CIRCUITS

CIRCUITS
CIRCUITS
 AAclosed
closedconducting
conductingpath
paththrough
through which
whichan
anelectric
electric
current
currentflows
flowsor
orisisintended
intendedto
toflow
flow

Parameters
 The various elements of an electric circuit, like resistance, inductance,
and capacitance which may be lumped or distibuted.

CIRCUITS AND NETWORKS

 CIRCUITS
TYPES
Linear Circuit
 Is one whose parameters are constant (i.e. They do not change with
voltage and current.
Non-Linear Circuit
 Is that circuit whose parameters change with voltage and current.
Bilateral Circuit
 Is one whose properties or characteristics are the same in either
direction.
Unilateral Circuit
 Is that circuit whose properties or characteristics change with the
direction of its operation.

CIRCUITS AND NETWORKS

 ELECTRICAL NETWORKS
ELECTRICAL
ELECTRICAL NETWORK
NETWORK
 Connection
Connectionof
ofvarious
variouselectric
electricelements
elementsin
inany
anymanner
manner

TYPES
Passive Network
 With no source of emf.
Active Network
 Contains one or more than one sources of emf.

CIRCUITS AND NETWORKS

 ELECTRICAL NETWORKS

PART
S Node
 A junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements and/or
branches are connected together.
Branch
 Part of a network which lies netween two junctions.
Loop
 A closed path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered
more than once.
Mesh
 A loop that contains no other loop within it.

CIRCUITS AND NETWORKS

 OHM’S LAW
OHM’S
OHM’S LAW
LAW
 One
Oneofofthe
themost
mostfundamental
fundamentallaw
lawininelectrical
electricalcircuits
circuitsrelating
relating
voltage,
voltage,current
currentand
andresistance
resistance
 Developed
Developedinin1827
1827by
byGerman
Germanphysicist
physicistGeorg
GeorgSimon
SimonOhmOhm

CIRCUITS AND NETWORKS

 OHM’S LAW
 According to Ohm’s Law, the current (I) flowing in an
electrical circuit is directly is directly proportional to the
applied voltage (E) and inversely proportional to the
equivalent resistance (R) of the circuit and mathematically
expressed as:

CIRCUITS AND NETWORKS

 SERIES CIRCUITS
SERIES
SERIES circuits
circuits
 AAcircuit
circuitconnection
connectionin
inwhich
whichthe
thecomponents
componentsare
are
connected
connectedto toform
formone
oneconducting
conductingpath
path

SERIES/PARALLEL CIRCUITS
 SERIES CIRCUITS

Voltage Division for Series Circuit:

EX = ET • RX
RT
Where: EX – voltage across the resistor concerned
ET – total voltage across the circuit
RX – the resistor concerned
RT – the sum of all resistances in the circuit

SERIES/PARALLEL CIRCUITS
 PARALLEL CIRCUITS
PARALLEL
PARALLEL circuits
circuits
 AAcircuit
circuitconnection
connectionin
inwhich
whichthe
thecomponents
componentsare
are
connected
connectedto toform
formmore
morethan
than11conducting
conductingpath
path

SERIES/PARALLEL CIRCUITS
 PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Voltage Division for Parallel Circuit:

IX = IT • Req
RT
Where: IX – current concerned flowing through resistor Rx
IT – total current of the circuit
Req – equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit except Rx
RT – the sum of all resistances in the circuit

SERIES/PARALLEL CIRCUITS
 KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
KIRCHHOFF’S
KIRCHHOFF’SLAW
LAW
 More
Morecomprehensive
comprehensivethan
thanOhm’s
Ohm’sLaw
Lawand
andisisused
usedininsolving
solvingelectrical
electrical
 Termed
Termedas
as“Laws
“Lawsof
ofElectric
ElectricNetworks”
Networks”
 Formulated
Formulatedby
byGerman
Germanphysicist
physicistGustav
GustavRobert
RobertKirchhoff
Kirchhoff

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

“In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the current
meeting at a point (or junction) is zero.”

NETWORK ANALYSIS
 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
 In short the sum of currents entering a node equals the sum
of currents leaving the node
⁻ Current towards the node, positive current
⁻ Current away from the node, negative current

IB + I C + I D = I A

(IB + IC + ID) - IA = 0

NETWORK ANALYSIS
 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
“The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances
in each of thr conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a
network PLUS the algebraic sum of the emfs in the path is
zero.”

NETWORK ANALYSIS
 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
 In short, the sum of the voltages around the loop is equal to
zero
⁻ For voltage sources, if loops enters on minus and goes out on plus,
positive voltage and if loops enters on plus and goes out on minus,
negative voltage.
⁻ For voltage drops, if the loop direction is the same as current
direction, negative voltage drop and if the loop direction is opposite
to the current direction, positive voltage drop.

NETWORK ANALYSIS
 MESH ANALYSIS
MESH
MESH analysis
analysis
 AAsophisticated
sophisticatedapplication
applicationof
ofKVL
KVLwith
withmesh
meshcurrents.
currents.
Loop Analysis Procedure:
1. Label each of the loop/mesh currents.
2. Apply KVL to loops/meshes to form
equations with current variables.
a. For N independent loops, we may write
N total equations using KVL around
each loop. Loop currents are those
currents flowing in a loop; they are
used to define branch currents.
b. Current sources provide constraint
equations.
3. Solve the equations to determine the
user defined loop currents.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
 NODAL ANALYSIS
NODAL
NODAL analysis
analysis
 AAsystematic
systematicapplication
applicationof
ofKCL
KCLat
ataanode
nodeand
andafter
aftersimplifying
simplifying
the
theresulting
resultingKCL
KCLequation,
equation,the
thenode
nodevoltage
voltagecan
canbe
becalculated.
calculated.

 Consist of finding the node

voltages at all principal nodes with
respect to the reference node.

PRINCIPAL node – a node with three

or more circuit elements joined
together.

Reference node – the node from

which the unknown voltages are
measured.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
SUPERPOSITION
SUPERPOSITION theorem
theorem
““The
Thecurrent
currentthrough
throughororvoltage
voltageacross,
across,an
anelement
elementininaalinear
linear
bilateral
bilateralnetwork
networkisisequal
equalto
tothe
thealgebraic
algebraicsum
sumofofthe
thecurrent
currentoror
voltages
voltagesproduced
producedindependently
independentlyinineach
eachsource.
source.””

In general:
 Number of network to analyze is equal to number of independent
sources.
 To consider effects of each source independently, sources must be
removed and replaced without affecting the final result:
 All voltage sources >> short circuited
 All current sources >> open circuited

NETWORK ANALYSIS
 COMPENSATION THEOREM

COMPENSATION
COMPENSATION theorem
theorem
 IfIfthe
theimpedance
impedanceZZof ofaabranch
branchininaanetwork
networkininwhich
whichaacurrent
currentII
flows
flowsisischanged
changedbybyaafinite
finiteamount
amountdZ,dZ,then
thenthe
thechange
changeininthe
the
currents
currentsininall
allother
otherbranches
branchesof ofthe
thenetwork
networkmaymaybebecalculated
calculated
bybyinserting
insertingaavoltage
voltagesource
sourceofof-IdZ
-IdZinto
intothat
thatbranch
branchwith
withall
all
other
othervoltage
voltagesources
sourcesreplaced
replacedbybytheir
theirinternal
internalimpedances.
impedances.

NETWORK ANALYSIS
 RECIPROCITY THEOREM
RECIPROCITY
RECIPROCITY theorem
theorem
“If
“Ifaavoltage
voltagesource
sourceEEacting
actingininone
onebranch
branchof
ofaanetwork
networkcauses
causesaa
current
currentIIto
toflow
flowininanother
anotherbranch
branchofofthe
thenetwork,
network,then
thenthe
thesame
same
voltage
voltagesource
sourceEEacting
actingininthe
thesecond
secondbranch
branchwould
wouldcause
causean
anidentical
identical
current
currentIIto
toflow
flowininthe
thefirst
firstbranch.
branch.””

