NAME : MUTHI’AH NURUL IZZATI

NIM : A320180279

CLASS :F

SUBJECT : APPLIED LINGUISTIC

HUMANISM AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

MIND MAP

LEARNING

Emotion HUMANISM Feeling

Erikson’ Maslow’s Roger’s

Psychosocial Development Hierarchy of Needs Fully - Functioning Person

Community Language Silent way Suggestopedia

Learning

SUMMARY
Introduction

Humanism is originally a psychological term which emphasizes the importance of the inner world of the
human being and places the individual’s thoughts, feelings and emotions at the forefront of all human
developments. Humanistic approach to learning highlights the importance of emotions and feelings in
learning. These two qualities are somewhat ignored in behavioural and cognitive approaches.
An Overview of Humanistic Theory

Humanistic psychology emerged in the 1950s as a reaction against both behaviourism and cognitivism. It
is concerned with the subjective experience of human beings, and views that using quantitative
methods in the study of the human mind and behaviour is misguided. The humanistic approach stresses
a phenomenological view of human experience, seeking to understand human beings, and their
behaviour by conducting qualitative research. Humanistic psychologists concern people as the whole
person. In humanistic view, human being is a whole person who not only has physic and cognition, but
more importantly has feeling and emotion. Humanistic principle of learning focuses more on the
development of individual’s self-concept and his personal sense of reality.

From 1970s, humanism in education has attracted more and more people’s attention. According to its
theories, the receiver in education is first a human being, then a learner. If a person cannot satisfy his
basic needs physically and psychologically, he will surely fail to concentrate on his learning whole-
heartedly. Affect is not only the basic needs of human body, but also the condition and premise of the
other physical and psychological activities. So learning and the affective factors are closely connected.
Wang notes that there are three prominent figure in this field, namely; Erikson, Maslow, and Rogers
(Wang, 2005: 1).

Erikson’ Psychosocial Development

Erik Homburger Erikson was a psychologist who developed a theory of psychosocial development. His
work was influenced by psychoanalyst Freud’s work. One of the main elements of his psychosocial
development is ego identity (beliefs, ideals, and values that help shade and guide one’s behaviour).
Expanding Freud’s theory of stages, Erikson claims that human psychological development depends not
only on the way in which individuals pass through predetermined maturational stages, but on the
challenges that are set by society at particular times in their lives (1963). He calls this the fundamental
“epigenetic principle”.

This principle consists of eight stages summarized from Boeree (2009) below:
(1) Trust vs. Mistrust: it occurs between birth and one year of age.
(2) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: it takes place during early childhood.
(3) Initiative vs. Guilt: around age three to five.
(4) Industry vs. Inferiority: around age 5 to 12 years.
(5) Identity vs. Role Confusion: around age 12 to 18 years.
(6) Intimacy vs. Isolation: it occurs in young adulthood (ages 18 to 40 years).
(7) Generativity vs. Stagnation: during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 years).
(8) Ego Integrity vs. Despair: as people grow older (65+ years).

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow has been considered the Father of Humanistic Psychology. He wanted to understand
what motivates people and believed that people possess a set of motivation systems unrelated to
rewards or unconscious desires. Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain
needs; when one need is fulfilled they seek to fulfil the next one, and so on.

Maslow’s (1951: 375) Hierarchy of Needs include five motivational needs. His original Hierarchy of Needs
include five stages model as follows: (1) Biological and Physiological needs, (2) Safety needs, (3) Love
and Belongingness or Social needs, (4) Esteem needs, (5) Self-Actualization needs. Furthermore, in 1970
Maslow expanded the model to include (1) Cognitive needs, (2) Aesthetic needs, and (3) Self-
Transcendence needs or Spiritual needs.

Roger’s Fully - Functioning Person

Carl Rogers was a humanistic psychologist who believed that all people possess and inherent need to
grow and achieve their potential. He (1959: 487) believed that people have one basic motivation, that is,
the tendency to self-actualize (to fulfil their potential and achieve the highest level of “human-
beingness” they can). People who are able be self-actualize are called fully-functioning persons or
healthy persons.

Rogers (1951) also cited in Brown (1980: 76-77) states that fully-functioning persons has the following
qualities: (1) open to experience, (2) existential living, (3) trust feelings, (4) creativity, and (5) fulfilled
life. According to Rogers (in Brown, 1980: 76), human being is a ‘whole person’ who should be viewed
“as a physical and cognitive, but primarily emotional being”. His main concepts focus more on the
development of individual’s self-concept and his personal sense of reality, that is, the internal forces
which cause a person to act.

