules
The l l att this
thi end
d off the
th rod
d will
ill gain
i
energy and begin to vibrate faster. As they do
their temperature increases and they begin to
bump into the molecules next to them. The heat
is being transfered from the warm end to the
cold end.
2
12/7/2009
Heat conduction
 Conduction – when two objects are in physical contact.
H = rate of conduction heat transfer (Watt)

k = thermal conductivity (W/m/K)
Q   T  Q = heat transferred
H   kA  
t  L  At = cross sectional area
= duration of heat transfer
L = length
∆T = temperature difference between two ends
The thermal conductivity coefficient
Substance ((W m-1K-1) Substance ((W m-1K-1)

Silver 427 Ice 2
Copper 397 Water 0.6
Aluminum 238 Wood 0.08
Gold 314 Air 0.023
C
Concrete 08
0.8 H d
Hydrogen 01
0.1
Glass 0.8 Helium 0.138
3
12/7/2009
Example
 An aluminum pot contains water that is kept steadily boiling
(100 ºC). The bottom surface of the pot, which is 12 mm
thick and 1.5x104 mm2 in area, is maintained at a
temperature of 102°C by an electric heating unit. Find the
rate at which heat is transferred through the bottom surface.
Compare this with a copper based pot.
Solution
 T 
H  kA  
 L 
 For the aluminum base: TH = 102 ºC,TC = 100 ºC, L=12 mm
= 0.012 m, KAl = 238Wm-1K-1, Base area A = 1.5x104 mm2 =
0.015 m2.
(102  100)
H Al  238 (0.015)  588W
0.012
 For the copper base KCu = 397Wm-1K-1.
(102  100)
H AlCu  397 (0.015)  1003W
0.012
4
12/7/2009
Heat Convection
 Convection is heat transfer by mass motion of a fluid such as
air or water when the heated fluid is caused to move away
from the source of heat, carrying energy with it.
 Convection above a hot surface occurs because hot air
expands, becomes less dense, and rises. Hot water is likewise
less dense than cold water and rises, causing convection
currents which transport energy.
5
12/7/2009
Q: In the living room, the heating unit is placed in the floor but the the refrigerator
has a top-mounted cooling coil. Why?
A: Air warmed by the baseboard heating unit is pushed to the top of the room by
the cooler and denser air. Air cooled by the cooling coil sinks to the bottom of the
refrigerator.
Heat Radiation
 Energy is transferred by electromagnetic radiation. All of the
earth's energy is transferred from the Sun by radiation.
Our bodies radiate electromagnetic

waves in a part of the spectrum that
we can't see called the infra-red.
However, there are some cameras
that can actually see this radiation.
6
12/7/2009
Heat Radiation
 The color and texture of different
surfaces determines how well they
absorb the radiation.
 (1) Black objects absorb more

radiation than white objects.
 (2) Matt and rough surfaces absorb
more than
h shiny
h andd smoothh
surfaces.
Heat Radiation
 The relationship governing radiation from hot objects is
called the Stefan-Boltzmann Law:
P  e  A ( T 4  T S4 )
P is the net radiated power measured in Watt,
e is the emissivity (=1 for ideal radiator),
A is the radiation area in m2,
T is the temperature of the radiator in Kelvin,
Kelvin
Ts is the temperature of the surroundings in Kelvin,
 = 5.67x10-8Watt/m2 K4 is a constant called Stefan-Boltzmann
constant.
7
12/7/2009
Example
 A student tries to decide what to wear is staying in a room
that is at 20°C. If the skin temperature is 37°C, how much
heat is lost from the bodyy in 10 minutes? Assume that the
emissivity of the body is 0.9 and the surface area of the
student is 1.5 m2.
 Solution
 Using the Stefan-Boltzmann's law
Pnet  e  A ( T 4  T s 4 )  (5.67  1008 )(0.9)(1.5)(

)(0.9)( .5)( 331004  293
934 )  1433 watt .
 The total energy lost during 10 min is
Q  Pnet t  143  600  85.8 kJ
Cooling of the Human Body
unclothed person at rest in a room temperature of 23 Celsius would be

uncomfortably cool. The skin temperature of 34 C is a typical skin
temperature taken from physiology texts, compared to the normal core
body temperature of 37 C.
8
PROBLEMS UNIT 4: THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
1. Liquid nitrogen has a boiling point of -195.81°C at atmospheric pressure.
Express this temperature in (a) degrees Fahrenheit and (b) Kelvin's.
2. The temperature difference between the inside and the outside of an
automobile engine is 450°C. Express this temperature difference on the (a)
Fahrenheit scale and (b) Kelvin scale.
3. 2.50 g of XeF4 gas is placed into an evacuated 3.00 liter container at 80°C.
What is the pressure in the container?
4. A hydrogen gas thermometer is found to have a volume of 100.0 cm3 when
placed in an ice-water bath at 0°C. When the same thermometer is immersed
in boiling liquid chlorine, the volume of hydrogen at the same pressure is
found to be 87.2 cm3. What is the temperature of the boiling point of chlorine?
5. (a) Show that the density of an ideal gas occupying a volume is given by
  p M / R T where is the molar mass. (b) Determine the density of oxygen

gas at atmospheric pressure and 20.0°C.
6. An ideal gas with volume of is compressed at fixed temperature by
increasing its pressure to . Find the bulk modulus of this gas.

7. A copper telephone wire has essentially no sag )‫ (ال يوجد ارتخاء‬between poles
35.0 m apart on a winter day when the temperature is -20.0°C. How much
longer is the wire on a summer day when TC = 35.0°C?
8. A steel rod 4.00 cm in diameter is heated so that its temperature increases by
70.0°C. It is then fastened between two rigid supports. The rod is allowed to
cool to its original temperature. Assuming that Young’s modulus for the steel
is 20.6 x 1010 N/m2 and that its average coefficient of linear expansion is 11x
10-6 (°C)-1, calculate the tension in the rod.
9. A steel ball bearing is 4cm in diameter at 20.0°C. A bronze plate has a hole in
it that is 3.9 cm in diameter at 20.0°C. What common temperature must they
have so that the ball just squeezes through the hole?
10. A concrete slab has a length of 12 m at -5 ºC on a winter's day. What is the
change in length from winter to summer, when the temperature is 35 ºC ? The
linear expansion coefficient of concrete is 1 X 10-5 ºC-1.
11. A steel rod is initially at 20 °C and has a length of 2 m and a cross sectional
area of 10 cm2.
a) If it is heated to 120 °C, by how much does its length increase. b) How
large a force must be applied to its end to restore the original length? (Young’s
Modulus for steel = 2x1011 N/m2, the coefficient of thermal expansion for steel
= 1.72x10-5 K-1.
12. A thermometer has a mercury-filled glass bulb with a volume of 2x10-7 m3

attached to a thin glass capillary tube with an inner radius of 5x10-5 m. If the
temperature increases by 100°C, how far will the mercury rise in the tube?
(volume thermal expansion coefficient of mercury= 1.82x10-4 K-1).
13. If 46.6 kJ is required to heat 0.15 kg of helium gas from 20° to 80°C at
constant pressure, find the specific heat of helium?
14. sphere of iron is heated to 900K and then cooled by placing it in a container
filled of 5 kg water of 300K, what is the mass of the sphere if the final
temperature of the mixture is 340K, the specific heat of iron is 490 J/kgK and
that of water is 4200 J/kgK. Find the heat loss by the iron in Calorie.
15. A box with a total surface area of 1.20 m2 and a wall thickness of 4.00 cm is
made of an insulating material. A 10.0-W electric heater inside the box
maintains the inside temperature at 15.0°C above the outside temperature.
Find the thermal conductivity k of the insulating material.
16. The surface of the Sun has a temperature of about 5800 K. The radius of the
Sun is 6.96x108 m. Calculate the total energy radiated by the Sun each second.
(Assume that e = 0.96)
17. A person walking at a modest speed generates heat at rate of 280 W. If the
surface area of the body is 1.5 m2 and if the heat is assumed to be generated
0.03 m below the skin, what temperature difference between the skin and
interior of body would exist if the heat were conducted to the surface? Assume
that the thermal conductivity coefficient is0.2 Wm-1K-1.
18. A 2 m length of copper pipe of 10 cm diameter containing hot water at 80oC.
If the surroundings are at 20oC, at what rate does the pipe lose thermal energy
due to radiation? (take e = 1)
‫ ميكانيكا املوائع‬:‫الوحدة اخلامسة‬
Fluid Mechanics

