LOGIC & CRITICAL THINKING   CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
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​I. ​Logical Form
A. Rules of Logical Form
II. Compound Categorical Proposition
A. Openly Compound Proposition
B. Occultly Compound Proposition
III. Reduction to Logical Form
I. LOGICAL FORM   ○ “did not” is not the copula.
● Logical Form
○ refers to the proper structure of the three elements of categorical
or absolute proposition namely, the ​subject-copula-predicate
○ an important part of the preparations towards understanding
immediate inference.
RULES OF LOGICAL FORM  (C):​ ​No one is above the law.
1. Create the proper structure based on the given proposition by
putting first the logical subject, next the copula, and the last is the
predicate. Even in English grammar, this presentation is
expected.
2. The meaning of the original proposition should be maintained
upon arranging the proposition into logical form.
3. The quality of the original proposition should be maintained but
not necessarily the quantity.
4. Word/s can be added to make the arrangement grammatically
correct, and therefore accepted.
5. There are many ways of making propositions into logical
structure. This is so because of the combinations of the different
quantities of the subject: universal, particular and singular and the
quality of the proposition: positive and negative. This is also
possible because of the presence of other terms that could be
used to replace other words as long as the meaning remains the
same
6. Remember that the copulas used in logic are all in the present
tense. The affirmative copulas are as follows: am, is, and are. The
negative copulas are: am not, is not, are not. These copulas,
though all in the present tense, should be used even if the verb of
the proposition is in the past or future tense.
EXAMPLES
(A): ​A philosopher speaks reasonably
● To: A philosopher is speaking reasonably.
○ It means that a “philosopher” is speaking at the present moment.
Thus there is a change of the verb to a progressive present
tense.
● Or: A philosopher is a reasonable speaker.
○ This is habitual action he may not be actually speaking now. The
verb “speaks” became a noun “speaker”.
● Or: A philosopher is a person who speaks reasonably.
○ In this structure, there is a change of the verb into relative
clauses. The addition of the term word “person: manifests
flexibility in logical form.
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● Any proposition, which is not logically arranged, could be
re-structured in many ways. Let us not forget that in reducing them
to logical form, the subject-copula-predicate arrangement should be
followed. The meaning and quality of the original position must be
maintained.
(B):​ ​Mr. Jun Vargas did not attend the meeting.
● To: Mr. Jun Vargas is not (the) one who attended the meeting.
○ The logical subject is “Mr. Jun Vargas”
○ Because the given proposition is negative, the negative copula is
expected to be used “is not”. Since the original proposition is in
the past tense, it should be reflected in the logical structure;
otherwise the meaning of the proposition will be different. The
words “the one who” are added to the grammatical.
● To: Everyone is not above the law.
○ The given proposition is a negative proposition and that is why
the copula expected to be used is negative.
○ The arrangement of the original proposition may be accepted in
English grammar but not in Logic. The original proposition does
not present any subject at all. The supposed to be subject “No
one” points to nothing, and should be converted to “Everyone is
not '' or any equivalent.
(D):​ ​Not all men are faithful to their loved ones.
● To: Some men are not faithful to their loved ones.
○ The given proposition is negative.
○ The subject “Not all” means, “some… are not”. The meaning of
the proposition may be misinterpreted as, “some men are faithful
to their loved ones”. This is not possible because what is
emphasized in the proposition is an “0 proposition”. Thus , it is
wrong to say that, “Many are faithful to their loved ones”.
(E):​ ​All disciples but one remained loyal to Jesus.
● To: All disciples are (the) ones who remained loyal to Jesus except
one.
● Or: Many disciples are (the) ones who remained loyal to Jesus
except one.
○ It doesn’t matter whether there is a change in quantity of the
proposition, from “all” to “many”, because of the existence of an
exception “but one”. All or majority can be used as long as the
exception is indicated as part of the predicate of the logical
arrangement.
(F):​ ​It is a good option.
● To: The option is good.
● Or: This option is good.
○ The original proposition does not specifically identify the
meaning of the subject “It”. Hence, it is not considered a subject
in Logic. We changed the subject from “It” to “The option” or
“This option”
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(G): ​There are insensitive political leaders to the needs of their
constituents.
● To: Some political leaders are insensitive to the needs of their
constituents.
○ The given proposition used “There are” means some… are. It
cannot be “many” or “majority”, unless it is specifically indicated
in the given proposition such as “There are many insensitive
political leaders to the needs of the constituents”.
○ The word “some” could mean “few” but not “many”, “most” or
“majority”.
(H): ​Rizal will always be remembered for his contribution to
nationalism.
● To: Rizal is (the) one who will always be remembered for his
contribution to nationalism.
● Or: Rizal is the person who will always be remembered for his
contribution to nationalism.
● Or: Rizal is going to be remembered always for his contribution to
nationalism.
○ The given proposition is in the future tense.
○ Different ways can be done to come up with accepted logical
structures. The word “will” can be maintained or replaced by
“going to”, to indicate future tense
II. COMPOUND CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION    ● Kind of openly compound that contains two or more simple
● Compound is a multiple proposition containing two or more simple
statements that may be joined through the use of connective.
○ Connectives are logical operators primarily intended to combine
two or more propositions to create a new proposition.
○ Connectives may be conjunctions or adverbs. This is multiple
because of the presence of two or more categorical propositions.
● In ordinary speech, compound propositions are called ​complex
sentences.
○ It is complex because many ideas or statements are joined
together.
○ The more many ideas or statements are combined, the more it
becomes complicated.
● The study of compound propositions is important in arguments.
Arguments are oftentimes expressed through compound
categorical propositions.
KINDS OF COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS    “consequently”, “in this context”.
A. OPENLY COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS   ● Examples:
● Consists of two or more statements explicitly stated.
● Some logicians call it “overtly” because all statements in a
proposition are exposed
COPULATIVE PROPOSITION  
● Openly compound consisting of two or more subjects or predicates
or both subjects and predicates combined.
○ The term copulative comes from the Latin word “copula”,
meaning connector. The copula connects two or more
statements to form a proposition with the use of the following
copulative words: ​“and”, “and also”, “both … and”, “either ..
or”, “neither… nor”.
● Examples:
○ Two or more subjects:
■ Both sheep and goat are prey.
■ Angelo, Rafael and Gabriel are hunks of the future.
○ Two or more predicates:
■ Alyssa Chrizelle N. Miclat is an artist and computer genius.
GEC4  Categorical Proposition