Simply mean,
 E and I are mutually transferable, or
 The receiving point and the sending point in a network are
interchangeable, or
 Interchange of an IDEAL voltage source and an IDEAL ammeter in any
network will not change the ammeter reading,
 Interchange of an IDEAL current source and an IDEAL voltmeter in any
network will not change the voltmeter reading

NETWORK ANALYSIS
 MILLMAN’S THEOREM
MILLMAN’S
MILLMAN’S theorem
theorem
““AAspecial
specialcase
caseof
ofthe
theapplication
applicationofofThevenin’s
Thevenin’sTheorem/or
Theorem/or
Norton’s
Norton’sTheorem
Theorem usedusedfor
forfinding
findingthe
theCOMMON
COMMONvoltage
voltage(V
(VABAB))
across
acrossany
anynetwork
networkwhich
whichcontains
containsaanumber
numberof
ofparallel
parallelvoltage
voltage
sources.
sources.””

 In Millman’s Theorem, the circuit is re-drawn as a parallel

network of branches, each branch containing a resistor or
series battery/resistor combination.
 Millman’s theorem is applicable only to those cicuits which
can be re-drawn accordingly.

NETWORK ANALYSIS
 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
THOREM
MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM POWER
POWER TRANSFER
TRANSFER theorem
theorem
 For
Forloads
loadsconnected
connecteddirectly
directlytotoaaDC
DCvoltage
voltagesupply,
supply,maximum
maximum
power
powerwill
willbe
bedelivered
deliveredtotothe
theload
loadwhen
whenthe
theresistance
resistanceisisequal
equal
to
tothe
theinternal
internalresistance
resistanceofofthe
thesource.
source.
 For
Formaximum
maximumpower
powertransfer:
transfer:RRSS==RRLL

NETWORK ANALYSIS
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
THEVENIN’S
THEVENIN’S theorem
theorem
““Any
Anytwo-terminal
two-terminalofofaalinear,
linear,active
activebilateral
bilateralnetwork
networkofofaa
fixed
fixedresistances
resistancesand
andvoltage
voltagesource/s
source/smay
maybebereplaced
replacedbybyaa
single
singlevoltage
voltagesource
source(V
(VTHTH))and
andaaseries
seriesof
ofinternal
internalresistance
resistance
(R
(RTHTH).).””

where:
VTH – the open circuit voltage which appears across the two terminals from where
the load resistance has been removed.
RTH – the resistance looking back into the network across the two terminals with all
the voltage sources shorted and replaced by their internal resistances (if any)
and all current sources by infinite resistance.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
 NORTON’S THEOREM
THEVENIN’S
THEVENIN’S theorem
theorem
““Any
Anytwo-terminal
two-terminalactive
activenetwork
networkcontaining
containingvoltage
voltagesources
sources
and
andresistances
resistanceswhen
whenviewed
viewedfrom
fromits
itsoutput
outputterminals,
terminals,isis
equivalent
equivalentto toaaconstant-current
constant-currentsource
source(I(INN))and
andaaparallel
parallel
internal
internalresistance
resistance(R
(RNN).).””

where:
IN– the current which would flow in a short circuit placed across the output terminals.
RN – the resistance of the network when viewed from the open circuited terminals after
all voltage sources being replaced by open circuits.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
THEVENIN-NORTON
TRANSFORMATION

NETWORK ANALYSIS
NORTON-THEVENIN
TRANSFORMATION

NETWORK ANALYSIS
 EQUIVALENT THREE-TERMINAL
NETWORKS
DELTA
DELTAto
toWYE
WYE
 The
Theequivalent
equivalentresistance
resistanceofofeach
eacharm
armto
tothe
thewye
wyeisisgiven
givenby
bythe
the
PRODUCT
PRODUCTof ofthe
thetwo
twodelta
deltasides
sidesthat
thatmeet
meetatatits
itsend
enddivided
dividedby
bythe
the
SUM
SUMofofthe
thethree
threedelta
deltaresistances.
resistances.

NETWORK ANALYSIS
 EQUIVALENT THREE-TERMINAL
NETWORKS
WYE
WYEto
toDELTA
DELTA
 The
Theequivalent
equivalentdelta
deltaresistance
resistancebetween
betweenany
anytwo
twotwrminals
twrminalsisisgiven
givenby
bythe
the
SUM
SUMofofaastar
starresistance
resistancebetween
betweenthose
thoseterminals
terminalsPLUS
PLUSthe
thePRODUCT
PRODUCTof of
these
thesetwo
twostar
starresistances
resistancesDIVIDED
DIVIDEDby
bythe
thethird
thirdresistance.
resistance.

NETWORK ANALYSIS
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. A battery with a rating of 9 volts has an internal resistance of 20 ohms.
What is the expected resistance of the bulb that is connected across the
battery to attain a maximum power transfer?
a. 20 ohms
b. 10 ohms
c. 5 ohms
d. 2 ohms

2. In a sireis ciscuit a resistors 2200 and 4500 with an impressed voltage of

10, what is the circuit current in mA?
a. 1.49
b. 6.67
c. 4.34
d. 1.34
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
3. The current needed to operate a soldering iron which has a rating of
600 watts at 110 volts is.
a. 5.455 A
b. 66,000 A
c. 18,200 A
d. 0.182 A

4. The ammeter reads 230 ampere while the voltmeter is 115 volts.
What is the power inKW at the time of reading
a. 264.5
b. 2645
c. 264500
d.26.45
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
5. What is the type of circuit whose parameters are constant
which do not change with voltage or current?
a. Lumped
b. Tuned
c. Reactive
d. Linear

6. What is the resistance of two equal valued resistor series?

a. Twice as one
b. The sum of their reciprocal
c. The difference of both
b. The product of both
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
7. What do you expect when you use two 20 kohms, 1 watts resistors
in parallel instead of one 10 kohms, 1 watt?
a. Provide more power
b. Provide lighter current
c. Provide less power
d. Provide wider tolerance

8. The voltage applied in DC circuit having a power of 36 watts and a

total resistance of 4 ohms.
a. 6 V
b. 9V
c. 12 V
d. 24 V
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
9. When resistor are connected in series, what happens?
a. The effective resistance
b. Nothing
c. The tolerance
d. The effective resistance is increased

10. Find the thevenin’s impedance equivalent across R2 of a linear

close circuit having 10-V supply in series with the resistors (R1=100
ohms and R2=200 ohms)
a. 666 ohms
b. 6.66 ohms
c. 66.6 ohms
d. 6666 ohms
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
11. How much power does electronic equipment consume, assuming a
5.5A current flowing and a 120-V power source.
a. 60 W
b. 66 W
c. 660 W
d. 125.5 W

12. How many nodes are needed to completely analyze a circuit

according to Kirchoffs Current Law.
a. One
b. Two
c. All nodes in the circuit
d. One less than the total number of nodes in the circuit
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
13. A common connection between circuit elements or conductors
from different branches.
a. Node
b. Junction
c. Ground
d. Mesh

14. It is used to denote a common electrical point of zero potential.

a. Short circuit
b. Reference point
c. Open circuit
d.ground
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
15. Loop currents should be assumed to flow in which
direction?
a. Straight
b. Clockwise
c. Counterclockwise
d. Either b or c

16. In mesh analysis, we apply:

a. KCL
b. KVL
c. Source
d. Millman’s theorem
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
17. Which of the following is not a valid expression of Ohms Law
a. R = PI
b. E = IR
c. I = E/R
d. R = E/I

18. Using ohms Law, what happens to the circuit current if the applied
voltage increases?
a. Current doubles
b. Current increases
c. Current remians constant
d. Current decreases
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
19. According to ohms law, what happen to the circuit current if the
circuit resistance increases?
a. Current doubles
b. Current decreases
c. Current increases
d. Current remains constant

20. If the resistance of a circuit is doubled and the applied voltage is

kept constant, the current will be _______ .
a. Be quaddrupled
b. Remains
c. Be cut in half
d. Be doubled
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
21. It is an electrical current that flows in one direction only?
a. Normal current
b. Alternating current
c. Direct current
d. Eddy current

22. In Ohms Law, what is E/R?

a. Amperage
b. Voltage
c. Resistance
d. Power
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
23. A 33-Kohm resistor is connected in series with a parallel
combination made up of 56-Kohm resistor and a 7.8-kohm resistor.
What is the total combined reistance of the three resistors?
a. 390667 ohms
b. 49069 ohms
c. 63769 ohms
d. 95000 ohms

24. Which of the following cannot be included in a loop of Kirchoff’s

Volatage Law
a. Current source
b. Voltage source
c. Resistance
d. Reactance
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
25. A series connected circuit consists of 3 loads and consume a total power
of 50 Watts. It was reconfigured such that 2 are in parallel and the other
load is in series with a combination. What is the applied expected powers
to be consumed them?
a. 50 watts
b. 25 watts
c. 75 watts
d. 45 watts