2/15/2013

for
Unit 5
Fluid Mechanics
Lecture 16
Fluid Characteristics
Physics Academy
Dr. Hazem Falah Sakeek
www.physicsacademy.org Al-Azhar University - Gaza
•Fluid Characteristics
•Fluid Flow and the Continuity Equation We will study the
•Bernoulli's Equation properties of the
•Applications of Bernoulli's equation fluids and their
•The Role of Gravity on blood circulation
behavior. Along
•Effect of acceleration on Blood pressure
with the flow of
•Viscous Fluid Flow
the fluids for
nonviscous and
•Laminar Flow in a Tube
viscous fluids.
•Turbulent Flow
1
2/15/2013
Fluid Mechanics
 Fluid Mechanics is concerned with the behavior of fluids
at rest and in motion.
 Distinction between solids and fluids: According to our
experience: A solid is “hard” and not easily deformed. A fluid is “soft”
and deforms easily.
 Fluid is a substance that alters its shape in response to any force
however small, that tends to flow or to conform to the outline of its
container, and that includes gases and liquids.
 A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously

when acted on by a shearing stress of any magnitude.
 Fluids are playing a very important role in many fields of

sciences and medical sciences.
 Fluid movement for Solute transport in soft
connective tissue is a fundamental process, involving
many physiological phenomena, such as nutrient
supply, removal of metabolic waste product and
movement of newly-synthesized molecules.
 A gas is a fluid that is easily compressed. It fills any
vessel in which it is contained.
 A liquid is a fluid which is hard to compress. A given
mass of liquid will occupy a fixed volume, irrespective
of the size of the container.
2
2/15/2013
Fluid Characteristics: Pressure

 A measure of the amount of force exerted on a surface area
N
force F
pressure  Nm-2
p=
A
area (Pa) m2
•The pressure is just the weight of all the fluid

above you, Atmospheric pressure is just the
weight of all the air above on area on the surface
of the earth.
•In a swimming pool the pressure on your body
surface is just the weight of the water above you
(plus the air pressure above the water).
•The deeper you go, the more weight above you Pressure acts
and the more pressure. Go to a mountaintop and perpendicular to the
surface and increases
the air pressure is lower at greater depth.
1
 Pressure difference cause the flowing
of the fluid from point to another (from 2
A to B in the figure).
Fluid flow through a tube of cross sectional area A from a point

1 to 2, then the force exerted on the fluid is given by:
force = (P1 - P2) A = ΔP A
Pressure in a fluid is a measure of energy per unit volume!
force F F .x W energy

pressure     
area A A.x V volume
Where ΔV is the unit volume, and the unit mass Δm =ρ ΔV

3
2/15/2013
Kinetic energy density

 Kinetic energy density is the kinetic energy per unit volume
 For a unit mass Δm of a fluid moving with average speed v, its
kinetic energy is given by
Δm =ρ ΔV
1 1
K .E  mv 2  V v 2
2 2
 kinetic energy density is written as
1
kinetic energy 2
 V v 2 1
K .E density    v2
volume V 2
Potential energy density

 Potential energy density is the potential energy per unit
volume
 for a certain mass of fluid at distance h above the ground; then
the potential energy density is
Δm =ρ ΔV
potential energy  mgh  Vgh

P.E density      gh
volume V V
4
2/15/2013
Compressibility and Incompressibility

 If the density of the fluid is constant (ρ =
constant) everywhere through the flow, it is
called incompressible and it is called
compressible if the density is not fixed.
Viscous and Nonviscous

 The viscosity is the frictional forces
originated inside the fluids and which is
considered as the resistance of flow.
 Nonviscous fluid when the frictional forces

are neglected.
Types of flow
•Consider that the fluid consists of laminar or layers, so we
can represent each layer by line called a streamline.
•Streamline describes the flow of the fluid and its direction
• the speed of flow is low

and the streamlines of
Laminar
flow flow are parallel
• the speed of flow is high

and the streamlines
Turbulent
flow intersect each other
10 Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org Turbulent flow
5
2/15/2013
Fluid Flow and the Continuity Equation

 Consider a hose with a decreasing diameter along its length, as shown
in the figure
 Continuity Equation is a direct consequence of the fact that what

goes into the hose must come out
Q in = Q out
 The volume of water flowing through the hose per unit time or the
flow rate (𝑄) at the left must be equal to the flow rate at the right, or
in fact anywhere along the hose.
V
Q  const.
t
 The flow rate is measured in the units of volume per unit time, 𝑚3/𝑠.
 The flow rate at any point in the hose is equal to the area of the hose at
that point times the speed with which the fluid is moving.
 Consider a fluid is flowing in a tube as shown in figure, where the radius
of the tube is decreasing, thus at a certain point at the tube the fluid
flow rate is
V Ax
Q   Av  const.
t t
A1v1  A2v2
 Take 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟2, so the continuity equation can be rewritten as
r12v1  r22v2
 This means that the speed of flow increases by decrease of the diameter
of the tube.
6
2/15/2013
Example 5.1
 A water pipe with radius of 1 cm leading up to a hose.
Water leaves the hose at a rate of 3 liter per minute.
(a) Find the velocity of water in the pipe.
(b) The hose has a radius of 0.5 cm. What is the velocity of
water in the hose?
Solution
 The velocity can be found by using the flow rate and the area of
the pipe or the hose. The flow rate is
 So the velocity is given by:
 The flow rate is constant, so
 And so the velocity in the hose v2 can be calculated as:
 The water flow faster in the narrower channel.
7
2/15/2013

for
Unit 5
Fluid Mechanics
Lecture 17
Bernoulli's Equation

behavior. Along
with the flow of
the fluids for
nonviscous and
viscous fluids.
•Turbulent Flow
1
2/15/2013
Bernoulli's Equation
 Bernoulli derived an important equation
to describe the flow of fluids. This
equation is stated that the work done on a
fluid as it flows from one place to
another is equal to the change in its
mechanical energy.
Daniel Bernoulli
This equation is applicable for incompressible Swiss physicist
fluids, nonviscous fluids (where no energy (1700–1782)
Daniel Bernoulli made
loss), laminar flow, and for steady state flow important discoveries in
(when the flow speed at any point is constant fluid dynamics. Born into a
with time). family of mathematicians,
he was the only member
of the family to make a
mark in physics.
2
2/15/2013
Derivation of Bernoulli's Equation

 To derive Bernoulli's equation, we consider the flow of a
fluid in a tube of cross sectional area A from section 1 to section
2 as shown in the figure.
Δx2
Δx1
y1 y2
The flow of a liquid from point 1 to point 2 via a pressure difference 𝐩𝟏−𝐩𝟐
 The pressure, speed of flow, and height of the fluid at cross

section 1 is denoted as 𝑝1, 𝑣1, 𝑦1 respectively.
 For the same at section 2, we have 𝑝2, 𝑣2, 𝑦2.
( 𝑝1- 𝑝2 ) A = Δp A
 If the fluid in the section moves a short distance Δ𝑥, so that the
work done on the fluid is given by
𝑊 = 𝐹. Δ𝑥 =(𝑝1- 𝑝2) A Δ𝑥
Since the product A Δx is the volume ΔV of the fluid leaving the
section, thus the equation above becomes:
𝑊 =(𝑝1- 𝑝2) Δ𝑉
3
2/15/2013
 the change in the kinetic energy of a volume ΔV of the

fluid flowing from section 1 to 2 is
1 1
Vv22  Vv12
2 2
 for the change in the potential energy, which is
Vgy2  Vgy1
 Since the energy has to be conserved, the work in equation
𝑊 =(𝑝1- 𝑝2) Δ𝑉
must equal the change in the kinetic energy and the change in the
potential energy, so that we can write:
1 1
( p1  p2 )V  Vv22  Vv12  Vgy 2  Vgy1
2 2
 By eliminating ΔV from both sides and rearrange the similar