The Application of Humanistic Theory in Education

Humanistic principles have important implications for education. In this view, the focus of education is
learning not teaching. The goal of education is the facilitation of learning. A teacher as a facilitator
should have the following characteristics: (1) he must be genuine and real, putting away the impression
of superiority or omniscience, (2) he must have trust or acceptance from his students as valuable
individuals, and (3) he needs to communicate openly and emphatically with his students and vice versa.
(Brown, 1980: 77)

Nunan (1999: 234-235) presents the five most important functions of the teacher are as follows: (1) the
cognitive function, (2) the classroom management function, (3) practical goals, (4) the personal or
interpersonal function, and (5) the humanistic function. Meanwhile, Wang (2005: 4-5) describes
humanistic teacher as someone with the following qualities: (1) capable of developing the “whole
person” of the students intellectually, as well as emotionally, (2) have genuine trust and acceptance of
the students as worthy, valuable individuals, and help them to build up positive self-concept, (3)
teachers should be real facilitators of learning and focus on how to learn than what to learn, i.e. provide
students with fishing gear rather than fish.

Other best important figure in humanistic approach in language teaching is Earl Stevick (1987). He
(1987: 45) points out that “in a language course, success depends less on materials, techniques, and
linguistic analyses, and more on what goes on inside and between the people in the classroom”.
According to Stevick (1987) language learning is an emotional experience, and the feelings that the
learning process evokes will have a crucial bearing on the success or failure of the learning.

The Application of Humanistic Theory in Foreign Language Learning

Humanistic approach gives rise to the existence of foreign language teaching methodology such as
Community Language Learning (CLL) by Curan, Silent Way by Gattegno, and Suggestopedia by Lazanov.

Community Language Learning

Community Language Learning (CLL) represents the use of counselling learning theory to teach
languages. The primary aim of CLL is to create a really warm and supportive community among the
learners and gradually to move them from complete autonomy. The basic procedure of CLL is derived
from the counsellor-client relationship, as seen below:

A group of learners sit in circle with the teacher standing outside the circle. A student
whispers a message in LI, the teacher translates it into foreign language. The student repeats
the message in the foreign language into a cassette. Students compose further messages in
foreign language with the teacher’s help students about their feelings. (Richards and
Rodgers, 1993: 113)

The language theory underlying the CLL is language as social process. Forge (1983), Curran’s student
begins by suggesting that languages, as social process is different from language as communication.
While the learning theory underlying the CLL is based on Curran’s counselling experience called
counselling-learning. CLL advocates a holistic approach to language learning, both cognitive and
affective.

The Silent Way

Silent Way (SW) developed by Gattegno is an approach to the teaching of initial reading in which sounds
are coded by specific colors. In addition a wall size set of materials composed of a word chart, a phonic
chart where phonemic distinctions are contrasting colors, drawings, work sheets, and books (see,
Gattegno, 1972: 15). Silent Way represents Gattegno’s experience as educational designer and reading
and mathematical programs.The language theory underlying the Silent Way is “language as a substitute
for experience, so experience is what gives meaning to language” (Gattegno, 1972: 8). The theory of
learning is derived from Jerome Bruner’s (1966: 83) discovery learning.

Richards and Rodgers, (1993: 100) describes the four main benefits of this model, namely; (1) the
increase in intellectual potency, (2) the shift from extrinsic rewards, (3) the learning of heuristics by
discovering and (4) the aid to conserving memory. The successful learning involves commitment of the
self to language acquisition through the use of silent awareness and active trial. Silence is considered the
best vehicle for learning, since students concentrate on the task to be accomplished.

Suggestopedia

Suggestopedia is developed by Lazanov (a psychiatrist educator), is a specific set of learning derived

from suggestology, “a science which concerned with systematic study of the non-rational and/or non-
conscious influences that human being are constantly responding to” (Stevick, 1976: 42). The specific of
characteristics of suggestopedia are “the decoration, furniture, arrangement of the classroom, the use
of music, and the authoritative behaviour of the teacher” (Richards and Rodgers, 1993: 142).

