Unit II Polynomials

Unit II: Polynomials

Introduction

In this unit, we will discuss an important type of algebraic expression called a

polynomial. Polynomials are extremely useful because they are so simple. The
variables are only added, subtracted, and multiplied. A variable is a letter used to
represent an arbitrary element of a set, while a constant is a letter used to
represent a specific element of a set.

Learning Objectives

At the end of this unit, the students will be able to

1. Perform operations on polynomials.

2. Obtain multiplication techniques on polynomials by us of special
products.
3. Learn factoring techniques.

2.1 Fundamental Operations on Polynomials

Discussion

An algebraic expression is the result of applying the four fundamental

operations to variables and constants; taking roots is also allowed. For instance,
these are algebraic expressions

2𝑥 𝑥 3
+ 𝑥 7 𝑦 9 𝑧 −4 4𝑥 3 + 31𝑥 2 − 8.3𝑥 − 12
𝑥+𝑦 3 𝑥

The last one above is different from the others because it is a polynomial.

A polynomial of degree 𝑛 in 𝑥 is an expression in the form

𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + . . . +𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

where each 𝑎𝑘 is a real number, 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, and 𝑛 is a non-negative
integer.

Each of the expressions 𝑎𝑘 𝑥 𝑘 is called a term of the polynomial. Any letter other
than 𝑥 may also be used for the variable, but the most commonly used ones are
𝑦, 𝑧 and others near the end of the alphabet. If a polynomial has one term, it is
called a monomial, two terms a binomial, and three terms a trinomial.

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Example 2.1.1: Classifying a Polynomial

Classify each polynomial below and give its degree.

1. 43𝑥 8 − 18𝑥 3 + 2𝑥
2. 𝑥 4 + 765
3. 17𝑦 2
4. 75
5. 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 13𝑥 − 88

Answers:

1. Trinomial, Degree 8
2. Binomial, Degree 4
3. Monomial, Degree 2
4. Monomial, Degree 0
5. Polynomial, Degree 3

Polynomials may also have more than one variable. For instance, 5𝑥 2 + 8𝑥𝑦 −
𝑦 2 is a polynomial in the two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 since it is a finite sum of
monomials 𝑎𝑥 𝑚 𝑦 𝑛 , where 𝑎 is some real number and 𝑚 and 𝑛 are non-negative
integers. The number 𝑎 is called the numerical coefficient, or just the
coefficient.

Example 2.1.2: Coefficients

For each polynomial, give the number of variables, its type and its
coefficients.

1. 𝑥 3 + 64𝑦 3
2. 3𝑥 2 − 10𝑥𝑦 − 8𝑦 2
3. 77𝑠 3 𝑡 9 𝑢
𝑥2
4. 3𝑦 3 +
𝑦

Solution:

1. 2, Binomial, 1 and 64
2. 2, Trinomial, 3, −10, −8
3. 3, Monomial, 77
4. Not a polynomial

If a term has more than one variable, the degree of the term is the sum of the
exponents of the variables in the term. For instance, 9𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 2 has a degree 2 +
3 + 2 = 7. If a polynomial has more than one variable, the degree of the
polynomial is the highest degree of any non-zero term in the polynomial. Thus

3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 5𝑥 3 𝑦 4 − 𝑥𝑦 5 has degree 7.

Two monomials or terms are called similar terms or like terms if they differ at
most in their numerical coefficients.

Because the variables in a polynomial represent real numbers, we may use the
commutative, associative, and distributive laws when working with polynomials.
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The distributive law enables us to express the sum of two or more similar
monomials as a single monomial.

Example 2.1.3: Combining Similar Terms

Combine similar terms on the expression.