terms in one side, we get:
1 1
p1  v12  gy1  p2  v22  gy2
2 2
 This can be generalized for any two points through the flow of
the fluid, so Bernoulli's equation can be written as
1
p v 2  gy  constant
2
Thus Bernoulli's equation can be stated as the pressure of the fluid

plus its mechanical energy density (kinetic energy density+ potential
energy density) is the same everywhere in the flow.
4
2/15/2013
Example 5.2
Water enters the basement through a pipe 2 cm in radius at an absolute
pressure of 3 atm. A hose with a 0.5 cm radius is used to water plants
10 m above the basement. Find the speed of water as it leaves the hose?
1atm
Solution
At Point 1 in the pipe at the basement, where
𝑝1= 3𝑎tm, 𝑦1=0𝑚, 𝑣1 = ?.
At point 2 is in the hose just at the moment the water leaving the
hose for planting the tree, where
𝑝2= 1atm, 𝑦2=10m, 𝑣2 = ?
By applying Bernoulli's equation, we have
1 1
p1  v12  gy1  p2  v22  gy2
2 2
Rearrange the equation, we get
1
p1  p2   (v22  v12 )  g ( y2  y1 )
2
We have two unknowns v1 and v2 , so we can reduce them to only one
unknown by using the continuity equation, where
5
2/15/2013
r22
v1  v2
r12
So and then we substitute in the
last equation to get:
Solve for 𝑣2 , we get

𝑣2 = 14.35 𝑚𝑠−1.
Example 5.3
Water is flowing from a hole of 1 cm radius at the bottom of a closed
cylindrical container of 2m diameter. If the height of the water in the
container is 2 m and the pressure over the surface of water is 3 atm,
calculate how much time it took until the container became empty?
Solution
The container is cylindrical in shape with radius R = 1 m, and the
height of water in it is H = 2m, so that we can calculate the amount of
water in the container
Δ𝑉 = 𝜋𝑅2 𝐻 =3.14× 12×2 =6.28 𝑚3
6
2/15/2013
 If we could calculate the flow rate Q = 𝜋𝑅 2𝑣̅ from the hole and
which is equal ΔV/Δt, we can compute the time needed to empty the
container, so we should calculate 𝑣̅ .
 To apply Bernoulli's equation we assume two points, one at the

surface of water with 𝑝𝑠= 3atm, ℎ𝑠= 2 𝑚, 𝑣𝑠=? and the other point
at the exit of the hole at the bottom of the container with 𝑝ℎ = 1atm,
ℎℎ = 0 𝑚, 𝑣ℎ =?. Writing Bernoulli's equation
1 1
ps  vs2  gy s  ph  vh2  gyh
2 2
Rearrange the equation, we get
1
ps  ph   (vh2  vs2 )  g ( yh  ys )
2
By comparing the radius of the container to the radius of the hole
so that the speed of water at the surface related with that at the hole
This indicates that 𝑣𝑠≪𝑣ℎ , which leads that 𝑣𝑠2 is much smaller than 𝑣ℎ2.
We can consider , and 𝑦ℎ − 𝑦𝑠=𝑦𝑠= 2𝑚.
Substitute in Bernoulli's equation, we get:
1
ps  ph   vh2   g ys
2
7
2/15/2013
 By solving for 𝑣ℎ, we get:
2 2x
365 365 19.1
 So the time required to empty the container
19.1
8
9/10/2012

for
Unit 5
Fluid Mechanics
Lecture 18
Applications of Bernoulli's Equation

www.physicsacademy.org Al-Azhar University - Gaza
behavior. Along
with the flow of
the fluids for
nonviscous and
viscous fluids.
•Turbulent Flow
1
9/10/2012
Applications of Bernoulli's equation

(1) Static Consequence
 In static consequence we have zero speed of flow, where the
fluid is settle in its container.
 In this situation the kinetic energy density term leads to zero,
and Bernoulli's equation becomes
𝑝+ 𝜌 𝑔𝑦 = constant
or
𝑝1 + 𝜌 𝑔𝑦1 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦2
This means that the sum of the pressure and the potential energy
density is constant everywhere inside a fluid in static.
 For example,
If we have a liquid in an open air
container as show in the figure and it
is required to measure the pressure at
a point at depth ℎ inside the
container.
Take two points: point 1 at the surface of the
liquid, where the pressure is the
atmospheric pressure and point 2 at depth
ℎ = (𝑦1 −𝑦2) inside the container, also
𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 0, and then by applying
Bernoulli's equation,
2
9/10/2012
 we have:
𝑝𝑎+ 𝜌𝑔𝑦1 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌 𝑔𝑦2
 so
𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑎 + 𝜌 𝑔 (𝑦1 −𝑦2) = 𝑝𝑎 + 𝜌 𝑔 ℎ
 So the pressure inside any container is equal the pressure at the
surface plus the potential energy density at that point.
Note:
The difference between the absolute pressure at any point and the
atmospheric pressure (𝑝 − 𝑝𝑎) is called the gauge pressure.
Example 5.4
What is the pressure on a swimmer 5 𝑚 below the surface
of a lake?
 Solution
Using the depth of the swimmer is ℎ = 5 𝑚𝑚,
the density for water is 𝜌 = 1000 𝑘g𝑚−3, and
the atmospheric pressure is 1.013×105 𝑃a.
So using equation 𝑝 = 𝑝𝑎 + 𝜌 𝑔 ℎ to calculate the pressure on the
swimmer to be:
𝑝 = 𝑝𝑎 + 𝜌 𝑔 ℎ = 1.013×105 + (1000) (10) 5 = 1.5×105 𝑃a
3
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(2) Manometer
 A manometer consists of a 𝑈 shaped tube of glass filled with some liquid.
 Typically the liquid is mercury because of its high density.
 With both ends of the tube open, the liquid is at the same height in each leg.
 When positive pressure is applied to one leg, the liquid is forced down in
that leg and up in the other.
A U shaped
tube called
Manometer is
used to
measure the
pressure of
unknown gases
 The difference in height, "ℎ," which is the sum of the readings above
and below zero, indicates the gauge pressure (𝑝 = 𝜌gℎ).
 When a vacuum (low pressure) is applied to one leg, the liquid rises in that leg
and falls in the other.
 The difference in height, "ℎ," which is the sum of the readings above and
below zero, indicates the amount of vacuum.
The manometer is a part of a device

called a sphygmomanometer
Typical sphygmomanometer used to measure

the blood pressure
4
9/10/2012

(3) Horizontal flow consequence
 When the flow of a fluid is horizontally. In this case, the
potential energy density term will vanish since all points on the
flow line have the same height, so that the dynamic energy term
will be considered and the equation will be given as:
1
p v 2  constant
2
 Or we can write for two points on the same plane of flow, as:
1 1
p1  v12  p2 v22
2 2
1 1
p1  v12  p2 v22
2 2
 This equation has many applications. The
simple one is by blowing air between two
half sheets of paper.
 We can apply Bernoulli's equation by taking two
points at the same plane. The first point is
outside the sheet, where the pressure and the
speed of flow are noted as 𝑝out, 𝑣out, and the
other point is between the sheets of paper, where
the pressure and the speed of flow are noted as
𝑝in, 𝑣in, so that we have
1 1
pout  vout
2
 pin vin2
2 2
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 Rearrange the equation leads to the following
 vin2  vout 
1
pout  pin  2
 When a person blows between the two sheets, so that the speed of
air flowing inside will be larger than that out side (𝑣in>𝑣out): this
means that the left hand side is positive and therefore 𝑝out>𝑝in. This
pressure difference results in the sheets moving closer toward one
another. Thus, the pressure drops when the velocity of the flow
increases for a fluid moving at a constant height.
 This pressure drop associated with increasing fluid velocities has

many everyday implications.
For example, concerning flight,

Bernoulli's Principle has to do
with the shape of an airplane's
wing as shown in the Figure. The
bottom is flat, while the top is
curved. Air travels across the top
and bottom at the same time, so
air travels slower on the bottom
(creating more pressure) and
faster on top (creating less
pressure).
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Bernoulli's principle can explain the clogging of arteries when the