Suggestopedia is much concerned on the mental or cognitive ability to comprehend teaching materials.
The primary goal of the teacher is to create situation in which the learner is most suggestible and to
present the teaching materials. The classroom procedure has three distinct parts, namely; (1) an oral
review section, (2) new material is presented and discussed, (3) the séance or concert session consists of
two activities active and passive.

ANSWERING QUESTION

1. The main differences between behaviourist, cognitive, and humanistic view of human being:
2. Some prominent figures in humanistic approach and their view
Wang notes that there are three prominent figure in humanistic approach, namely; Erikson,
Maslow, and Rogers
Erikson’s view
Expanding Freud’s theory of stages, Erikson claims that human psychological development
depends not only on the way in which individuals pass through predetermined maturational
stages, but on the challenges that are set by society at particular times in their lives (1963). He
calls this the fundamental “epigenetic principle”.
This principle consists of eight stages summarized from Boeree (2009) below:
(1) Trust vs. Mistrust: it occurs between birth and one year of age.
(2) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: it takes place during early
childhood. (3) Initiative vs. Guilt: around age three to five.
(4) Industry vs. Inferiority: around age 5 to 12 years.
(5) Identity vs. Role Confusion: around age 12 to
18 years. (6) Intimacy vs. Isolation: it occurs in young
adulthood (ages 18 to 40 years). (7) Generativity vs. Stagnation: during middle
adulthood (ages 40 to 65 years). (8) Ego Integrity vs. Despair: as people grow
older (65+ years).

Maslow’s view
Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs; when one need is
fulfilled they seek to fulfil the next one, and so on. Maslow’s (1951: 375) Hierarchy of Needs
include five motivational needs. His original Hierarchy of Needs include five stages model as
follows: (1) Biological and Physiological needs, (2) Safety needs, (3) Love and Belongingness or
Social needs, (4) Esteem needs, (5) Self-Actualization needs. Furthermore, in 1970 Maslow
expanded the model to include (1) Cognitive needs, (2) Aesthetic needs, and (3) Self-
Transcendence needs or Spiritual needs.

Rogers’ view
Rogers (1951) cited in Brown (1980: 76-77) states that fully-functioning persons has the
following qualities: (1) open to experience, (2) existential living, (3) trust feelings, (4) creativity,
and (5) fulfilled life. According to Rogers (in Brown, 1980: 76), human being is a ‘whole person’
 who should be viewed “as a physical and cognitive, but primarily emotional being”. His main
concepts focus more on the development of individual’s self-concept and his personal sense of
reality, that is, the internal forces which cause a person to act.

3. Stevick five distinctive qualities that should be taken into consideration in teaching and learning
process:
(1) Feelings: it includes both personal emotions and aesthetic appreciation which tends to
reject whatever makes people feel bad or destroys aesthetic enjoyment
(2) Social relations: it encourages friendship and cooperation, and opposes whatever tends to
reduce them
(3) Responsibility: it accepts the need for public scrutiny, criticism, and correction
(4) Intellect: it includes knowledge, reason, and understanding
(5) Self-actualization: to fulfil one’s potential and acieve the highest level they can

4. Examples of the pedagogical implication of humanistic approach

Community Language Learning, Silent way, Suggestopedia

5. Some classroom activities which are based on humanistic principles

Community Language Learning
Community Language Learning (CLL) represents the use of counselling learning theory to teach
languages. The primary aim of CLL is to create a really warm and supportive community among
the learners and gradually to move them from complete autonomy. The basic procedure of CLL
is derived from the counsellor-client relationship, as seen below:
A group of learners sit in circle with the teacher standing outside the circle. A student whispers a
message in LI, the teacher translates it into foreign language. The student repeats the message
in the foreign language into a cassette. Students compose further messages in foreign language
with the teacher’s help students about their feelings. (Richards and Rodgers, 1993: 113)
Silent way
Silent Way (SW) developed by Gattegno is an approach to the teaching of initial reading in which
sounds are coded by specific colors. In addition a wall size set of materials composed of a word
chart, a phonic chart where phonemic distinctions are contrasting colors, drawings, work sheets,
and books (see, Gattegno, 1972: 15). Silent Way represents Gattegno’s experience as
educational designer and reading and mathematical programs. The language theory underlying
the Silent Way is “language as a substitute for experience, so experience is what gives meaning
to language” (Gattegno, 1972: 8). The theory of learning is derived from Jerome Bruner’s (1966:
83) discovery learning.