1. 3𝑎𝑏 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 4𝑎𝑏

2. 7𝑥 2 𝑦 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 2 + 8𝑥𝑦 2
3. 2𝑎 − 3𝑎 + 6𝑏 + 4𝑏 − 7𝑐 + 9𝑐

Solution:

1. 3𝑎𝑏 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 4𝑎𝑏 = (3 + 2 + 4)𝑎𝑏 = 9𝑎𝑏

2. Note that 7𝑥 2 𝑦 is similar to 3𝑥 2 𝑦, but not to the other two terms.

7𝑥 2 𝑦 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 2 + 8𝑥𝑦 2 = (7 − 3)𝑥 2 𝑦 + (−2 + 8)𝑥𝑦 2

= 4𝑥 2 𝑦 + 6𝑥𝑦 2

3. 2𝑎 − 3𝑎 + 6𝑏 + 4𝑏 − 7𝑐 + 9𝑐
= (2 − 3)𝑎 + (6 + 4)𝑏 + (−7 + 9)𝑐
= −𝑎 + 10𝑏 + 2𝑐

Frequently, we need to add or subtract two or more polynomials which have

terms that are not similar. Such polynomials can be added or subtracted , but only
the similar terms can be combined.

Example 2.1.4: Adding Polynomials

Add the polynomials

3𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 7𝑧 2 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑧 3 and 4𝑦 2 − 2𝑧 2 − 2𝑥𝑦

Solution:

An aid to adding such polynomials is to line up similar terms as done

below.

3𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 7𝑧 2
2𝑥 2 + 4𝑧 3
2 2
4𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑧
5𝑥 2 + 8𝑦 2 − 5𝑥𝑦 + 5𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 3

Example 2.1.5: Subtracting Polynomials

Subtract 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 9𝑧 from 5𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 6𝑧.

Solution:

We may solve this by beginning with the two polynomials on one line
and then removing the parentheses from the second one. Be sure to
change the sign of each term in the second polynomial after removing the
parentheses.
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5𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 6𝑧 − (3𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 9𝑧) = 5𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 6𝑧 − 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 9𝑧
= 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 3𝑧

Products of Monomials and Polynomials

The properties of real numbers, including the laws of signs and the laws of
exponents, can be used to find the product of two or more monomials, of a
monomial and a polynomial, and of two polynomials.

Example 2.1.6: Multiplying Polynomials

Find the product of the following.

1. 3𝑥 2 𝑦 ∙ 4𝑥𝑦 2 ∙ 6𝑥 3 𝑦 4
2. (3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦 2 − 8𝑦 3 )(−5𝑥 3 𝑦 2 )
3. (3𝑥 − 2𝑦)(2𝑥 − 5𝑦)
4. (3𝑥 + 2)(7𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 4)
5. (−5𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 )(3𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 3 )

Solution:

1. 3𝑥 2 𝑦 ∙ 4𝑥𝑦 2 ∙ 6𝑥 3 𝑦 4
= 3 ∙ 4 ∙ 6 ∙ 𝑥2 ∙ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥3 ∙ 𝑦 ∙ 𝑦2 ∙ 𝑦4
= 72𝑥 2+1+3 𝑦1+2+4
= 72𝑥 6 𝑦 7

2. (3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦 2 − 8𝑦 3 )(−5𝑥 3 𝑦 2 )

= (3𝑥 2 𝑦)(−5𝑥 3 𝑦 2 ) − 6𝑥𝑦 2 (−5𝑥 3 𝑦 2 ) − 8𝑦 3 (−5𝑥 3 𝑦 2 )
= −15𝑥 5 𝑦 3 + 30𝑥 4 𝑦 4 + 40𝑥 3 𝑦 5

3. (3𝑥 − 2𝑦)(2𝑥 − 5𝑦)

= 3𝑥(2𝑥 − 5𝑦) − 2𝑦(2𝑥 − 5𝑦)
= 6𝑥 2 − 15𝑥𝑦 − 4𝑥𝑦 + 10𝑦 2
= 6𝑥 2 − 19𝑥𝑦 + 10𝑦 2

4. (3𝑥 + 2)(7𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 4)
= 3𝑥(7𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 4) + 2(7𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 4)
= 21𝑥 3 + 15𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 14𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 8
= 21𝑥 3 + 29𝑥 2 + 22𝑥 + 8