blood flows through an artery section of smaller cross sectional
area. According to Bernoulli the pressure of blood within this
section will drop inside the arterial wall, and on the other hand the
pressure on the outside arterial wall will be larger than inside
causing the clogging of the blood vessel.
Example 5.5
The diameter of a horizontal blood vessel is reduced from 12
to 4 mm. What is the flow rate of blood in the vessel, if the
pressure at the wide part is 8 kPa and 4 kPa at the narrow
one. (Take the density of blood to be 1060 kgm-3.)
Solution
 By applying Bernoulli's equation for horizontal flow and by taking one
point in the wider section and the other at the narrower one, we get:
pwid  pnarr   vnarr 
1 2
 v wid
2
2
Using the continuity equation,
Then substitute and solve for 𝑣narr to get
 The flow rate is constant everywhere and can be calculated from the
relation
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(4)The Role of Gravity on blood circulation
 From Bernoulli's principle, the pressure of the fluid change
according to its kinetic energy density and as well as it potential
energy density.
 Because of that, the blood pressure in human organs is affected by
its location from earth.
 During the blood circulation, the venous system is used to return
the blood from the lower extremities to the heart. It is expected
to have a problem of lifting blood long distances to the heart
against the force of gravity.
 If we have a person in the reclining (laying down) position, the
measurement of blood pressure in the large arteries are almost the
same everywhere.
 The small drop in pressure between the heart and the feet or the
brain is due to the viscous forces. According to Bernoulli's
equation 1
p v 2  gy  constant
2
We can analyze the situation in the reclining position.
 The velocities in the three main arteries (Brain, heart, and feet)
are small, so that the term 1 v 2 can be ignored.
2
 Furthermore, in this position also the height of the brain, heart
and feet are almost equal, so that the term ρ g y can be ignored
from the formula.
 This results in equal blood pressure in the three parts
𝑝B = 𝑝H = 𝑝𝐹.
 Note that 𝑩,𝑯 and 𝑭 refer to the brain, heart and feet.
8
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 In the standing position, the situation is different, where only the

term 1 v 2can be ignored and the term 𝜌 𝑔h has a significant
2
effect.
 Hence the gauge pressures at the brain 𝑝𝐵, at the heart 𝑝𝐻 and at the foot
𝑝𝐹 are related by:
 Note that ℎ𝐹 = 0 in the standing position.
 Typical values for adults standing upward ℎ𝐻=1.3 𝑚 and ℎ𝐵 = 1.7 𝑚.

Typical value of the blood pressure at the heart is 𝑝𝐻 =13.3 kPa, and take
the blood density to be 1060 kgm−3, we find:
 In a similar way, we find that:
 This explains why the pressures in the lower and upper parts of
the body are very different when the person is standing, although
they are about equal in the reclining.
 The high blood pressure at the foot explain the possibility of lifting
blood uphill to the heart, and in addition the muscles surrounding
the veins contract and cause constriction.
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Example 5.6
 When a 1.7 𝑚 tall man stands, his brain is 0.5 𝑚 above his heart.
If he bends so that his brain is 0.4 m below his heart, by how much
does the blood pressure in his brain changes?
Solution
 We know that the blood pressure of the organ change by changing
its position from the earth. The blood pressure at the brain in the
standing case is given by:
 where
So
The blood pressure at the brain in the bending position is given by:
Where (hH – hB)bending = 0.4 m, this results in
So the blood pressure at the brain will increase by bending, so the

change in blood pressure is
Δ𝑝 =
10
9/10/2012

for
Unit 5
Fluid Mechanics
Lecture 19
Effect of acceleration on Blood pressure

behavior. Along
with the flow of
the fluids for
nonviscous and
viscous fluids.
•Turbulent Flow
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Effect of acceleration on Blood pressure

 It is a common symptom for some people having
hypotension )‫ (هبوط ضغط الدم‬to feel dizziness )‫(دوخة‬
when they exist in an elevator of upward
acceleration.
‫؟‬
Is the blood pressure at the organs affected
when man under upward or downward
acceleration?
When a person experiences an upward or downward acceleration,

his weight will be different.
Upward acceleration: If a man experience upward acceleration 𝐚, then
his effective weight becomes 𝐦 (𝐠+𝐚).
 Applying Bernoulli's equation to the foot, brain and heart with 𝐠

replaced by 𝐠+𝐚, so we have:
𝒑𝑩 = 𝒑𝑯 + 𝝆 (𝒈 + 𝒂)( 𝒉𝑯 − 𝒉𝑩)
 Or
𝒑𝑩 = 𝒑𝑯 – 𝝆 (𝒈 + 𝒂)( 𝒉𝑩 − 𝒉𝑯)
for standing person the term ( ℎ𝐵−ℎ𝐻) is positive and also the same for
(𝑔+𝑎),
the blood pressure at the brain will be reduced even farther by
increasing the upward acceleration 𝐚.
At certain value of 𝐚, the human will loose consciousness )‫(يفقد الوعي‬
because the collapse of the arteries in the brain when the blood
pressure at the brain equal zero.
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 Put 𝑝𝐵 = 0 in the above equation, we get:

0 = 𝑝𝐻 – 𝜌 (𝑔+𝑎)( ℎ𝐵−ℎ𝐻)
 This can results in
 Take ( ℎ𝐵−ℎ𝐻) = 0.4 𝑚, 𝒑𝑯 = 𝟏𝟑.𝟑 KPa, and 𝜌 = 1060 kgm-3, we get:
 So the value of the upward acceleration causing consciousness is 2.2 g
This factor should limit the speed with which a pilot can pull out of dive.
A related experience is the feeling of light headache that sometimes
occurs when one suddenly stands up.
 We can also show the change of the blood pressure at the foot by
the upward acceleration situation, by putting 𝑔+𝑎 instead of
𝑝𝐹 = 𝑝𝐻 + 𝜌 (𝑔 + 𝑎) ℎ𝐻
 This relation shows that the blood pressure at the foot will
increase by increasing the upward acceleration.
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Downward acceleration
 If a man in an erect position experience downward acceleration, then
his effective weight becomes 𝑚 (𝑔−𝑎).
 Applying Bernoulli's equation to the foot, brain and heart with g
replaced by 𝑔−𝑎, so we have:
𝒑𝑩 = 𝒑𝑯 + 𝝆 (𝒈 − 𝒂)( 𝒉𝑯 − 𝒉𝑩)
 Or
𝒑𝑩 = 𝒑𝑯 – 𝝆 (𝒈 − 𝒂)( 𝒉𝑩 − 𝒉𝑯)
Thus the blood pressure at the brain will increase even farther by
increasing the downward acceleration 𝐚, which opposite to what
occurs by the upward acceleration.
 This increase should be controlled and observed, where at

certain value of 𝐚 the blood pressure at the brain may cause an
explosion of the arteries in the brain, which is so dangerous.
 The same calculation for the blood pressure at the foot results in
a decrease of the blood pressure by increasing the downward
acceleration.
Example
A 1.8 m tall man stand in an elevator accelerating upward at
12 ms-2, what is the blood pressure in the brain and foot. Take the
height difference between the heart and the brain to be
0.35 m?
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Solution
 The elevator accelerating upward, so (𝑔+𝑎)= 10 +12 = 22 𝑚𝑠−2, so
substitute in the related formula to get
𝑝𝐵 = 𝑝𝐻 − 𝜌 (𝑔 + 𝑎)( ℎ𝐻−ℎ𝐵)
= 13300 −1060×22×0.35 = 5.14 Kpa
 The pressure at the brain decrease
𝑝𝐹 = 𝑝𝐻 + 𝜌 (𝑔 + 𝑎) ℎ𝐻
=13300+1060×10×1.45 =28.67 Kpa
 An increase of the blood pressure at the foot is observed.
5
9/10/2012

for
Unit 5
Fluid Mechanics
Lecture 20
Viscous Fluid Flow

behavior. Along
with the flow of
the fluids for
nonviscous and
viscous fluids.
•Turbulent Flow
1
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Viscous Fluid Flow