Suggestopedia
Suggestopedia is much concerned on the mental or cognitive ability to comprehend teaching
materials. The primary goal of the teacher is to create situation in which the learner is most
suggestible and to present the teaching materials. The classroom procedure has three distinct
parts, namely; (1) an oral review section, (2) new material is presented and discussed, (3) the
séance or concert session consists of two activities active and passive.
6. The characteristics of healthy person or fully functioning person according to Rodgers:
(1) Open to experience: both positive and negative emotions accepted
(2) Existential living: in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding prejudging
and preconceptions.
(3) Trust feelings: feeling, instincts and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trusted.
(4) Creativity: creative thinking and risk taking are features of a person’s life.
(5) Fulfilled life: person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new challenges
and experiences.

7. Roger’s humanism posits that the important aspect in learning is the content
8. Nunan’s five most important functions of teacher:
(1) The cognitive function: the teacher possesses knowledge desired by the students about the
target language and culture
(2) The classroom management function: our students except us to take responsibility for the
training and experience with materials, schedules, techniques, etc
(3) Practical goals: it refers to the goals which the students have for language courses
(4) The personal or interpersonal function: the teachers have a great deal of power in the
classroom to set the interpersonal classroom
(5) The humanistic function: it has to do with the warmth and enthusiasm that the teacher
radiates to the learners (Nunan (1999: 234-235)).

9. Some qualities of humanistic teacher as described by Way

(1) capable of developing the “whole person” of the students intellectually, as well as
emotionally, (2) have genuine trust and acceptance of the students as worthy, valuable
individuals, and help them to build up positive self-concept,
(3) teachers should be real facilitators of learning and focus on how to learn than what to learn,
i.e. provide students with fishing gear rather than fish (Wang (2005: 4-5)).

10. The main ideas proposed by Erikson, Maslow, and Rogers

Erikson – Psychosocial Development – One of the main elements of his psychosocial
development is ego identity (beliefs, ideals, and values that help shade and guide one’s
behaviour).
Maslow – Hierarchy of Needs – He wanted to understand what motivates people and believed
that people possess a set of motivation systems unrelated to rewards or unconscious desires.
Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs; when one need is
fulfilled they seek to fulfil the next one, and so on.
Rogers – Fully-Functioning Person – He (1959: 487) believed that people have one basic
motivation, that is, the tendency to self-actualize (to fulfil their potential and achieve the highest
level of “human-beingness” they can). People who are able be self-actualize are called fully-
functioning persons or healthy persons.
 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

MIND MAP

Constructivism

Cognitive Social
Constructivism Constructivism

Jean Piaget’s Vygotsky’s Brunner’s

Concept Concept Concept

John Dewey’s Derewianka

Concept and Butt et al.

Genre-Based
Instruction

SUMMARY

Introduction

Constructivism is a theory (based on observation and scientific study) about how people learn. It
believes that we construct our understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things
and reflecting on these experiences.

In pedagogy, constructivism is often constructed with the behaviourist approach. Knowledge is not a
thing that can be simply given by the teacher at the front of the room to students in their desks. Rather,
knowledge is constructed by learners through an active, mental process of development; learners are
the builders and the creators of meaning and knowledge. A productive, constructivist classroom, the
teacher provides students with experiences that allow them to hypothesize, predict, manipulate objects,
pose questions, research, investigate, imagine, and invent. The teacher’s role is to facilitate this process.

An Overview of Constructionist Theory

Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on our
experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Holzer (1994: 2) states that
“the basic idea of constructivism is that knowledge must be constructed by the learner. It cannot be
supplied by the teacher”. Each learner individually and/or socially constructs meaning as he or she
learns. The construction of meaning is learning. Thus, the construction of knowledge is a dynamic
process that requires the active engagement of the learners who will be responsible for their learning,
while, the teacher creates an effective learning environment. There are two major schools of thought:
cognitive constructivism and social constructivism.

Cognitive Constructivism

Cognitive constructivism is a conception applied to classrooms and childhood development were the
works of Jean Piaget and John Dewey. It views that knowledge comprises active systems of intentional
mental representations derived from past learning experiences. It is therefore actively constructed by
the learner rather than passively absorbed. Learning is presented as a process of active discovery
(Wood, 1998: 39)

Jean Piaget’s Concept

Piaget’s theory of constructivism argues that people construct knowledge and form meaning based
upon their experiences. Piaget (1952) viewed intellectual growth as a process of adaption to the world.
This happens through assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. Assimilation deals with using an
existing schema to deal with a new object or situation. Accommodation happens when the existing
schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.
Equilibration occurs when a child’s schema can deal with most new information through assimilation.