26. If the number of valence electrons of an atom is less than 4, the

substance is usually
a. Semiconductor
b. An insulator
c. A conductor
d. None of the above
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
27. Electric current in a wire is the flow of
a. Free electrons
b. Valence electrons
c. Bound electrons
d. Atoms

28. EMF in a circuit is a form

a. Power
b. Energy
c. Charge
d. none
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
29. The SI unit of specific-resistance is
a. Mho
b. Ohm-n
c. Ohm-sq.-m
d. Ohm-cm

30. The resistance of a material is ___ its area of cross-section

a. Directly proportional
b. Inversely proportional
c. Independent
d. None of these
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
31. The value of α, i.e., the temperarure coefficient of resistance
depends upon the ____ of the material.
a. Length
b. Volume
c. X-sectional area
d. Nature and temperature

32. The value of α of a conductor is 1/236 C. The value of a α is

a. 1/218 C
b. 1/272 C
c. 1/254 C
d. 1/265 C
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
33. Electrical appliances are not connected in series because
a. Series circuit is complicated
b. Power loss is greater
c. Appliances have different current rating
d. None of these

34. Electrical appliances are connected in parallel because it

a. Is a simple circuit
b. Results in reduced power loss
c. Draw less current
d. Makes the operation of the appliances independent
from each other
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
35. The hot resistance of a 100W, 250V incandecent lamp is
a. 2.5 ohms
b. 625 ohms
c. 25 ohms
d. None of these

36. When a number of resistances are connecte in parallel,

the total resistance is
a. Less than the smallest resistance
b. Greater than the smallest resistance
c. Between the smallest and greater resistance
d. None of these
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
37. If the resistances, each of value 36 ohms are connected in parallel,
the total resistance is
a. 2 ohms
b. 54 ohms
c. 36 ohms
d. None of these

38. Two incandecent lamps of 100 W, 200V are in parallel across the
200 V. The total resistance will be
a. 800 ohms
b. 200 ohms
c. 400 ohms
d. 600 ohms
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
39. Three resistors are connected in parallel and draws 1A, 2.5A, and
3.5A, rspectively. If the applied voltage is 210V, what is the total
resistance of the circuit?
a. 5 ohms
b. 147 ohms
c. 3 ohms
d. 73.5 ohms

40. An ordinary dry cell can deliver about ____ continuously.

a. 3 A
b. 2 A
c. 1/8 A
d. None of these
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
41. Four cells of internal resistance 1 ohms, are connected in parallel.
The battery resistance will be
a. 4 ohms
b. 0.25 ohms
c. 2 ohms
d. 1 ohms

42. Of the following combination of units, the one that is not equal to
the watt is
a. Joule/sec
b. Ampere-volt
c. Ampere-ohm
d. Ohm/volt
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
43. The power dissipated in a circuit is not equal to
a. VI
b. IR
c. V/R
d. IR/V

44. An electric iron draws a current of 15A when connected to

120V power source. Its resistance is
a. 0.125 ohms
b. 8 ohms
c. 16 ohms
d. 1,800 ohms
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
45. The power rating of an electric motor which draws a current of 3 A
when operated at 120 V is
a. 40 W
b. 360 W
c. 540 W
d. 1,080 W

46. When a 100W, 240V, light bulb is operated at 200V, the current
that flows in it is
a. 0.35 A
b. 0.42 A
c. 0.5 A
d. 0.58 A
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
47. The equivalent resistance of a network of three 2 ohm resistors
cannot be
a. 0.67 ohms
b. 1.5 ohms
c. 3 ohms
d. 6 ohms

48. A 12V potential difference is applied across a series combination of

four six-ohms resistors. The current in each six-ohm resistor will be
a. 0.5 A
b. 2 A
c. 8 A
d. 6 A
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
49. A 12V potential difference is applied across a parallel combination
of four six-ohms resistors. The current in each six-ohm resistor will
be
a. 0.5 A
b. 2 A
c. 8 A
d. 6 A

50. The dissipation of energy can cause burns because it proceduces

a. Heat
b. Fire
c. Friction
d. Overload
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
51. The rate of expenditure of energy is
a. Voltage
b. Power
c. Current
d. Energy

52. In a simple DC power line, the wire that carries the current
from the generator to the load is called
a. Return wire
b. Feeder
c. Outgoing wire
d. Conductor
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
53. A circuit in which the resistance are connected in a continuous run,
i.e., end-to-end is a _____ circuit.
a. Saries
b. Parallel
c. Series-parallel
d. None of these

54. A battery is connected to an external circuit. The potential drop

with the battery is proportional to
a. The EMF of the battery
b. The current of the circuit
c. The equivqlent circuit resistance
d. Power dissipated in the circuit
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
55. Two wires A and B have the same cross-sectional area and are
made of the same material. Ra = 600 ohms and Rb = 100 ohms. The
number of times A is longer tahn B is
a. 6
b. 2
c. 4
d. 5

56. A coil has a resistance of 100 ohms at 90 C. At 100 C, its resistance

is 101 ohms. The temperature coefficient of the wire is
a. 0.01
b. 0.1
c. 0.0001
d. 0.001
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
57. The resistance of a conductor does not depend on its
a. Resistivity
b. Length
c. Cross-section
d. Mass

58. A material which has a negative temperature coefficient

of resistance is usually a/an
a. Insulator
b. Conductor
c. Semi-conductor
d. All of these
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
59. Which of the following statements is true both for a series
and a parallel dc circuit?
a. Power additive
b. Current are additive
c. Voltage are additive
d. All of these

60. Two resistors are said to be in series when

a. Both carry the same value of current
b. Total current equals the sum of the branch current
c. Sum of IR drops equal to EMF
d. Same current phases through both
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
61. According to KCL as applied to a juction in a network of
conductors.
a. Total sum of currents meeting at the juction is Zero
b. No current can leave the juction without same current passing
throuhg it
c. Net current flow at he juction is positive
d. Algebraic sum of the currents meeting at the juction is zero

62. Kirchoff’s Current Law is applicable only to

a. Closed-loop circuit
b. Electronic circuits
c. Juctions in a network
d. Electric circuit
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
63. Kirchoff’s Voltage Las\w is concerned with
a. IR drops
b. Battery EMF’s
c. Juction voltages
d. A and b

64. According to KVL, the algebraic sum of all IR drops and

EMF’s in any closed loop of a network is always
a. Zero
b. Negative
c. Positive
d. Determined by battery EMF
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
65. The algebraic sign of an IR drops primarily dependent upon
a. The amount of current flowing through it
b. Direction of current
c. The value of the resistance
d. The battery connection

66. Choose the wrong statement. In the node voltage technique of

solvingnetwork parameters, the choice of the reference node does
not
a. Affect the operation of the circuit
b. Change the voltage across the element
c. Alter the potential difference between any pair of nodes
d. Affect the volatge of various nodes
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
67. The nodal analysis is primarily based on the application of
a. KVL
b. KCL.
c. Ohms Law
d. b and c

68. Superposition theorem can be applied only to circuits

having ____ elements
a. Non-linear
b. Passive
c. Linear bilateral
d. Resistive
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
69. The superposition theorem is essentially based on the
concept of
a. Reciprocity
b. Linearity
c. non-linearity
d. Duality

70. What are the electrons in motion called?

a. Current variation
b. Electric current
c. Electron velocity
d. Dynamic electricity
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
71. An active element in a circuit is one which _____ .
a. Receives energy
b. Supplies energy
c. a or b
d. None of these

72. The siperposition theorem is used when the circuit

contains
a. A single voltage source
b. A number of voltage source
c. Passive element only
d. None of these
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
73. Thevenin’s theorem is ____ form of equivalent circuit.
a. Voltage
b. Current
c. Both a and b
d. None of these

74. Norton’s theorem is ____ form of an equivalent circuit.

a. Voltage
b. Current
c. Both a and b
d. None of these
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
75. In the analysis of vacuum tube circuit, we can generally use ____
theorem.
a. Norton’s
b. Thevenin’s
c. Superposition
d. Reciprocity

76. In the analysis of transistor circuits, we generally use _____

theorem.
a. Voltage
b. Current
c. Both a and b
d. None of these
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
77. Under the condition of Maximum Power Transfer, the
efficiency is
a. 75 %
b. 100 %
c. 50 %
d. 25 %