 The viscosity in fluids is originated from the frictional forces
between the fluids laminas and their container.
 The viscosity can be considered as the resistance of flow of fluids,
like current resistance.
 Viscosity in gases is originated from the successive collision
between the gas molecules, and the viscosity of the gas is a
temperature dependent. By increasing the gas temperature, an
increase of their kinetic energy and therefore the probability of
collisions will increase.
 Viscosity in liquids, decrease by increasing the temperature.
 Put a small amount of liquid between two plates of glass separated by

a distance Δ𝐲 as shown in the figure. The upper plate is free to
move and the lower plate is fixed. If the upper plate was forced
to move with a velocity, Δ𝐯, away horizontally, there will be a
resistance for this motion.
There will be a lamina or layer of the
liquid which moves with the upper
plate, and other lamina which is
stationary.
There is a gradient of velocity as you
move from the stationary plate to the
moving one and the liquid tends to
move in parallel layers, which is
Two parallel glass plates separated
called laminar flow.
by a thin layer of liquid
2
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 the force 𝐅 required to move the upper plate at constant average speed is
proportional directly
 proportional directly withthe speed gradient
 proportional directly the surface area of the
plate
 inversely proportional with the separation distance between the plates,
 which means that:
 The constant of proportion is called the viscosity coefficient, which is

represented by the symbol 𝛈
 The viscosity can be defines as the ratio between the shearing stress
(𝐅/𝐀) to the rate of shearing strain or the gradient of velocity.
 The dimension of the viscosity coefficient can be deduced as:
 The S.I. unit of the viscosity coefficient is Pascal second, where

kgm-1s-1=1 Pa.s.
 The Pascal second is rarely )‫ (نادرا ما تستخدم‬used, The common used

unit is called poise (P), where
3
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Typical values of viscosity coefficient for some fluids in units of Pa.s.
Laminar Flow in a Tube

 Consider a fluid moving through a tube of length 𝐋 and cross sectional
area, 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑅2.
 The pressure difference across the segment of the tube is
Δ𝑝 = 𝑝2− 𝑝1 as shown in the figure.
 Because of the viscosity inside the fluid, the layer of the fluid adjacent
to the cylindrical wall moves very slowly and the inward successive
layers move at increasing velocities.

A laminar flow in a tube for viscous liquid

4
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 The maximum velocity will be for the fluid at the central axis of the
tube, 𝒗max and the minimum velocity will be for the layer adjacent to the
wall, 𝒗min= 𝟎.
 So the average velocity, v , is half the maximum velocity at the center of
the tube is
1
v vmax
2
 From the continuity equation, the flow rate then
1
Q  Av  Avmax
2
 The pressure drop Δ𝑝 = 𝑝2− 𝑝1 along the tube of length 𝐿 is directly
proportional to the average velocity of flow and to the length 𝐿 of the
tube. Then the average velocity of flow and the flow rate of
the fluid are proportional to the pressure gradient, P L .
 Another factor affect the average velocity of flow is the radius of the
tube and the coefficient of viscosity of the moving fluid. In general we
can write such proportionalities as:
 Use the dimensional analysis method to find the values of the

unknown powers 𝐦 and 𝐧.
 So,
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 it is found 𝑛=−1 and 𝑚=2. Thus the formula for the average velocity
becomes:
 From the mathematical calculation, we have the same formula, where

the value of the constant is 𝟏/𝟖
 the average velocity and the flow rate of laminar flow of a fluid
through a tube is given by:
Poiseuille law
Poiseuille law
 It indicates that high viscosity leads to low flow rate and low
speed of flow, It also shows that the flow rate is proportional to the
4th power of 𝐑.
 This indicates that for blood vessel, any small change in the radius of
the vessel results in a considerable change of the flow rate.
 For example, if the radius of an artery is halved, so the flow rate

will be reduced to 4
1 1
  
 2  16
6
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Example
 What is the pressure drop in the blood as it passes through a capillary
5 𝑚𝑚 long and 3m in radius if the speed of the blood at the center
of the capillary is 0.6 ms-1. Take the viscosity of blood to be 2.08X10-3
Pa.s. If the radius of the capillary is reduced by 20 %, find the change
in the flow rate?
Solution
 The speed of blood at the center of the capillary is the maximum
speed of flow,
So that
We have 𝑅 = 3×10−6 𝑚, 𝐿=5×10−3 𝑚 and 𝜼 = 2.08X10-3 Pa.s,
Substitute to get
The flow rate is proportional R4, when R2 = 0.8 R1

So
Q2 = (0.8)4 Q1 = 0.407 Q1
7
9/10/2012

for
Unit 5
Fluid Mechanics
Lecture 21
Power dissipation & Flow Resistance &
Turbulent Flow
behavior. Along
with the flow of
the fluids for
nonviscous and
viscous fluids.
•Turbulent Flow
1
9/10/2012
Power dissipation
 The power dissipated during the flow of a fluid is the rate of energy
required to maintain the flow.
 the power is defined as the net force 𝐅 times the average speed,
𝕡 = 𝐹 𝑣̅.
 But the force on a segment is the pressure drop times the cross
sectional area,
𝐹 = Δ𝑝A
 Thus the power is given as:
𝕡= Δ𝒑 A 𝑣̅ = Δ𝒑Q
Where 𝑄 is the flow rate measured in 𝒎𝟑𝒔−𝟏 and Δ𝑝 = (𝑝2− 𝑝1) is the
pressure difference measured in 𝑁/𝑚2, so the unit of the power is
Example
Determine the power dissipated to maintain the flow of blood in the
capillary as described in the last example?
Solution
 From the data given in the last example, the power is given as:
2
9/10/2012
Flow Resistance
 The viscosity of fluids is defined as the flow resistance, which is
originated from the frictional forces inside the fluid.
 The flow resistance can be defined in general as the ratio of the
pressure drop through a segment and the flow rate.
(notice the analogy to electric resistance, the pressure difference like the potential
difference, and the flow rate like the electric current)
When the flow is Laminar, and from Poiseuille’s equation, we get:
The unit of ℛ𝑓 is, which is the unit of the viscosity

per volume
 We can define the flow resistance as the viscosity density.

 It is observed that the flow resistance is directly proportional with the
coefficient of viscosity, and inversely proportional with the 4th power
of the radius of the tube. This means that most of flow resistances and
pressure drops occur in smaller arteries and vascular beds of the body.
Example
Compare the flow resistance in a capillary of 5 𝛍m in radius and that in
an artery of 5 cm in radius?
3
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solution
Since the flow resistance is inversely proportional to the 4th power of
the radius, so that:
The flow resistance in small capillaries is much larger than that of the
arteries.
From the definition of the flow resistance, the power dissipation can be
expressed in terms of ℛ𝑓 as:
Example
 A large artery has an inner radius of 4 𝑚𝑚. Blood flows through the
artery at the rate of 1 cm3𝑠−1.
Find
a) The average and maximum speed of the blood in the artery
b) The pressure drop in a 10 cm long segment of the artery
c) The flow resistance of blood over the 10 cm segment
d) The power dissipated through the flow
Solution
The artery has a radius 𝑅 = 4×10−3 𝑚. The flow rate of blood is
𝑸 = 1×10−6m3/s
4
9/10/2012
a) the average velocity can be found from continuity equation as:
So the maximum speed, 𝑣 max = 2 𝑣̅ = 0.04 ms-1
b) For a segment of the artery 𝐿= 0.1 𝑚, and take viscosity coefficient of

blood to be
Using the equation
We can write
c) The flow resistance is given by:
d) The power dissipation through the flow is
5
9/10/2012
Turbulent Flow
 We learned that when flow speed becomes high the streamlines of the
flow start to intersect each other; and this flow is called turbulent
flow.
 In turbulent flow, the mechanical energy dissipated is much larger

than that in the laminar flow, so that it is often desirable to ensure that
the flow does not become turbulent.
 Poiseuille's law is applicable for laminar flow, so it is necessary to

determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. There is a
dimensionless quantity called Reynolds Number (𝐍𝐑) used to
distinguish the type of the flow.
 Consider a fluid of density 𝛒 and viscosity coefficient 𝛈 flows with an
average velocity 𝑣̅ through a tube of radius 𝐑, hence the Reynolds
number is defined by
It is found experimentally that if
6
9/10/2012
Example
The flow rate of blood in a blood vessel of 2 cm in diameter is 1 Liter per
minute, Determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, if the density
of blood is 1060 kgm-3 and the coefficient of viscosity of the blood is
2.1x10-3 Pa.s
Solution
The flow rate of the blood
so that
The Reynolds number
𝑵𝑹<2000, so the flow is laminar
Example
A small human capillary of 100 𝛍m radius has a length of 2 cm,
calculate
a) The blood flow resistance across this capillary