Other Piaget’s notable theory is child’s cognitive development that included four distinct stages: (1)
Sensorimotor stage – 0-2 years: imitation, memory, and thought begin to be utilized, (2) Preoperational
stage – 2-7 years: language development and recognizing symbolic form, (3) Concrete operational stage
– 7-11 years: able to solve hands-on problems logically, (4) Formal operational stage – 11-15 years: able
to solve abstract problems in a logical fashion (Piaget, 1952).

John Dewey’s Concept

John Dewey is known as the modern father of Experiential Education. Dewey argues that education and
learning are social and interactive processes, and thus the school itself is a social institution through
which social reform can and should take place. He believed that students thrive in an environment
where they are allowed to experience and interact with the curriculum, and all students should have the
opportunity to take part in their own learning.

Dewey is placed in the educational philosophy of pragmatism which believes that reality must be
experienced. Students must interact with their environment in order to learn, known as a theory of
experience which rested on two central tenets: continuity and interaction. Continuity refers to the
notion that humans are affected by experience and that each experience is stored and carried on into
the future, whether one likes it or not. Humans survive more by learning from experience rather than
rely on instinct (i.e. in animals). Interaction explains how past experience interacts with the present
situation to create one’s present experience.

Social Constructivism

Social constructivism or communal constructivism is a conception that gives more emphasize on social
phenomena. It views that knowledge is not simply constructed, it is co- constructed. Knowledge is
actively constructed by learners in response to interactions with environmental stimuli. Learning,
therefore, is a collaborative process. Human cognitive structures are socially constructed. Some notable
figures of social constructivism are Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner (Wood, 1998: 39).

Vygotsky’s Concept

Vygotsky’s theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition as
he believed that community plays a central role in the process of “making meaning” (Vygotsky, 1978:
90). Some of his insights are summarized by McLeod (2014) as follows: (1) culture affects or shape
cognitive development, (2) cognitive development varies across cultures, (3) social factors contribute to
cognitive development, (4) cognitive development stems from social interaction from guided learning
within the zone of proximal development as children and their partners co-construct knowledge and the
environment will influence how they think and what they think about, (5) cognitive development results
from an internalization of language, and (6) adults are important source of cognitive development.

Bruner’s Concept

A major theme in Bruner’s (1986) theory on constructivism is that learning is an active process in which
learners construct new ideas or concepts based on their current and past knowledge. The important
outcomes of learning include not just the concepts, categories, and problem-solving procedures
invented previously by the culture, but also the ability to “invent” these thing for one self. Cognitive
development involves an interaction between basic human capabilities and “culturally invented
technologies that serve as amplifiers of these capabilities”.

Many of Bruner’s ideas cognitive development follow from Piaget, with whom he worked. Bruner
identified three stages of cognitive representation: (1) enactive, which Is the representation of
knowledge through actions, (2) iconic, which is the visual summarization of images, and (3) symbolic
representation, which is the use of words and other symbols to describe experiences.

The Application of Constructivist Theory in Foreign Language Learning

Constructivist theory is currently used worldwide as well in foreign language teaching. Which follows are
guide lines summarized from Hein (1999: 4-5) for teachers as facilitators in the learning process:

(1) Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs meaning out
of it.
(2) The action of knowledge construction is mental; it happens in the mind.
 (3) Learning involves language.
(4) Learning is a social activity.
(5) Learning is contextual.
(6) One needs knowledge to learn.
(7) It takes time to learn. Learning is not instantaneous.
(8) Motivation is a key component in learning.

Constructivism, especially Vygotsky’s ideas, has been adopted by Derewianka (1990) and But et al.
(2001) to design a foreign language teaching method called Genre-Based Instruction. This model is firstly
popularized as Curriculum Cycle which is very influential in school settings in New South Wales,
Australia, as well as in Singapore. This is a simple model for developing complete lesson units (cycles)
around text types/genres to be taught. Its ultimate aim is to help learners to gain literacy through
mastery of text types and genres. The description of the cycle in Derewianka (1990) and But et al. (2001)
vary in minor ways, but four phases essential for developing control of a text may be identified, namely;
Context Exploration, Text Exploration based on Model Texts, Joint Construction of a Text, and Individual
Application.