78. The maximum power transfer theorem is used in

a. Electronic circuits
b. Home lightning
c. Power sytem
d. None of the above
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
79. delta/star or star/delta transformation technique is
applied to
a. One terminal
b. Two terminal
c. Three terminal
d. None of these

80. _____ will be used under elctrostatics.

a. Incandecent lamp
b. Electric motor
c. Electric iron
d. Lightning rod
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
81. The value of the absulute permitivity of air is ______ F/m.
a. 9 x 10
b. 8,854 x 10 ^ -12
c. 5 x 10
d. 9 X 10

82. When two similar charges eaach of 1 coulumb each are

placed 1m apart in air, then the force of repusion is
a. 8 x10 N
b. 10 N
c. 9 x 10^9 N
d. 5 x 10 N
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
83. Another name for dielectric strength is
a. Potetial gradient
b. Breakdown voltage
c. Dielectric constant
d. Electric intensity

84. A heater connected to a 100 V supply, generates 10,000 J of heat

energy is 10 sec. How much time is needed to generate the same
amount of heat when it is used on 220V line?
a. 5 sec
b. 2.5 sec
c. 7.5 sec
d. 4 sec.
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
85. Kirchoff’s current law is applied in what type of circuit analysis?
a. Mesh
b. Thevenin’s
c. Superposition
d. Nodal

86. Inductance and capacitance are not relevant in a dc circuit because

a. Frequency of DC is zero
b. It is a simple circuit
c. They do not exist in dc circuit
d. None of the above
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
87. Three resistors of 3 ohms resistance each are connected in
delta, the equivalent wye-connected resistors will be
a. 1 ohm
b. 3 ohms
c. 9 ohms
d. 0.111 ohm

88. Cells are conneted in series when _____ is required

a. High current
b. High voltage
c. High power
d. All of these
 ALTERNATING CURRENT
ALTERNATING CURRENT
 A current that is constantly changing in amplitude and
direction.

Advantages
AdvantagesofofAC:
AC:
 Magnitude
Magnitudecan caneasily
easilybe
bechanged
changed(stepped-up
(stepped-upor orstepped
steppeddown)
down)with
withthe
theuse
useofofaa
transformer
transformer
 Can
Canbebeproduced
producedeither
eithersingle
singlephase
phasefor
forlight
lightloads,
loads,two
twophase
phaseforforcontrol
controlmotors,
motors,
three
threephase
phasefor
forpower
powerdistribution
distributionand
andlarge
largemotor
motorloads
loadsor
orsix
sixphase
phasefor
forlarge
large
scale
scaleAC
ACtotoDC
DCconversion.
conversion.
BASIC AC THEORY
AC WAVEFORMS

BASIC AC THEORY
 AC WAVEFORMS
Parameters of Alternating Signal

f = 1 λ = v
T f

 Period
Period(T)
(T)––the
thetime
timeofofone
onecomplete
completecycle
cycleininseconds
seconds
 Frequency
Frequency(f) (f)––the
thenumber
numberofofcycles
cyclesper
persecond
second(Hertz)
(Hertz)
a.a. 11cycle/second
cycle/second(cps) (cps)==11Hertz
Hertz(Hz)
(Hz)
b.b. Proper
Properoperation
operationofofelectrical
electricalequipmnent
equipmnentrequires
requiresspecific
specificfrequency
frequency
c.c. Frequencies
Frequencieslower lowerthan
than6060Hz
Hzwould
wouldcause
causeflicker
flickerwhen
whenused
usedininlightning
lightning
 Wavelength
Wavelength(λ) (λ)––the
thelength
lengthofofone
onecomplete
completecyclecycle
 Propagation
PropagationVelocity
Velocity(v)
(v)––the
thespeed
speedofofthe
thesignal
signal
 Phase
Phase(Φ)
(Φ)––an anangilar
angilarmeasurement
measurementthat thatspecifies
specifiesthe
theposition
positionof
ofaasine
sinewave
wave
relative
relativeto
toreference
reference BASIC AC THEORY
 AC WAVEFORMS
THE SINUSOIDAL WAVE
 Is the most common AC waveform that is practically
generated by generators used in household and industries
 General equation for sine wave:

A(t) = Am sin (ωt + Φ)

Where:
Where:
a(t)
a(t)––instantaneous
instantaneousamplitude
amplitudeofofvoltage
voltageor
orcurrent
currentatataagiven
giventime
time(t)
(t)
AAmm––maximum
maximumvoltage
voltageor
orcurrent
currentamplitude
amplitudeofofthe
thesignal
signal
ωω––angular
angularvelocity
velocityininrad/sec;
rad/sec;ωω==2πf
2πf
tt––time
time(sec)
(sec)
ΦΦ––phase
phaseshift
shift((++or
or––inindegrees)
degrees)
BASIC AC THEORY
 AC WAVEFORMS
Measurements of AC Magnitude
AMPLITUDE
 It is the height of an AC waveform as depicted on a graph over time
(peak, peak-to-peak, average, or RMS quantity)

 PEAK
PEAKAMPLITUDE
AMPLITUDE––the theheight
heightofofan
anAC
ACwaveform
waveformas asmeasured
measuredfrom
fromthe
the
zero
zeromark
marktotothe
thehighest
highestpositive
positiveor
orlowest
lowestnegative
negativepoint
pointon
onaagraph.
graph.Also
Also
known
knownas
asthe
thecrest
crestamplitude
amplitudeofofaawave.
wave.

BASIC AC THEORY
 AC WAVEFORMS
 PEAK-TO-PEAK
PEAK-TO-PEAKAMPLITUDE
AMPLITUDE––the thetotal
totalheight
heightof
ofan
anAC
ACwaveform
waveformasas
measured
measuredfrom
frommaximum
maximumpositive
positiveto
tomaximum
maximumnegative
negativepeaks
peakson
onaa
graph.
graph.Often
Oftenabbreviated
abbreviatedas
as“P-P”
“P-P”

BASIC AC THEORY
 AC WAVEFORMS
 AVERAGE
AVERAGEAMPLITUDE
AMPLITUDE––the themathematical
mathematical“mean”
“mean”ofofall
allaawaveform’s
waveform’spoints
points
over
overthe
theperiod
periodof
ofone
onecycle.
cycle.Technically,
Technically,the
theaverage
averageamplitude
amplitudeof ofany
any
waveform
waveformwithwithequal-area
equal-areaportions
portionsabove
aboveandandbelow
belowthe
the“zero”
“zero”line
lineon
onaa
graph
graphisiszero.
zero.

 For
Foraasine
sinewave,
wave,the
theaverage
averagevalue
valueso
socalculated
calculatedisisapproximately
approximately0.637
0.637of
ofits
its
peak
peakvalue.
value.

BASIC AC THEORY
 AC WAVEFORMS
 RMS
RMSAMPLITUDE
AMPLITUDE--“RMS”
“RMS”stands
standsfor
forRoot
RootMean
MeanSquare,
Square,and
andisisaaway
wayof
of
expressing
expressingan
anAC
ACquantity
quantityofofvoltage
voltageor
orcurrent
currentininterms
termsfunctionally
functionally
equivalent
equivalentto
toDC.
DC. Also
Alsoknown
knownasasthe
the“equivalent”
“equivalent”or or“DC
“DCequivalent”
equivalent”
value
valueof
ofan
anAC
ACvoltage
voltageor
orcurrent.
current.

 For
Foraasine
sinewave,
wave,the
theRMS
RMSvalue
valueisisapproximately
approximately0.707
0.707of
ofits
itspeak
peakvalue.
value.
BASIC AC THEORY
AC WAVEFORMS

 The
Thecrest
crestfactor
factorof
ofan
anACAC
waveform
waveformisisthe
theratio
ratioof
of
its
itspeak
peak(crest)
(crest)to
toits
itsRMS
RMS
value.
value.

 The
Theform
formfactor
factorof
ofan
anAC
AC
waveform
waveformisisthe
theratio
ratioof
of
its
itsRMS
RMSvalue
valueto
toits
its
average
averagevalue.
value.