b) If the pressure drop across the capillary is 2.3 kPa, what is the flow rate
c) What is the maximum speed of blood through the capillary
d) The power dissipated across the capillary
e) Reynolds's number and then determine the type of flow.
7
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Solution
a) Take the viscosity of blood to be  = 2.1x10-3 Pa.s, the length of the
capillary L =2x10-2m and its radius R = 10-4m
b) If
c) The flow rate is defined as

so the maximum speed
d) The power dissipation is given as:
e) Reynolds's number
So, the flow is laminar
8
Chapter 5 Fluid Mechanics: Problems
1. Calculate the flow rate in an aorta with a cross sectional area of 2 cm2. if the flow
speed is 40 cm/s.
2. A needle of radius 0.3 mm and length 3 cm is used to give a patient a blood

transfusion. Assume the pressure differential across the needle is achieved by
elevating the blood 1 m above the patient´s arm. a) What is the rate of flow of
blood through the needle? b) At this rate of flow, how long it take to inject 500cm3
of blood into patient?
3. If an elevator accelerates upward at 10 ms-2, what is the average blood pressure in

the brain? What is the average blood pressure in the feet? If the elevator
accelerates downward with the same acceleration, what is the average blood
pressure in the brain and feet? *take g =10 ms-2.
4. The aorta in humans has a diameter of about 2 cm and at certain times, the blood
speed through it is about 55 cm /s. What is the type of flow. Find also the flow
resistance over 30 cm long segment and the power for dissipating the blood
through this segment.
5. A standing 1.8 m tall person in an elevator accelerates downward with 1.5 g. The
height difference between the brain and heart is 40 cm. Find the pressure at the
brain and foot if the pressure at the heart is 13.3 kPa. If this person is suddenly
bending so his brain is 30 cm below his heart, calculate the change of the pressure
at the brain.
6. An artery has an inner radius of 2 mm. If the flow is laminar and the average flow
velocity is 0.03 ms-1, What is the (a)maximum velocity (b) the flow rate, (c) and
the pressure drop in 0.05 m, if the artery is horizontal?
7. The pressure drop along a length of a horizontal artery is 100 Pa. The radius of the
artery is 10 cm, and the flow is laminar. (a) what is the net force on blood in this
portion of the artery? (b) If the average speed of blood is 0.015 ms-1, , find the
power expended in maintaining the flow?
8. The radius of an artery is increased by a factor of 1.5 (a) The pressure drop
remains the same, what happens to the flow rate? (b) If the flow rate stays the
same, what happens to the pressure drop? (Assume laminar flow).
9. A small artery has a length of 0.11 cm and a radius of 25 μm. (a) calculate its
resistance.(b) If the pressure drop across the artery is 1.3 kPa, what is the flow
rate?
‫ الكهربية‬:‫الوحدة السادسة‬
Electricity

9/10/2012

for
Unit 6
Bioelectricity
"Signals in the Body"
Lecture 22
RC circuit
Physics Academy Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek
Bioelectricity
 Bioelectricity refers to electrical potentials and currents
occurring within or produced by living organisms. It results from
the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy.
 Bioelectric potentials are generated by a number of different
biological processes, and are used by cells to govern metabolism,
to conduct impulses along nerve fibers, and to regulate muscular
contraction. In most organisms bioelectric potentials vary in
strength from one to several hundred millivolts.
The most important difference between bioelectric currents in
living organisms and the type of electric current used to produce
light, heat, or power is that a bioelectrical current is a flow of ions
(atoms or molecules carrying an electric charge), while standard
electricity is a movement of electrons.
1
9/10/2012
Electrostatics
 Electric Force
 Electric field
 Electrical Potential
 Electric Current
 Electric Resistance
 Electric Power
 Electromotive Force
 The Capacitor
RC circuit
 In circuits containing capacitors, the current may vary in time.
 A circuit containing a series combination of a resistor and a
capacitor is called an RC circuit.
2
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Charging a Capacitor
 Assume the capacitor in is initially uncharged.
 There is no current while switch S is open.
 If the switch is closed, charge begins to flow,
setting up a current in the circuit, and the
capacitor begins to charge.
 During charging, charges do not jump across
the capacitor plates because the gap between
the plates, until the capacitor is fully charged.
 As the plates become charged, the potential
difference across the capacitor is increased.
The value of the maximum charge depends
on the voltage of the battery.
 Once the maximum charge is reached, the current in the circuit is

zero because the potential difference across the capacitor matches
that supplied by the battery.
 During the charging process the battery voltage is divided between
the Capacitor C and the resistor R. The voltages across the resistor
and the Capacitor change with time, so we can write,
ℰ= 𝑉𝐶(𝑡) + 𝑉𝑅(𝑡)
 the voltages is time dependent, which can be rewritten as
q(t )
  I (t ) R
c
 Solving this equation for 𝑞 (𝑡),
q(t )  Q(1  et RC ) 𝑄=𝐶ℰ

 The current I is
dq  t RC
I  e
dt R
3
9/10/2012
q I (A)
Q Io
Q  C 
Io 
R
t t
(sec) (sec)
Plots of the charge Q and the current I as a function of time in the charging process
 Note that the quantity RC in the equation has a unit of time (sec).
Therefore it is called the time constant of the circuit.
 Unit of RC is Ohm . Farad=Sec
Coulomb Amp.Sec Volt .Sec
Ohm.Farad  Ohm.  Ohm.   Sec
Volt Volt Volt
Example
 An uncharged capacitor and a resistor are connected in series to
a battery. If ℰ=12.0volt,𝐶=5.0𝜇m, and 𝑅=0.8 𝑀Ω, find the
time constant of the circuit,
the maximum charge on the capacitor,
the maximum current in the circuit,
the charge and current as functions of time
4
9/10/2012
Solution
 The time constant
 The maximum charge
 The maximum charging current
 Charge and current as function of time
Example
 An uncharged capacitor and a resistor are connected in series to
a battery. If ℰ=12.0volt, 𝐶=3.0𝜇m, and 𝑅=1 𝑀Ω. Find how
long it will take before the capacitor receives 99% of its final
charge.
Solution
 The time constant is
 Now take the natural logarithm for both side and solve for t, we
will find
5
9/10/2012
Example
 A resistance 𝑅 and a capacitor are connected in series across a
200 Volt source. Across the capacitor is a neon lamp that strikes
(glows) at 120 volt. Calculate the value of R to make the lamp
glows after 3.0 seconds after the switch has been closed.
Solution
 This means that the voltage across the capacitor has to rise to
120 Volt is 5 seconds,
 Now solve for RC, we find
Discharging a Capacitor
 When the switch is open, a potential
difference Q/C exists across the capacitor
and there is zero potential difference across
the resistor because 𝐼=0𝐴.
 If the switch is closed at 𝑡=0 the capacitor
begins to discharge through the resistor.
 At some time t during the discharge, the
current in the circuit is I and the charge on
the capacitor is 𝑞.
 The loop equation for the circuit
q(t )
=0, no battery
0  I (t ) R
c
6
9/10/2012
 the current through the resistance R
q(t )  Qet RC
 The current I during the discharging process is
dq(t ) Q t RC Q t RC
I  e  Io e
dt RC RC
 𝐼0=𝑄/𝑅C is the initial current
 The negative sign indicates that discharging current direction is

opposite to that of charging.
I (A) q
t (sec)
Q
Q
Io 
Io RC
t (sec)
Plots of the charge Q and the current I as a function of

time in the discharging process
7
9/10/2012
 the voltage across a capacitor with time during discharging:

Vc (t )  Vo e t RC
 At 𝑡 = 𝑅C the potential difference across the capacitor equals
to V
Vc (t ) |t  RC  o
 0.37Vo
e
The Voltage across a discharging Capacitor with timeTime