5. (−5𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 )(3𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 3 )

= −5𝑥 2 (3𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 3 ) + 2𝑥𝑦(3𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 2
− 4𝑦 3 ) + 3𝑦 2 (3𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 3 )
= −15𝑥 + 30𝑥 4 𝑦 − 10𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 20𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + 6𝑥 4 𝑦 − 12𝑥 3 𝑦 2
5

+ 4𝑥 2 𝑦 3 − 8𝑥𝑦 4 + 9𝑥 3 𝑦 2 − 18𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + 6𝑥𝑦 4

− 12𝑦 5
= −15𝑥 + 30𝑥 4 𝑦 + 6𝑥 4 𝑦 − 10𝑥 3 𝑦 2 − 12𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 9𝑥 3 𝑦 2
5

+ 20𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + 4𝑥 2 𝑦 3 − 18𝑥 2 𝑦 3 − 8𝑥𝑦 4 + 6𝑥𝑦 4

− 12𝑦 5
= −15𝑥 + 36𝑥 4 𝑦 − 13𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 2 𝑦 3 − 2𝑥𝑦 4 − 12𝑦 5
5

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The Division Algorithm of Polynomials

An algorithm is a simple step by step procedure. The division algorithm shows

how to systematically use multiplication and addition of polynomials to divide
one polynomial by another one.

Suppose that 𝑃 and 𝐷 are polynomials with the degree of 𝑃 larger than the degree
of 𝐷 and 𝐷 ≠ 0. Then there are polynomials 𝑄, the quotient 𝑅, the remainder
with
𝑃 𝑅
𝑃 = 𝐷 ∙ 𝑄 + 𝑅 or 𝐷 = 𝑄 + 𝐷

Here are the steps for finding the quotient 𝑄 and remainder 𝑅. The process is
sometimes called long division.

Polynomial Division

1. Arrange the terms in 𝑃 and 𝐷 in descending powers of the variable. If a

coefficient of 𝑃 is 0, leave a space or insert the 0.
2. Divide the first term in 𝑃 by the first term in 𝐷 to get the first term in
the quotient 𝑄.
3. Multiply 𝐷 by the first term in the quotient and subtract the product
from 𝑃 and then repeats steps 2 and 3.
4. Continue this process until a remainder is obtained that has a lower
degree than 𝐷.

Example 2.1.7: Division of Polynomials

Find the quotient and remainder if 6𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 1 is divided by 2𝑥 − 1.

Solution:

3𝑥 + 4
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
2𝑥 − 1)6𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 1

−(6𝑥 2 − 3𝑥)
8𝑥 − 1
−(8𝑥 − 4)
3
This gives 𝑄 = 3𝑥 + 4 and 𝑅 = 3. The result may be written as either as

6𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 1 = (2𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 + 4) + 3

or as

6𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 1 3
= 3𝑥 + 4 +
2𝑥 − 1 2𝑥 − 1

Example 2.1.8: Division of Polynomials

Divide 𝑃 = 6𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 − 3 + 8𝑥 − 𝑥 3 by 𝐷 = −2 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥.

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Solution:

We arrange the terms in both polynomials in descending powers of 𝑥 and

proceed as indicated below. The terms of the quotient are obtained by
dividing 2𝑥 2 into 6𝑥 4 , then into −4𝑥 3, and finally into 2𝑥 2 .

3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2)6𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 3
−(6𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 )
−4𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 + 8𝑥
−(−4𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥)
2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3
−(2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2)
3𝑥 − 1

The quotient is 𝑄 = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 and the remainder is 𝑅 = 3𝑥 − 1, and

again we have 𝑃 = 𝐷 ∙ 𝑄 + 𝑅, which may be written as

6𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 3 = (2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2)(3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) + 3𝑥 − 1

or as

6𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 3 3𝑥 − 1
2
= 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 2
2𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2 2𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2

Example 2.1.9: Division of Polynomials

Divide 16𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 19 by 4𝑥 + 5.