BASIC AC THEORY
AC QUANTITIES

BASIC AC THEORY
 AC QUANTITIES
Inductive
InductiveReactance
Reactance(X
(XL)L)
•• The
Theproperty
propertyofofthe
theinductor
inductorto
tooppose
opposethe
thealternating
alternatingcurrent
current
XXLL==2πfL
2πfL
Inductive
InductiveSusceptance
Susceptance(B (BL)L)
•• Reciprocal
Reciprocalofofinductive
inductivereactance
reactance
BBL L == 11 BBL L == 11
XXL L 2πfL
2πfL
Capacitive
CapacitiveReactance
Reactance(XC)
(XC)
•• TheTheproperty
propertyof
ofaacapacitor
capacitorto
tooppose
opposealternating
alternatingcurrent
current
XXCC== 11

Capacitive
CapacitiveSusceptance
Susceptance(BC)
(BC) 2πfC
2πfC
•• Reciprocal
Reciprocalofofcapacitive
capacitivereactance
reactance
BBL L == 11 BBL L == 2πfC
2πfC
XXCC
dd
BASIC AC THEORY
 AC QUANTITIES
IMPEDANCE (Z)
 Total opposition to the flow of Alternating current
 Combination of the resistance in a circuit and the reactances
involved

Z = R + jXeq Z = |Z| ∠φ

Where:
Where:|Z|
|Z|==√√RR22++XX22
φφ==Arctan
ArctanXXeqeq
RR

BASIC AC THEORY
 AC QUANTITIES
Im∠β
 IfIfI I==Im ∠βisisthe
theresulting
resultingcurrent
currentdrawn
drawnby
byaapassive,
passive,linear
linearRLC
RLCcircuit
circuitfrom
fromaa
source
sourcevoltage
voltageVV==VmVm∠θ,∠θ,then
then
Vm∠θ
ZZ == VV == Vm ∠θ == ZZ∠φ
∠φ
II Im∠β
Im ∠β
ZZcosφ jZsinφφ==RR++jXjX==√√RR22++XX22 ∠∠tan
cosφ++jZsin tan-1-1 XX
RR
Where:
Where: ZZ== Vm
Vm == √√RR22++XX22 ==magnitude
magnitudeof ofthe
theimpedance
impedance
Im
Im
φφ==θθ––ββ==tan
tan-1-1 XX == phase
phaseangle
angleof
ofthe
theimpedance
impedance
RR
RR==Zcos
Zcosφφ==active
activeor orreal
realcomponent
componentof ofthe
theimpedance
impedance

XX==Zsin
Zsinφφ==reactive
reactiveor
orquadrature
quadraturecomponent
componentof
ofimpedance
impedance

BASIC AC THEORY
 AC QUANTITIES
ADMITTANCE (Y)
 The reciprocal of impedance
 Expressed in siemens or mho (S)

Im ∠∠ββ––θθ == YY ==Ycos
YY == Im Ycosφy
φy ++jYsin
jYsinφy
φy == GG++jB
jB
Vm
Vm
YY==√√GG22++BB22∠∠tan
tan-1-1 BB
GG

Where:
Where: YY== Im
Im ==√√GG2 2++BB2 2 == 11 == magnitude
magnitudeofofthe
theadmittance
admittance
ZZ
φy
φy==ββ––θθ==φφ ==tan tan-1-1 BB == phase
phaseangle
angleofofthe
theadmittance
admittance
GG
GG==Ycos
Ycosφy
φy==conductive/conductance
conductive/conductancecomponent
component

BB==Ysin
Ysinφy
φy==susceptive/susceptance
susceptive/susceptancecomponent
component
BASIC AC THEORY
 AC RESISTOR CIRCUIT

Impedance
Impedance(Z)
(Z)==RR

With
WithananAC
ACcircuit
circuitlike
likethis
thiswhich
whichisispurely
purelyresistive,
resistive,the
therelationship
relationshipof
ofthe
thevoltage
voltage
and
andcurrent
currentisisas
asshown:
shown:

 Voltage
Voltage(e)
(e)isisininphase
phasewith
withthethecurrent
current(i)(i)
 Power
Powerisisnever
neveraanegative
negativevalue.
value. When
Whenthe thecurrent
currentisispositive
positive(above
(abovethe
theline),
line),
the
thevoltage
voltageisisalsoalsopositive,
positive,resulting
resultingininaapower
power(p=ie)
(p=ie)ofofaapositve
positvevalue
value
 This
Thisconsistent
consistent“polarity”
“polarity”of
ofaapower
powertelltellus
usthat
thatthe
theresistor
resistorisisalways
always
dissipating
dissipatingpower,
power,taking
takingititfrom
fromthe
thesource
sourceandandreleasing
releasingititininthe
theform
formof of
heat
heatenergy.
energy. Whether
Whetherthe thecurrent
currentisisnegative
negativeororpositive,
positive,aaresistor
resistorstill
still
dissipated
dissipatedenergy.
energy.
AC CIRCUITS
 AC INDUCTOR CIRCUIT

Impedance
Impedance(Z)
(Z)==jX
jXLL

 The
Themost
mostdistinguishing
distinguishingelectrical
electricalcharacteristics
characteristicsofofan
anLLcircuit
circuitisisthat
thatcurrent
currentlags
lags
voltage by 90 electrical degrees
voltage by 90 electrical degrees

 Because
Becausethethecurrent
currentand
andvoltage
voltagewaveswavesarae
arae90 90ooout
outofofphase,
phase,there
theresre sretimes
timeswhen
when
one
oneisispositive
positivewhile
whilethe
theother
otherisisnegative,
negative,resulting
resultingininequally
equallyfrequent
frequentoccurences
occurencesofof
negative
negativeinstantaneous
instantaneouspower.
power.
 Negative
Negativepower
powermeans
meansthat
thatthetheinductor
inductorisisreleasing
releasingpower
powerback
backto tothe
thecircuit,
circuit,while
whileaa
positive
positivepower
powermeans
meansthat
thatititisisabsorbing
absorbingpower
powerfrom
fromthethecircuit.
circuit.
 The
Theinductor
inductorreleases
releasesjust
justas
asmuch
muchpower
powerback
backtotothe
thecircuit
circuitas
asititabsorbs
absorbsover
overthe
the
span
spanofofaacomplete
completecycle.
cycle.
AC CIRCUITS
 AC INDUCTOR CIRCUIT
oo Inductive
Inductivereactance
reactanceisisthe
theopposition
oppositionthat
thatananinductor
inductoroffers
offersto
toalternating
alternating
current
currentdue
duetotoits
itsphase-shifted
phase-shiftedstorage
storageand
andrelease
releaseof
ofenergy
energyininits
its
magnetic
magneticfield.
field.Reactance
Reactanceisissymbolized
symbolizedbybythe
thecapital
capitalletter
letter“X”
“X”and
andisis
measured
measuredininohms
ohmsjust
justlike
likeresistance
resistance(R).
(R).

oo Inductive
Inductivereactance
reactancecan
canbe
becalculated
calculatedusing
usingthis
thisformula:
formula:XXL L==2πfL
2πfL

oo The
Theangular
angularvelocity
velocityof
ofan
anAC
ACcircuit
circuitisisanother
anotherway
wayofofexpressing
expressingits
its
frequency,
frequency,ininunits
unitsof
ofelectrical
electricalradians
radiansper persecond
secondinstead
insteadof
ofcycles
cyclesper
per
second.
second.ItItisissymbolized
symbolizedby bythe
thelowercase
lowercaseGreek
Greekletter
letter“omega,”
“omega,”ororω.ω.

oo Inductive
Inductivereactance
reactanceincreases
increaseswith
withincreasing
increasingfrequency.
frequency.InInother
otherwords,
words,
the
thehigher
higherthe
thefrequency,
frequency,the
themore
moreititopposes
opposesthe
theAC
ACflow
flowofofelectrons.
electrons.