Example
 Consider a capacitor of capacitance C that is being discharged
through a resistor of resistance R. After how many time
constants is the charge on the capacitor one-fourth its initial
value?
Solution
 We need to find the time required for the capacitor’s charge to
drop to its one fourth, that is
𝑞 (𝑡)=𝑄/4
Now solve for t in terms of 𝜏=𝑅C (the time constant),

𝑡=1.39 𝜏
8
9/10/2012
Example
 A 20𝜇F capacitor initially charged to potential difference of 500 Volt
is discharged through an unknown resistance. After 60 seconds, the
potential difference at the capacitor terminal is 185 volt. What is the
magnitude of the resistance?
Solution
 The voltage across the capacitor as a function of time is given by,
Vc (t )  Vo e t RC
 Since the ratio 185/500=0.37. This means the Voltage drops after a
time equals one time constant, that is 𝜏=60 𝑠
 Thus
Example
 A 0.1𝜇F capacitor initially charged to potential difference of
100 Volt is discharged through 1𝑀Ω resistance. Find the
following: Initial value of the discharged current; its value 0.1
second later; charge of the capacitor plates after 0.1 second.
Solution
 The initial discharge current, at 𝑡=0, is given by
 Check the RC circuit time constant
9
9/10/2012
 That means the current, charge, and voltage will drop to 0.37
of its initial value.
 The current after 0.1 sec is equal to
 The charge after 0.1 sec is also 0.37 of its initial value, that is
10
9/10/2012

for
Unit 6
Bioelectricity
Lecture 23

Electrostatics
 Electric Force
 Electric field
 Electrical Potential
 Electric Current
 Electric Resistance
 Electric Power
 Electromotive Force
 The Capacitor
1
9/10/2012
Bioelectricity
 Bioelectricity refers to electrical potentials and currents
occurring within or produced by living organisms. It results from
the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy.
 Bioelectric potentials are generated by a number of different
biological processes, and are used by cells to govern metabolism,
to conduct impulses along nerve fibers, and to regulate muscular
contraction. In most organisms bioelectric potentials vary in
strength from one to several hundred millivolts.
The most important difference between bioelectric currents in
living organisms and the type of electric current used to produce
light, heat, or power is that a bioelectrical current is a flow of ions
(atoms or molecules carrying an electric charge), while standard
electricity is a movement of electrons.
Nerve Conduction
 The human nervous system contains roughly 100 billion neurons,
connected in networks that transmit information from one location
in the body to another.
 The human nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal
cord, the central nervous system interprets sensory input, initiates
muscle contraction, and carries out all other cognitive tasks. The
nerves that communicate messages between the central nervous
system and the rest of the body compose the peripheral nervous
system.
 The neurons send information to one another via electrical
signals, we can treat them like classical electrical circuits.
In this topic we will review basic concepts in neurobiology
and then describe the circuit model.
2
9/10/2012
Neurobiology Review
Neurons can be divided into three main parts:
the soma, or cell body, which contains the
nucleus and other organelles, and two types of
fiber-like extensions called dendrites and axons.
Dendrites receive inputs from other cells and
conduct signals towards the cell body.
Axons conduct signals away from the cell body
towards their tips, where they are then passed
on to other neurons or to muscle cells.
A neuron may have many dendrites but usually
has only one axon, which can be as long as 1 m.
The junction between the axon of one neuron
and the dendrite or cell body of another is
called the synapse.
Dendrites: receive messages,
Axon: sends messages
Resting and Acting Potential

 Enclosed in the membrane of any cell is a jellylike substance that
contains both inorganic and organic matter.
 In the cell body, this substance is called cytoplasm, but in the axon it
is called axoplasm.
cytoplasm axoplasm
jellylike
substance
 For an inactive neuron, the axoplasm has an overall negative charge.

3
9/10/2012
 The resting potential is originated from the differences in

concentration of ions inside and outside the membrane.
 The resting potential depends also on the difference in permeability
of the cell wall to the different ions.
 Two types of positively-charged ions, potassium (K+) and sodium
(Na+), can cross the cell membrane through selective ion channels.
Normally there are more potassium ions inside the cell than outside,
whereas there are more sodium ions outside the cell than inside.
 Due to these ionic effects, the resting potential of the axoplasm is

about –90 mV relative to the extracellular fluid.
 Because the resting potential is negative, the electrical field is

directed from outside to inside.
 Therefore, the electric field drives additional ions through the

membrane into the cell.
 The migration of the ions cause a potential difference, 𝑉, leading to
the formation of a potential hill against the movement of extra ions
till equilibrium takes place.
 When the thermal energy of the ions equal the height of
the potential hill, then the potential difference across the
membrane is given by Nernst equation:
 Where kBT is the thermal energy, e is the electronic charge, Co and

Ci is the concentration of the ions outside and inside the axon
respectively.
4
9/10/2012
 For exampleT = 37°C = 310K, so
 Then equation can be written as:
 For a nerve cell, the intercellular has K+ concentration, Ci = 0.141

mol/liter, whereas the extracellular fluid has a K+ concentration,
Co = 0.005 mol/liter, which give the Nernst potential to be:
 In practice, the actual resting potential measured by the

electrophysiological units is about -85 mV.
 Excitable cells have special Na and K channels with gates that open and
close in response to the membrane voltage (voltage-gated channels).
 Between Schwann cells are small regions of exposed axon called nodes
of Ranvier.
 These nodes contain the voltage-gated ion channels that allow action
potentials to propagate down the axon, so that the signal jumps from
node to node as shown in the figure
5
9/10/2012
Structure of a neuron with myelinated axon and unmyelinated axon
 When a nerve cell receives a stimulating action such as electric signal, thermal
mechanical or chemical, its membrane suddenly become permeable to
the Na+.
 This will permit the Na+ to diffuse through the cell membrane to the interior
and combine with the Cl-. Thus membrane potential will depolarize (becomes
more positive) producing spike as shown in the figure. The rate of flow through
the cellular membrane increases rapidly to 100 times that of K+ after short
time ~ 2ms.
The depolarization
and repolarization
process resulted
from external
stimulation of the
nerve
6
9/10/2012
 During this period the interior potential changes from – 90 mV to

35 mV.
 After this period, the sodium gate is closed, where the membrane
become impermeable to sodium ions and in the same time K+ gate is
opened diffusing it out of the cell.
 This makes the membrane repolarized (becomes more negative) till
it returns to its normal state.
 This change of the cell potential is called the action potential.
Electrical Properties of Neurons

 Axon acts as cables that transmit bioelectric impulses from one nerve cell
to another cells or the central nervous system.
 A nerve fiber consists of a thin hollow tube containing positive and
negative ions.
 The fiber is immersed in an extracellular fluid which contains the same
ionic composition.
Axon as an insulated wire

7
9/10/2012
 The wall of the axon tube is semi-permeable membrane which,

although a dielectric, allows ions to migrate into and out of the fiber.
 Examination of the axons of various neurons with an electron

microscopy indicates that there are two different types of nerve
fibers.
 The membrane of some axons are covered with a fatty
insulating layer called myelin )‫ (النخاع‬and they are called
myelinated axons (MA).
 The membrane of other axons has no myelin sheath and they

are called unmyelinated axons (UA).
Resistance
 In the neuron, there are two substances that exhibit
electrical resistance:
 the axoplasm
 the cell membrane plus myelin sheath, if present.
8
9/10/2012
Axoplasm Resistance
 The electrical resistance R along the length of the axon
follows the same principles as a wire:
 For both myelinated and unmyelinated neurons, the resistivity ρa of

the axoplasm is 2.0 Ω.m.
 If the average neuron has an axon 1 mm long and a 5m radius, we

can find that the resistance of the axoplasm Raxoplasm = 2.5x107 Ω.
This huge value indicates that axons are actually poor electrical
conductors.
Cell Membrane Resistance

 The cell membrane is also permeable to charge; its resistance is not
infinite, even when myelinated. the resistance through the membrane
(Rm) depends on the surface area of the axonal membrane 2πrl:
Where 𝜌𝑚 is the membrane resistivity measured in Ω.𝑚2.