■ The former president Marcos is neither an actor nor a radio
commentator.
○ Two or more subjects and predicate combined:
■ Both eggplant and squash are vegetables and nutritious food.
■ The Philippines and Japan are both Asians and progressive
countries.
ADVERSATIVE PROPOSITION  
● Contains two or more simple statements combined in opposition
with one another.
○ The term adversative comes from the word “adverse”, meaning
denial or opposite.
○ The other statement is a contrast to the other with the use of the
adversative conjunctions: ​“however”, “but”, “although”,
“nonetheless”, “yet”, “still”.
● Examples:
○ A person may not be successful although he may have worked
hard.
○ Smoking is bad for your health, yet many people, particularly
teenagers, get hooked into it.
CASUAL PROPOSITION  
statements combined in which one is the reason for the other.
○ The term casual comes from the word “cause”, meaning reason.
○ The other statement is considered an explanation or cause of the
other with the use of ​causal conjunctions: “since”,
“because”, “due to”, “for”.
● Examples:
○ The meeting was postponed due to technical problems
○ The building is unfinished because of budget deficit.
INFERENTIAL PROPOSITION  
● Contains two or more simple statements combined in which one is a
logical consequence of the other.
○ The term inference comes from the word “to infer:, meaning to
conclude based on the given premises.
○ This proposition uses concluding words, such as ​“and so”,
“thus”, “for this reason”, “hence” “therefore”,
○ Major roads are under construction. For this reason, traffic is
very heavy.
○ The new elected president will be installed. Therefore, many
people will be happy.
The truth of an openly compound proposition lies of two
conditions:
A. Every member of the proposition must be true. The moment one
member is false, the whole proposition is false.
B. That the proposition applies the distinct characteristic of every
classification.
○ In ​copulative – that there is a logical connection between
statements.
○ In ​adversative – that one statement is a contrast of
consequence of the other statement.
○ In ​casua​l – that one statement explains the reason for the other
statements.
○ In​ inferential​ – that one is the logical consequence of the other.
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● The proposition, for instance, “prostitution is unlawful, yet many
teenagers get into it” is a true proposition.
■ It is true because every member of the proposition is true
based on reality: “prostitution is unlawful” and “many
teenagers get into it”. The proposition is also true because the
second statement is a denial or opposite of the first
statement.
■ This is an​ adversative​ proposition.
B. OCCULTY COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS   ■ Hidden clause: Joamel is sexy.
● Consists of two or more statements in which one is an implication of
the other.
● Some logicians call it “covertly” because among the statements
combined, one is hidden and the other is explicitly stated.
EXCLUSIVE PROPOSITION  
● One statement is expressed and the other hidden. The term comes
from the word “exclude”, meaning to keep out. This proposition uses
“only” or “alone”​. The use of these words make the application of
the subject and predicate restricted.
● Examples:
○ God alone is omnipotent.
■ Hidden statement: Others are not omnipotent.
○ Only you can make me complete.
■ Hidden statement: Others cannot make me complete.
EXCEPTIVE PROPOSITION   subject is the same as the grammatical subject. Hence, the
● One statement is expressed and the other hidden through the use
of exceptional words:​ “but, “save”, “none but”, “except”.
● The use of these words removes the possible inclusion of other
statements.
● Examples:
○ Everyone except Dennis wears white shirt.
■ Hidden clause: (Only) Dennis does not wear white shirt.
○ None but you can ease the pain.
■ Hidden clause: (Only) You can ease the pain.
REDUPLICATIVE PROPOSITION  
● One statement is expressed and the other hidden the use
reduplicative word: ​“in so far as”, “in as much as”, “as”, “as
such”.
● Reduplicative comes from the word “duplicate”, meaning to double.
In this proposition, we double emphasize the real meaning of the
subject, To double emphasize is to stress the essence or
importance of the word.
● Examples:
○ The president, as such, must govern the country in a peaceful
and disciplined manner.
■ Hidden clause: It is the meaning of the president to govern a
country in a peaceful and disciplined manner.
○ As parents, they should take care of their children.
■ Hidden clause: It is the meaning of the parents to take care of
their children
GEC4  Categorical Proposition
COMPARATIVE PROPOSITION  
● One statement is expressed and the other hidden through the use
of​ “more… than”​ or the comparative degree of adjective.
● Comparison is based on the quality or characteristic of two things
or objects.
● Examples:
○ Marian Julie is more friendly than Joamel.
■ Hidden clause: Joamel is friendly.
○ Kristine is sexier than Claudine.
III. REDUCTION TO LOGICAL FORM  
● The process of changing or rewording the proposition so that the
basic arrangement of its elements is evident is called reduction to
logical form.
● To reduce a proposition to its logical form, the following steps must
be taken:
1. First, state the subject with an appropriate word to express
its quantity, usually all or some.
2. Then, express its copula in the form of “am”, “is”, or “are”
(“not” should be added, if the proposition is negative).
3. Lastly, state the predicate.
4. To illustrate: (All/Some) S = or /= P
○ Examples:
■ “Dogs have four feet”
1. Determine the logical subject​. Ordinarily, the logical
subject is dogs. Remember to use an appropriate sign of its
quantity. If the overall nature of a dog is considered, then it
can be said, “All dogs have four feet”.
2. Specify the copula. Considering the plural form of the
subject, the proper form of the copula is are.
3. Compose the predicate. The predicate should indicate the
essence to be affirmed of the subject. When the original form
of the proposition does not have a noun or a pronoun to
indicate that essence, words like ​“thing”, “being”, and
“one” or a more specific word should be used. Thus, a dog
may be referred to as a being, a substance, an organism, an
animal, a brute, etc.
DETERMINING THE CONCRETE LOGICAL FORM 
● Some sentence structures make it difficult to determine the basic
elements of the proposition. The following are guidelines in
identifying the logical subjects, copula and predicate and reducing
propositions to their logical form.
○ Examine the verb of the sentence.
○ When there is a linking verb (am, is are):
■ If there is a noun after it, the proposition is already in the
logical form
■ If there is no noun, but there is an adjective after it, add
“Being” or some other suitable noun after the adjective.
○ When the verb used is not a linking verb:
■ Insert the proper copula (am, is, are) after the subject.
■ Add a noun e.g. being or thing or a more specific noun after
the copula.
■ Attach the relative pronoun “that” or “who for person to the
noun
○ Finish the sentence with the original predicate
○ Applying all steps above the proposition “All dogs have four feet”
will be reduced to “All dogs are beings that have for feet”
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● Beside the noun relative pronoun combination, adjectives, phrases
and clauses may be used to express the logical predicate implied in
the original verb and its complement, Hence, the proposition “All
dogs have four legs” may likewise have the following logical forms:
○ All dogs are animals with four feet.
○ All dogs are creatures having four feet.
○ All dogs are four-footed beasts.