AC CIRCUITS
 AC CAPACITOR CIRCUIT

Impedance
Impedance(Z)
(Z)==-jX
-jXCC

 The
Themost
mostdistinguishing
distinguishingelectrical
electricalcharacteristics
characteristicsofofan
anCCcircuit
circuitisisthat
thatleads
leadsthe
thevoltage
voltage
by 90 electrical degrees
by 90 electrical degrees

 The
Thecurrent
currentthrough
throughaacapacitor
capacitorisisaareaction
reactionagainst
againstthe
thechange
changeininvoltage
voltageacross
acrossitit
 AAcapacitor’s
capacitor’sopposition
oppositionto tochange
changeininvoltage
voltagetranslates
translatestotoan
anopposition
oppositionto
toalternating
alternating
voltage
voltageiningeneral,
general,which
whichisisby
bydefinition
definitionalways
alwayschanging
changinginininstantaneous
instantaneousmagnitude
magnitude
and
anddirection.
direction.For
Foranyanygiven
givenmagnitude
magnitudeofofACACvoltage
voltageatataagiven
givenfrequency,
frequency,aacapacitor
capacitor
of
ofgiven
givensize
sizewill
will“conduct”
“conduct”aacertain
certainmagnitude
magnitudeof ofAC
ACcurrent.
current.
 The
Thephase
phaseangle
angleof ofaacapacitor’s
capacitor’sopposition
oppositiontotocurrent
currentisis-90
-90o,meaning
o
,meaningthat
thataa
capacitor’s
capacitor’sopposition
oppositionto tocurrent
currentisisaanegative
negativeimaginary
imaginaryquantity
AC CIRCUITS
quantity
 AC CAPACITOR CIRCUIT
oo Capacitive
Capacitivereactance
reactanceisisthe
theopposition
oppositionthat
thataacapacitor
capacitoroffers
offerstoto
alternating
alternatingcurrent
currentdueduetotoits
itsphase-shifted
phase-shiftedstorage
storageand
andrelease
releaseof ofenergy
energy
ininits
itselectric
electricfield.
field.Reactance
Reactanceisissymbolized
symbolizedbybythe
thecapital
capitalletter
letter“X”
“X”and
andisis
measured
measuredininohmsohmsjust
justlike
likeresistance
resistance(R).
(R).

oo Capacitive
Capacitivereactance
reactancecan
canbe
becalculated
calculatedusing
usingthis
thisformula:
formula:XXCC==1/(2πfC)
1/(2πfC)

oo Capacitive
Capacitivereactance
reactancedecreases
decreaseswith
withincreasing
increasingfrequency.
frequency.InInother
otherwords,
words,
the
thehigher
higherthe
thefrequency,
frequency,the
theless
lessititopposes
opposes(the
(themore
moreitit“conducts”)
“conducts”)the
the
AC
ACflow
flowof
ofelectrons.
electrons.

AC CIRCUITS
 SERIES RESITOR-INDCUTOR CIRCUIT
 For
Foraaseries
seriesresistor-inductor
resistor-inductorcircuit,
circuit,the
thevoltage
voltageand
andcurrent
currentrelation
relationisis
determined
determinedininits
itsphase
phaseshift.
shift. Thus,
Thus,current
currentlags
lagsvoltage
voltageby
byaaphase
phaseshift
shift
(θ)
(θ)

Impedance
Impedance(Z)
(Z)==RR++jX
jXLL
Admittance
Admittance(Y)
(Y)== 11 == RR––jX jXLL
RR++jX
jXLL RR22++jX
jXLL22
AC CIRCUITS
 SERIES RESITOR-INDCUTOR CIRCUIT

Phase
Phaseshift
shift(θ)
(θ)==Arctan
Arctan((XXLL)) |Z|
|Z|==√√RR22++jX
jXLL22== ee
RR ii
oo When
Whenresistors
resistorsand
andinductors
inductorsare
aremixed
mixedtogether
togetherinincircuits,
circuits,the
thetotal
total
impedance
impedancewill willhave
haveaaphase
phaseangle
anglesomewhere
somewherebetween
between00ooand and+90
+90oo.. The
The
circuit
circuitcurrent
currentwill
willhave
haveaaphase
phaseangle
anglesomewhere
somewherebetween
between00ooandand-90
-90oo. .
Series
SeriesAC
ACcircuits
circuitsexhibit
exhibitthe
thesame
samefundamental
fundamentalproperties
propertiesas asseries
seriesDC
DC
circuits:
circuits:current
currentisisuniform
uniformthroughout.
throughout.

AC CIRCUITS
 SERIES RESISTOR-CAPACITOR CIRCUIT
 For a series resistor – capacitor circuit, the voltage and current relation is
determined by the phase shift. Thus the current leads the voltage by an
angle less than 90 degrees but greater than 0 degrees.

Impedance
Impedance(Z)
(Z)==RR––jX
jXCC
Admittance
Admittance(Y)
(Y)== 11 == RR++jX jXCC
RR––jX
jXCC RR22++jXjXCC22
AC CIRCUITS
SERIES RESISTOR-CAPACITOR CIRCUIT

Phase
Phaseshift
shift(θ)
(θ)==Arctan
Arctan((XXCC)) |Z|
|Z|==√√RR22++jX
jXCC22== ee
RR ii

AC CIRCUITS
 PARALLEL RESISTOR-INDUCTOR

YY==GG––jβjβL L where:
where: GG––conductance
conductance == 1/R
1/R
ββL L––susceptance
susceptance == 1/X
1/XL L
ZZ==EE , ,by
byOhm’s
Ohm’sLaw
Law
II

 The
Thebasic
basicapproachwith
approachwithregarda
regardato
toparallel
parallelcircuits
circuitsisisusing
usingadmittance
admittance
because
becauseititisisadditive
additive AC CIRCUITS
 PARALLEL RESISTOR-INDUCTOR

oo When
Whenresistors
resistorsand
andinductors
inductorsare
aremixed
mixedtogether
togetherininparallel
parallelcircuits
circuits(just
(just
like
likeininseries
seriescicuits),
cicuits),the
thetotal
totalimpedance
impedancewill willhave
haveaaphase
phaseangle
angle
somewhere
somewherebetween
between00ooandand+90
+90oo. . The
Thecircuit
circuitcurrent
currentwill
willhave
haveaaphase
phase
angle
anglesomewhere
somewherebetween
between00ooandand-90 -90oo. .

oo Parallel
ParallelAC
ACcircuits
circuitsexhibit
exhibitthe
thesame
samefundamental
fundamentalproperties
propertiesas
asparallel
parallelDC
DC
circuits:
circuits:voltage
voltageisisuniform
uniformthroughour
throughourthe
thecircuit,
circuit,brach
brachcurrents
currentsadd
addtoto
form
formthe
thetotal
totalcurrent,
current,and
andimpedances
impedancesdiminish
diminish(through
(throughthe
thereciprocal
reciprocal
formula)
formula)to toform
formthethetotal
totalimpedance.
impedance.

AC CIRCUITS
 PARALLEL RESISTOR-CAPACITOR

YY==GG++jβjβCC where:
where: GG––conductance
conductance == 1/R
1/R
ββCC––susceptance
susceptance == 1/X
1/XCC

oo When
Whenresistors
resistorsand
andcapacitors
capacitorsare
aremixxed
mixxedtogether
togetherinincircuits,
circuits,the
thetotal
total
impedance
impedancewill
willhave
haveaaphase
phaseangle
anglesomewhere
somewherebetween
between00ooandand-90-90oo. .

AC CIRCUITS
 APPARENT POWER (S)
APPARENT POWER
 Represents the rate at which the total energy is supplied to the
system
 Measured in volt-amperes (VA)
 It has two components, the Real Power and the Capacitive or
Inductive Reactive Power

S = Vrms Irms = Irms2 |Z|

POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
 APPARENT POWER (S)
Power Triangle

Complex Power

S = P ± jQ
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
 REAL POWER (R)
REAL POWER
 The power consumed by the resistive component
 Also called True Power, Useful Power and Productive Power
 Measured in Watts (W)
 It is equal to the product of the apparent power and the power factor

P = Scos θ
Power Factor
 Cosine
 Cosineof
ofthe
thepower
powerfactor
factorangle
angle(θ)(θ)
 Measure
 Measureofofthe
thepower
powerthat
thatisisdissipated
dissipatedbybythe
thecicuit
cicuitininrelation
relationto
tothe
the
apparent
apparentpower
powerand
andisisusually
usuallygiven
givenasasaadecimal
decimalor
orpercentage
percentage

Pf = cos θ
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
 REAL POWER (R)
 Ratio
Ratioofofthe
theReal
RealPower
Powerto
tothe
theApparent
ApparentPower
Power(( PP ))
SS
when:
when:
PfPf==1.0
1.0 I Iisisininphase
phasewith
withV;
V;resistive
resistivesystem
system
PfPf==lagging
lagging I Ilags
lagsVVbybyθ;θ;inductive
inductivesystem
system
PfPf==leading
leading I Ileads
leadsVVby byθ;θ;capacitive
capacitivesystem
system
PfPf==0.0
0.0lag
lag I Ilags
lagsVVbyby90o;
90o;purely
purelyinductive
inductive
PfPf==0.0
0.0lead
lead I Ileads
leadsVVby by90o;
90o;purely
purelycapacitive
capacitive
Power factor Angle (θ)