ANSWERING QUESTION

1. The main differences between behaviourist and constructivist view of learning

Behaviourism
- Is more about explaining things through ones outward behaviour or something that can be
observed.
- Is centred around transmission of knowledge from the instructor to the student.

Constructivism

- Is focused on the construction of knowledge by the student

2. The view of Piaget, Dewey, Vygotsky, and Brunner in discussing constructivism in pedagogy
Piaget’ view
Piaget’s theory of constructivism argues that people construct knowledge and form meaning
based upon their experiences. Piaget (1952) viewed intellectual growth as a process of adaption
to the world. This happens through assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration.
Assimilation deals with using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.
Accommodation happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to
be changed to deal with a new object or situation. Equilibration occurs when a child’s schema
can deal with most new information through assimilation.

Dewey’s view
Dewey argues that education and learning are social and interactive processes, and thus the
school itself is a social institution through which social reform can and should take place. He
believed that students thrive in an environment where they are allowed to experience and
 interact with the curriculum, and all students should have the opportunity to take part in their
own learning.

Vygotsky’s view
Vygotsky’s theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of
cognition as he believed that community plays a central role in the process of “making meaning”
(Vygotsky, 1978: 90).

Brunner’s view
A major theme in Bruner’s (1986) theory on constructivism is that learning is an active process in
which learners construct new ideas or concepts based on their current and past knowledge. The
important outcomes of learning include not just the concepts, categories, and problem-solving
procedures invented previously by the culture, but also the ability to “invent” these thing for
one self. Cognitive development involves an interaction between basic human capabilities and
“culturally invented technologies that serve as amplifiers of these capabilities”.

3. Vygotsky’s concept influential in pedagogical field is the zone proximal development (ZPD)
ZPD is the zone between the ‘actual’ development and the ‘potential’ development. Every act of
learning occurs within a ZPD, building on what the learner already knows and can do. Each
learners has two levels of development: a level of independent performance and a level of
potential performance. ZPD is the gap between these two levels (Feeze and Joyce, 2002: 25).

4. Brunner’s scaffolding concept, based on Vygotsky’s ZPD

Scaffolding is a process through which a teacher or more competent peer gives aid to the
students in their ZPD as necessary, and reduces this aid as it becomes unnecessary. So, ZPD is
the heart of the concept of scaffolding.

5. The pedagogical implication of constructivism approach

Genre-Based Instruction – is the foreign language teaching method, one of the pedagogical
implication of constructivism approach. It has four phases essential for developing control of a
text may be identified, namely; Context Exploration, Text Exploration based on Model Texts,
Joint Construction of a Text, and Individual Application.

6. Some classroom activities which are based on constructionist principles

Inquiry-based learning (IBL) – learners pose their own questions and seek answers to their
questions via research and direct observation. They present their supporting evidence to answer
the questions. They draw connections between their pre-existing knowledge they’ve acquired
through the activity. Finally, they draw conclusions, highlight remaining gaps in knowledge and
develop plans for future investigations.
Problem-based learning (PBL) – it provides students with real-world problems that require
students to work together to devise a solution. As the group works through challenging real-
world problem, learners acquire communication and collaboration skills in addition to
knowledge.
 Cooperative learning – it requires interdependence among group members to solve a problem
or complete an assignment. Students work together in small groups to maximize their own and
each other’s learning.

7. The characteristics of teacher role based on constructionist principles

- The teacher would be as a facilitator than an instructor.
- The teacher should observe the interest of the students, the directions they naturally take,
and help develop problem-solving skills.

8. Derewianka and Butt et al. design a foreign language teaching method based on constructionist
theory. The description of learning procedure of the method which characterizes constructionist
principles – Genre Based Instruction
Context Exploration phase
This phase resembles the pre-listening/reading/speaking/writing phase that has come to be
typical in Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), and the activities that may be carried out
may resemble to typical pre-activities in skills-based teaching.
Text Exploration Phase based on Model Text
The aim of this phase are to familiarize the learners with the target text-type/genre, and to draw
attention to organizational and linguistic features commonly found in texts belonging to it.
Joint Construction Phase
The students work with the teacher to construct their own texts in the text-type/genre.
Individual Application Phase
It requires learners to work individually, for example in the case of writing, to produce individual
essays.