Solution:

Since the term involving 𝑥 is missing, we may either leave a blank space
for that term ir write in the term with a zero coefficient. We choose to do
the latter since it forces us to remember all the terms and use them in the
division. The terms of the quotient are obtained by dividing 4𝑥 into
16𝑥 3 , then into −16𝑥 2 , and finally into 20𝑥.

4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5
4𝑥 + 5)16𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 + 19
−(16𝑥 3 + 20𝑥 2 )
−16𝑥 2 + 0𝑥
−(−16𝑥 2 − 20𝑥)
20𝑥 + 19
−(20𝑥 + 25)
−6

Therefore,

16𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 19 = (4𝑥 + 5)(4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5) − 6

or

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16𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 19 6
= 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5 −
4𝑥 + 5 4𝑥 + 5

When the divisor 𝐷 has the form 𝑥 − 𝑟 for a real number 𝑟, the long
division process may be shortened significantly by using synthetic
division.

Check Your Understanding

Add the three expressions.

1. 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4𝑧 ; 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 3𝑧 ; −4𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 7𝑧
2. 6𝑝𝑑 − 7𝑑𝑞 + 3𝑝𝑞 ; 4𝑝𝑑 + 8𝑑𝑞 + 7𝑝𝑞 ; −9𝑝𝑑 − 𝑑𝑞 − 9𝑝𝑞
3. 9𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 3𝑧 ; 6𝑥 + 7𝑦 + 4𝑧 ; −11𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5𝑧
4. 4𝑎𝑥 − 5𝑎2 𝑥 − 8𝑎𝑥 2 ; 3𝑎𝑥 + 7𝑎2 𝑥 + 6𝑎𝑥 2 ; −6𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + 3𝑎𝑥 2

Subtract the second number from the first

5. 2𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐 ; 3𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 4𝑐
6. 3𝑎2 + 14𝑏 2 − 5𝑐 2 ; 2𝑎2 + 13𝑏 2 − 6𝑐 2

7. Subtract 2𝑎 + 3𝑏 − 2𝑐 from the sum of 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 and 4𝑎 − 2𝑏 − 3𝑐.

8. Subtract the sum of 5𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3𝑎 and −2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 4𝑎 from 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 −
8𝑎

Find the indicated products.

9. (2𝑥 2 𝑦 3 )(−3𝑥𝑦 2 )
10. 2𝑥 2 𝑦(3𝑥𝑦 3 − 5𝑥 2 𝑦 4 )
11. 7𝑥 2 𝑦 4 (3𝑥 3 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 5 𝑦 3 )
12. (3𝑥 + 2𝑦)(2𝑥 − 3𝑦)
13. (2𝑥 − 7)(7𝑥 + 2)
14. (3𝑥 + 5)(2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 5)
15. (4𝑥 + 1)(3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 1)
16. (4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 7)(2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2)
17. (2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 2 )(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 2 )
18. (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 2 )(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 )

Remove the symbols of grouping in each and then combine similar terms.

19. 2𝑎 + [3𝑎 − 2(𝑎 − 2𝑏) − 3𝑎]

20. 2𝑎{𝑎2 − 𝑎[2𝑎 − 3(𝑎 + 2) + 1] − 𝑎2 }
21. 2𝑥 + 2{𝑦 − [4𝑥 − (𝑧 + 2𝑦)] + 𝑧} − 2𝑦

Find the quotient and remainder if the first expression is divided by the first.

22. 6𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 ; 2𝑥 + 3
23. 4𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 3 ; 2𝑥 − 1
24. 2𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 − 7 ; 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1
25. 6𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 9 ; 3𝑥 + 2
26. 𝑥 7 − 𝑥 6 + 𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 ; 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1
27. 𝑥 7 + 3𝑥 6 − 2𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 4 ; 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1

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Reference

REES. P. et.al. (1990). College Algebra. (10th Edition). McGraw-Hill Publishing

Company

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