 For an unmyelinated axon (UA), 𝜌𝑚UA= 0.2 Ω.𝑚2. So, again for an
average axon 1 mm long with radius 5 𝜇m, so 𝑅= 6.4x106 𝛺.
 For Myelinated axons (MA) have a much higher resistivity,
𝜌𝑚MA= 40 Ω.𝑚2, so 𝑅= 1.3x107 𝛺.
The membrane resistance 𝑅𝑚 represents the resistance of the leakage
current.
9
9/10/2012
 There is an operator called the space parameter 𝜆, which represent

how can the impulse signal travel along the axon before the leakage is
complete.
 This occurs when the axon resistance 𝑅 is equal to the membrane
resistance 𝑅. So that at 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑚, then put 𝑙 = 𝜆 , which gives us:
 So we can solve for 𝜆, which gives us
The space parameter ranges from 0.05 to 0.7 cm for unmyelinated to

myelinated axons
Example
A myelinated axon has a space parameter of 1cm, find its radius?
𝜌mMA= 40 Ω.𝑚2 and 𝜌𝑎= 2 Ω.𝑚.
Solution
From equation,
we can write r in terms of the space parameter as:
10
9/10/2012

for
Unit 6
Bioelectricity
Lecture 24

Capacitance
 The capacitor is an electrical device that stores electric charge.
 It consists of two conductors side by side, separated by some insulating
substance called the dielectric.
 The Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor is given by
o A A
C 
d d
where   o
The larger the surface area between the plates the more charge can be
stored. Furthermore, the smaller plate separation the greater the
attraction between the charges, which also increases the capacity for
charge storage.
1
9/10/2012
 For a lipid bilayer, 𝜀 = 5x10−11 𝐹/𝑚 and 𝑑= 50 Ǻ = 5x10−9 𝑚𝑚.

Thus, the capacitance per unit area for an unmyelinated axon of 5 nm
thickness is:
2
 For myelinated axons, the myelin sheath contains a membrane that

wraps around the axon a couple of hundred times. This multilayer
arrangement effectively increases the thickness of the lipid bilayer by a
factor of 200 (1 m total thickness),
so capacitance per unit area for a myelinated axon is:
Neuron’s Equivalent Circuit

 The electrical properties of neurons are summarized by the diagram,
The physical model shows wires, two resistors, and a capacitor

that approximate the physical flow of charge through real axons
2
9/10/2012
Useful Constants
Unmyelinated axons Myelinated axons

(UA) (MA)
Axoplasm resistivity ρaxoplasm = 2.0 Ω.m ρaxoplasm = 2.0 Ω.m

Wall resistivity ρUA = 0.20 Ω.m2 ρMA = 40.0 Ω.m2
Wall capacitance/area C/A = 10-2 F/m2 C/A = 5x10-5 F/m2
Impulse Propagation
 Neurons are connected so that action potentials travel between them
in only one direction.
 The impulse propagation through the nerve cells can be modeled as an
array of resistors and capacitors.
Physical model of neural connections
3
9/10/2012
Propagation Speed
 For simplicity, we will at first ignore the wall resistance. For one
circuit unit (i.e. one neuron), the voltage changes over time according
to the equation

V (t )  Vo 1  e
t RaxoplasmC
 where 𝑉0 is the resting potential
Voltage 𝑽 of a single neuron as a function of time
 The charging time is  = RaxoplasmC.

 When we add another unit, the first unit charges up before the second
unit begins to charge. With every additional unit, there is an additional
delay of  = RaxoplasmC
The circuit with two neurons charges twice as slow as the circuit with one
4
9/10/2012
 Since a unit must charge completely before it can discharge to the next
unit, there is a time delay equal to 𝜏 in the propagation of the
electrical signal between two units.
 If the length of each unit is x, then the speed of propagation is given
by.
 Substituting the expressions for the resistance of the axoplasm as
 Substituting the capacitance/area of the membrane C=Cm2πrx into

the expression for the velocity we obtain
 The wider the axon, the faster the axonal speed of propagation.
 For myelinated neurons, the myelin sheath covers the axon in 1 mm
long sections. Thus, within each myelinated section, one would predict
that the speed of propagation is faster.
 For unmyelinated neurons,
𝑣=5×10−6𝑚/(2×2.0Ω𝑚×5×10−5𝐹/𝑚2×1×10−3𝑚) ≈20𝑚/𝑠ec
the speed of propagation is 200 times slower
While most neurons share the same basic structure, they vary
greatly in length and speed of signal propagation.
In the brain where axons are 0.01 mm, signals travel 0.5-2.0 m/s.
In the limbs axons can be up to to 1.0 m in length and carry signals at
100 m/s.
5
9/10/2012
The resistance of the cell membrane

 Recall that our calculations do not take into account the resistance of
the cell membrane and myelin sheath. Including it leads to leakage of
the electrical signal through the wall, called signal attenuation.
The voltage is much lower if we consider the wall resistance
 the voltage decreases geometrically with the number of units traveled
V  Vo e  x / 
where x is the distance traveled down the circuit.
 The value of 𝜆 is 0.05 cm for unmyelinated neurons and 0.7 cm for
myelinated neurons.
 Myelinated nerve fibers carry nerve impulses farther
6
9/10/2012
Example
 A myelinated nerve of 10 m thick with a space parameter of 0.5 cm.
Calculate the speed of the pulse propagation along 1 mm. Find the
dielectric constant of the membrane material?
Solution
where for myelinated axon 𝜌a=2Ω.𝑚, 𝜌m =40 Ω.𝑚2 and

Cm= 5×10−5 𝐹/𝑚2.

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‫جامعة األزهر – غزة‬

‫كلية العلوم – قسم الفيزياء‬

‫‪Medical Physics Lecture‬‬

‫‪Physics and Measurements‬‬ ‫الوحدة األوىل‪ :‬علم الفيزياء والقياس‬

‫ت لىل ة ع مكو اء ن ءي اء قم لل ةو اف هء للعقم للذي هيعم باناابع و اي حأأللي دا بأأأأأ "ئاذل"‬

‫أهمية علم الفيزياء‬

‫الشكوى من صعوبة دراسة الفيزياء‬

‫سبل االسفادة ن ذ ه املحدرضات يف حل املسدئل والفامري‬

‫د‪ /.‬حازم فالح سكيك‬

‫‪ ‬رئيس قسم الفيزياء بجامعة االزهر ‪ -‬غزة في الفترة ‪3991-3991‬‬

‫لمزيد من المعلومات يرجى زيارة‬

Dr. Hazem Falah Sakeek | www.hazemsakeek.net | 2014

Selected Topics in Physics

Physics Academy Dr. Hazem Falah Sakeek

Units, Dimensions, and Vectors

 Most technology of today (cell phones, DVD player, etc)

Physics and Measurements

‫الزمن‬ ‫الطول‬ ‫الكتلة‬

Basic units in the SI

Definition of Basic Quantities

Power of ten prefixes

Power of ten prefixes

 0.003 s = 3  0.001 s 10x Prefix Symbol

Role of “UNITS” in problem solving

 Need to know conversion.

Express a speed of 50 kilometers per hour as meters per second.

[Speed] = L/T = LT-1

where [Speed] is meant to indicate the unit of speed, and M, L, and

 Multiply and divide units just like numbers

 Derived quantities: area, speed, volume, density ……

 Speed = Length / time unit for speed = m/s

 In 2008 Olympic Game, Usain Bolt sets world record at 9.69 s in

 The dimensional analysis is used to check the formula,

Therefore, the expression is dimensionally correct

 The Right hand side

Therefore. n =-1 and the acceleration a is

The position of a particle moving under uniform

Selected Topics in Physics

Physics Academy Dr. Hazem Falah Sakeek

Units, Dimensions, and Vectors

2 Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org

 Sine, Cosine, Tangent

 Scalars: One that can be described by a single number

 Vectors: A quantity that deals with magnitude and

 Textbooks use either A or A

Vector and Scalar Quantities

Vector Quantity Scalar Quantity

5 Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org

(1) The rectangular coordinates

6 Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org

The x- and y-coordinates may be either

We can call this x-component,

Likewise, we can call this

8 Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org

(2) The polar coordinates

9 Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org

The relation between coordinates

The relation between the

10 Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org

It is common practice to measure the angle from the positive x-axis

11 Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org

Of course, angle θ does not need to be limited to the first

x = r cos θ = (10)(cos 150o) = (10)(-0.866)= -8.66