● When the logical subject is not the same as the grammatical

subject, it would seem easier to determine the logical predicate first.
The predicate is affirmed or denied of the subject; often, it is the
answer to the question/s asked about the proposition (if the answer
is expressed in a minimum of words).

● For example, about the proposition. “They elected Jim as class

representative,” two questions may be asked and the answers to
these questions may be found within the proposition itself. The
answers to the two questions are the two predicates.
○ Whom did they elect? - Answer “Jim”
○ Who elected Jim as the class representative? - Answer “They”

● The subject may be determined by converting the questions into

relative phrases or clauses. Thus, in an unpolished English:
○ Whom they elected...is Jim
○ Who elected Jim as class representative....are they

● The logical forms of the proposition may be as follows:

○ The one who elected as class representative is Jim
○ The ones who elected Jim as class representative are they

EXAMPLES OF PROPOSITIONS AND THEIR LOGICAL FORM  

Original form -> Logical Form
● Bats fly - All bats are flying beings (or animals)
● Peter lives - Peter is a living being (or person)
● No tiger barks - All tigers are not barking animals
● Some blonds have more fun - Some blonds are people who have
more fun
● All is well that ends well - All things that end well are things that are
well
● Some people do not drink - Some people are not drinkers
● God exists - God is an existing being

REFERENCES  
● Lecture powerpoint

GEC4  Categorical Proposition Page 4 of ​4