 The
Theangle
anglebetween
betweenthe
theapparent
apparentpower
powerand
andthe
thereal
realpoweer
poweerininthe
thepower
powertriangle
triangle

Let
Let v(t)
v(t)==VVmmcos(ωt
cos(ωt++θθv)v)volts
volts
∠θv v
rms ∠θ
VV==VVrms

i(t)
i(t)==ImImcos(ωt
cos(ωt++θθi)i)AA
Irmss∠θ
I I==Irm ∠θi i
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
 REAL POWER (R)
Instantaneous Power (watts)

P(t)
P(t)==v(t)
v(t)i(t)
i(t)

P(t)
P(t)==½½VVmmIImmcos
cos(θ
(θvv––θθi)i)++½½VVmmIImmcos
cos(2ωt
(2ωt++θθvv++θθi)i)

Average Power (watts)

P(t)
P(t)==½½VVmmIImmcos
cos(θ
(θvv––θθi)i)==VVmmIImmcos
cosθθ

Where:
Where: θθ==phase
phaseshfit
shfitbetween
betweenv(t)
v(t)and
andi(t)
i(t)or
orthe
thephase
phaseangle
angleof
ofthe
the
equivalent
equivalentimpedance
impedance
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
 REACTIVE POWER (QL or QC)
REACTIVE POWER
 Represents the rate at which energy is stored or released in any of the
energy storing elements (the inductor or the capacitor)
 Also called the imaginary power, non-productive or wattless power
 Measured in volt-ampere reactive (Var)
 When the capacitor and inductor are both present, the reactive power
associated with them take opposite signs since they do not store or
release energy at the same time
 It is positive for inductive power (QL) and negative for capacitive
power (QC)
Q = V I sin θ
Q = VmmImm sin θ
Reactive factor
 Ratio
Ratioof
ofthe
theReactive
ReactivePower
Powertotothe
theApparent
ApparentPower
Power
 Sine
Sineof
ofthe
thepower
powerfactor
factorangle
angle(θ)
(θ)
Rf
Rf==sin
sinθθ
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
 BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEMS
BALANCED 3-PHASE SYSTEM
 Comprises of three identical single-phase systems operating at a 120 o
phase displacement from one another. This means that a balance
three-phase system provides three voltages(and currents) that are
equal in magnitude and separated by 120o from each other

CLASSIFICATION
Three-Phase,
Three-Phase,3-wire
3-wiresystems
systems
 Provide
Provideonly
onlyone
onetype
typeof
ofvoltage(line
voltage(lineto
toline)
line)both
bothsingle
singlephase
phaseand
and
three
threephase
phaseloads
loads

Three-Phase,
Three-Phase,4-wire
4-wiresystems
systems
 Provide
Providetwo
twotypes
typesof
ofvoltages(line
voltages(lineto
toline
lineand
andline
lineto
toneutral)
neutral)to
toboth
both
single
singlephase
phaseand
andthree
threephase
phaseloads
loads

BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEM

 BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEMS
BALANCED Y-system
VVLLLL==√3
√3VVLNLN and
and ILIL==IPIP
VVLLLLand
andVVLNLNare
areout
outof
ofphase
phaseby
by30
30oo

BALANCED ∆-system
ILIL==√3
√3IPIP and
and VVLLLL==VVLNLN

ILILand
andIPIPare
areout
outof
ofphase
phaseby
by30
30oo

Where:
Where:VVLLLLor orVVL L--line
lineto
toline
lineor
orline
linevoltage
voltage
VVLNLN ororVVPP--line
lineto
toneutral
neutralororphase
phasevoltage
voltage
ILIL--line
linecurrent
current
IPIP--phase
phasecurrent
current
BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEM
 ALTERNATING CURRENT
Note:
Note:for
forbalanced
balanced3-phase
3-phasesystems:
systems:
IAIA++IBIB++ICIC==00

VA
VANN++VVBNBN++VVCNCN==00

VVABAB++VVBCBC++VVCACA==00

THREE-PHASE
VJH
VJH POWER
PP==3V
3VPPIPIPcos
cosθθ==√3
√3VVLILLILcos
cosθθ watts
watts
QQ==3V
3VPPIPIPsin
sinθθ==√3
√3VVLILLILsin
sinθθ vars
vars
SS==3V
3VPPIPIP==√3
√3VVLILLIL va
va

BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEM

 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The description of two sine waves that are in step with each other
going through their maximum and minimum points ate the same
time and in the same direction.
a. Sine waves in phase
b. Stepped sine waves
c. Phased sine waves
d. Sine waves in coordination

2. Term used for the out of phase, non-productive power associated

with inductors and capacitors.
a. Effective power
b. True power
c. Reactive power
d. Peak envelope power
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
3. Refers to a reactive power.
a. Wattles, non productive power
b. Power consumed in circuit Q
c. Power loss because of capacitor leakage
d. Power consumed in wire resistance in an inductor

4. Term used for an out-of-phase, non-productive power

associated with inductors and capacitors.
a. Effective power
b. Reactive power
c. Peak envelope power
d. True power
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
5. The product of current and voltage in an AC circuit refers to the
a. Real power
b. Useful power
c. Apparent power
d. DC power

6. The distance covered or traveled by a waveform during the time

interval of one complete cycle.
a. Frequency
b. Wavelength
c. Time slot
d. Wave time
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
7. The power dissipated accross the resistance in an AC
circuit.
a. Real power
b. Reactive power
c. Apparent power
d. True power

8. It is the number of complete cycles of alternating voltage or

current complete each second
a. Period
b. Frequency
c. Amplitude
d. Phase
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
9. How many degrees are there in one complete cycle?
a. 720 deg
b. 360 deg
c. 180 deg
d. 90 deg

10. The impedance in the study of electronics is represented

by resistance and ___ .
a. Reactance
b. Inductance and capacitance
c. Inductance
d. capacitance
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
11. It is the current that is eliminated by a synchro capacitor?
a. Magnetizing stator
b. Loss
c. Stator
d. Rotor

12. It is a rotaing sector that represent either current or

voltage in an AC circuit.
a. Resistance
b. Phasor
c. Solar diagram
d. velocity
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
13. The relationship of the voltage accros an inductor to its current is
described as
a. Leading the current by 90 deg
b. Lagging the current by 90 deg
c. Leading the current by 180 deg
d. In phase with the current

14. Find the phase angle between the voltage across through the cicuit
when Xc is 25ohms, R is 100 ohms and XL is 50 ohms.
a. 76 deg with the voltage leading the current
b. 24 deg with the voltage lagging the current
c. 14 deg with the voltage lagging the current
d. 76 deg with the voltage lagging the current
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
15. Calculate the period of an alternating current having a equation of
I=20sin 120πt
a. 4.167 ms
b. 8.33 ms
c. 16.67 ms
d. 33.33 ms

16. What do you mean by root-mean-square (rms) value?

a. It is the average value
b. It is the effective value
c. It is the value that causes the same heating effect as the DC
voltage
d. b or c
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
17. The maximum instances value of a vrying current, voltage or power
equal to 1.414 times the effective value of a sine wave.
a. RMS value
b. Peak value
c. Effective value
d. Peak to Peak value

18. If an AC signal has a peak voltage of 55V, what is the average

value?
a. 34.98 V
b. 61.05V
c. 86.34 V
d. 38.89 V
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
19. If an AC signal has an average voltage of 18V, what is the rms
voltage?
a. 12.726 V
b. 19.980 V
c. 25.380 V
d. 16.213 V

20. A 220-V, 60Hz is driving a series RL circuit. Determine the current if

R=100 ohms and 20 mH inductance
a. 2.2 A (lagging)
b. 2.0 A (lagging)
c. 2.2 A (leading)
d. 2.0 A (leading)
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
21. Ignoring any inductive effects, what is the impedance of RC series
capacitor made up of a 56K ohm resistor and a 0.33uF capacitor at
a signal frequency of 4650 Hz.
a. 66730 ohms
b. 57019 ohms
c. 45270 ohms
d. 10730 ohms

22.What is the time constant of a 500mH coil and a 3300 ohm resistor
in series?
a. 0.00015 sec
b. 6.6 sec
c. 0.0015 sec
d. 0.0000015 sec
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
23. What is the realtionship between frequency and the value of XC ?
a. Frequency has no effect
b. XC varies inversely with frequency
c. XC varies indirectly with frequency
d. XC varies directly with frequency

24. The reactance of a 25mH coil at 5000Hz which of the following?

a. 785 ohms
b. 785000 ohms
c. 13 ohms
d. 0.0012 ohms
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
25. There are no transients in pure resistive circuites becaus
they
a. Offer high resistance
b. Obey ohm’s Law
c. Are linear circuits
d. Have no stored energy

26. The reciprocal of capacitance is called

a. Elastance
b. Conductance
c. Permitivity
d. permeability
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
27. The AC system is prefered over DC system because
a. Ac voltages can easily changed in amgnitude
b. Dc motors do not have fine speed control
c. High voltage AC transmission is less efficient
d. DC voltage cannot be used for domestic aplliences

28. An altenating voltage is given by v = 20 sin 157 t. The

frequency of the alternating voltage is
a. 50 Hz
b. 25 HZ
c. 100 Hz
d. 75 Hz
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
29. An alternating current given by i = 10 sin 314 t. The time taken to
generate two cycles of current is
a. 20 ms
b. 10 ms
c. 40 ms
d. 50 ms

30. In a pure resistive circuit, the instantaneous voltage and are current are
given by:
v=250 sin 314t i=10sin314t
The peak power in the circuit is
a.1250 W
b. 25 W
c. 2500 W
d. 250 w
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
31. An average value of 6.63 A is _____ the effective value of 7.07 A.
a. The same area
b. Less than
c. Greater than
d. Any of these

32. In an R-L series circuit, the resistance is 10 ohms and the inductive
reactance is 10 ohms. The phase angle between the applied voltage
and circuit current will be
a. 45 deg
b. 30 deg
c. 60 deg
d. 36.8 deg
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
33.An R-L series ac circuit has 15V across the resistor and 20V across
the inductor. The supply volatge is
a. 35 V
b. 5 V
c. 25 V
d. 175 V

34. The active and reactive powers of an inductive circuit are equal.
The power factor of the circuit is
a. 0.8 lagging
b. 0.707 lagging
c. 0.6 lagging
d. 0.5 lagging
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
35. A circuit when connected to 200V mains takes a current of 20 A, leading
the voltage by one-twelfth of time period. The circuit resistance is
a. 10 ohms
b. 8.66 ohms
c. 20 ohms
d. 17.32 ohms

36. An AC circuit has a resistance of 6 ohms, inductive reactance of 20 ohms,

and capacitive reactance of 12 ohms. The circuit power will be
a. 0.8 lagging
b. 0.8 leading
c. 0.6 lagging
d. 0.6 leading
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
37. An alternating voltage of 80 + j60 V is applied to a circuit and the
current flowing is -40 + j10 A. Find the phase angle.
a. 25 deg
b. 50 deg
c. 75 deg
d. 100 deg

38. A current wave is represented by the equation i = 10 sin 251t. The

average and RMS value of current are
a. 7.07 A; 6.63A
b. 6.36A; 7.07A
c. 10A; 7.07A
d. 6.36A; 10A
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
39. Calculate the susceptance in mho of a circuit consisting of resistor of 10
ohms in series with a conductor of 0.1H, when the frequency is 50Hz.
a. 0.0303
b. 0.0092
c. -0.029
d. 32.95

40. An inductive circuit of resistance 16.5 ohms and inductive of 0.14H takes
a current of 25 A. If the frequency is 50Hz, the supply voltage is
a. 117.4 V
b. 1174 V
c. 1714 V
d. 1471 V
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
41. The current taken by a circuit is 1.2 A when the applied potential
difference is 250 V and the power taken is 135W. The power factor
is
a. 0.35
b. 0.45
c. 0.55
d. 0.65

42. A capacitor has a capacitance of 20uF. The current supplied if it is

placed across a 1100 V, 25 Hz supply.
a. 3.554 A
b. 6.91 A
c. 3.45 A
d. 9.61 A
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
43. A non-inductive load takes a 100A at 100V. Calculate the inductance of
the inductor to be connected in series in order that the same current is
supplied from 220 V, 50 Hz mains.
a. 1.96 ohms
b. 6.91 ohms
c. 19.6 ohms
d. 9.61 ohms

44. An inductor having negligible resistance and an inductance of 0.07H is

connected in series with a resiostor of 20 ohms resitance across a 200, 50
Hz supply. The maximum energy stored in the coil is
a. 3.175 J
b. 1.585 J
c. 0.236 J
d. 0.33 J
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
45. A coil has 1200 turns and procedures 100 uWb mwhen the current
flowing is 1A. The inductance of the coil is
a. 0.21 H
b. 0.12 H
c. 0.31 H
d. 0.41 H

46. A capacitor connected to a 115 V, 25 Hz supply takes 5 A. What

current will it take when the capacitance and frequency are
doubled?
a. 2 A
b. 5 S
c. 10 A
d. 20 A
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
47. A resistor of 20 ohms is connected in parallel with a capacitor across a
110 V, 40 Hz supply. If the current taken is 6A, what is the capacitance?
a. 88.6 uF
b. 68.8 uF
c. 86.8 uF
d. 76.8 uF

48. What capacitance must be placed in series with an inductance of 0.05H,

so that when the frequency is 100 Hz, the impedance becomes equal to
the ohmic resitance?
a. 70.5 uF
b. 50.7 uF
c. 5.7 uF
d. 7.05 uF
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
49. A reactance of 20 ohms and inductance of 0.1 H is connected in
parallel with a capacitor. The capacitance of the capacitor required
to produce a resonance when connected to a 100V, 50 Hz is
a. 71.2 uF
b. 1.277 uF
c. 17.2 uF
d. 72.1 uF

50. What is the resonant frequency of a circuit when an inductance of

1uH and capacitance of 10 picofarad are in series?
a. 15.9 MHz
b. 50.3 MHz
c. 15.9 kHz
d. 50.3 KHz
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
51. The _____ the Q of a circuit, the narrower the bandwidth.
a. Lower
b. Higher
c. Broader
d. Selective

52. Find the half power bandwidth of a parallel resonant circuit which
has a resonant frequency of 3.6MHz and Q of 218.
a. 606 kHz
b. 58.7 kHz
c. 16.5 kHz
d. 47.3 kHz
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
53. At series resonance _____ .
a. Circuit impedance is very large
b. Cicuit power factor is minimum
c. Voltage across L or C is zero
d. Circuit power factor is unity

54. At series resonance, the voltage across the inductor is

a. Equal to the applied voltage
b. Much more than the apllied voltage
c. Equal to voltage across R
d. Less than the applied voltage
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
55. The Q factor of the coil is _____ the resistance of the coil.
a. Inversely proportional to
b. Directly proportional to
c. Independent of
d. None of these

56. An RLC circuit is connected is connected to 200V AC source. If Q

factor of the coil is 10, then the voltage across the capacitor at
resonance is
a. 200 V
b. 2000 V
c. 20 V
d. 210 V
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
57. At parallel resonance
a. Circuit impedance is minimum
b. Power factor is zero
c. Line current is maximum
d. Power factor is unity

58. The dynamic impedance of parallel resonant circuit is 1 Mohms. If

the capacitance is 1uF, and the resistance is 1ohm, then the value
of the inductance
a. 1 H
b. 10 H
c. 10 pH
d. 10 uH
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
59. When supply frequency is less than the resonant frequency in a
parallel ac circuit, then the circuit is
a. Resistive
b. Capacitive
c. Inductive
d. None of these

60. At parallel resonance, the circuit drwas a current of 2mA. If the Q

of the circuit is 100, then the current through the capacitor is
a. 2 mA
b. 1 mA
c. 200 mA
d. None of these
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
61. A circuit has an impedance of (1-j2) ohms. The susceptance of the
circuit in mho is
a. 0.1
b. 0.2
c. 0.4
d. None of these

62. If the admittance of a parallel ac circuit increased, the circuit

current
a. Remains constant
b. Is increased
c. Is decreased
d. None of these
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
63. The resistance between any pair two terminals of a balanced wye-
connected load is 12 ohms.
a. 6 ohms
b. 18 ohms
c. 24 ohms
d. None of these

64. If an AC circuit contains three nodes, the number of each mesh

equations that can be formulated is
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
65. The relation of the voltage across an
inductor to its current is describe as
a. Leading the current by 90 deg
b. Lagging the current by 90 deg
c. Leading the current by 180 deg
d. In phase with the current
THANk YOU