CIRCUIT 2: IMPEDANCE

I. COMPLEX NUMBERS
II. APPLYING COMPLEX NUMBERS TO SERIES AC CIRCUITS
THE RECTANGULAR FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER
A complex number is of the form (𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏) where a is
a real number and jb is an imaginary number .
Therefore, 1 + 𝑗2 and (5 − 𝑗𝑏) are examples of
complex numbers.

By definition, 𝑗 = −1 and 𝑗 2 = −1

(Note: In electrical engineering, the letter j is used to

represent −1 instead of the letter i , as commonly
used in pure mathematics, because i is reserved for
current.

Figure 1. Retrieved from Ref [1]. The

Argand diagram.
THE POLAR FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER
In Figure 2, 𝑍 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑗𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) from trigonometry

This latter form is usually abbreviated to

𝑍 = 𝑟∠𝜃,

and is called the polar form of a complex number.

where,
𝑟 = is called the modulus (or magnitude of Z)

and 𝑟 is determined from Pythagora’s theorem in triangle OAZ.

𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

The modulus is represented on the Argand diagram by the

Figure 2. Retrieved from Ref [1]. Polar form of
distance OZ. 𝜃 is called the argument (or amplitude) of Z. 𝜃 is also
complex number.
deduced from triangle OAZ:
𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1 𝑥
THE POLAR FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER
Conversion from Rectangular to Polar Form

Convert (3 + 𝑗4) to polar form 𝑟∠𝜃

Solution:
𝑟 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 32 + 4 2 = 5
4
𝜃 = tan−1 3 = 53.13𝑜
4
Hence, 3 + 𝑗4 = 5∠53.13°
3

Figure 3. Retrieved from Ref [1]. Polar form of

complex number.
THE POLAR FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER
Similarly, convert (−3 + 𝑗4) to polar form 𝑟∠𝜃
Solution:
𝑟 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 32 + 4 2 = 5
4
𝜃 ′ = tan−1 = 53.13𝑜
3

and, 𝜃 = 180𝑜 − 53.130 = 126.87𝑜

Hence, −3 + 𝑗4 = 5∠126.87𝑜

Conversion from Polar to Rectangular Form

𝑦
x = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜃 = tan−1
𝑥
y = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Figure 4. Retrieved from Ref [1]. Polar form of
complex number.
OPERATION INVOLVING CARTESIAN COMPLEX NUMBER
Addition (best in Rectangular) Multiplication (best in Polar)
𝐴 = (𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏) 𝐴 = 𝑎∠𝜃1
𝐵 = (𝑐 + 𝑗𝑏) B= 𝑎∠𝜃2

(𝐴 + 𝐵) = (𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏) + (𝑐 + 𝑗𝑏) = (𝑎 + 𝑐) + 𝑗(𝑏 + 𝑑) 𝐴 × 𝐵 = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)∠(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )

Ex: 3 + 𝑗2 + 2 − 𝑗4 = 3 + 2 + 𝑗 2 − 4 = 5 − 𝑗2

Subtraction (best in Rectangular) Division (best in Polar)

𝐴 = (𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏) 𝐴 = 𝑎∠𝜃1
𝐵 = (𝑐 + 𝑗𝑏) B= 𝑎∠𝜃2

𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑗𝑏 = 𝑎 − 𝑐 + 𝑗(𝑏 − 𝑑) 𝐴 𝑎
= ( )∠(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
𝐵 𝑏
𝐸𝑥: 3 + 𝑗2 − 2 − 𝑗4 = 3 − 2 + 𝑗 2 + 4 = 1 + 𝑗6
https://i0.wp.com/www.electrical4u.net/wp-
content/uploads/2018/06/Impedance-
triangle.png IMPEDANCE

is called “IMPEDANCE”

The letter symbol for impedance is (Z)

The total opposition to the flow of current in an ac circuit

https://electricalacademia.com/wp-
content/uploads/2019/01/ACcircuitsandImpedance.jpg
APPLYING COMPLEX NUMBERS TO SERIES AC CIRCUITS
PURE RESITANCE

In an AC circuit containing resistance R only (see Figure

5(a)), the current 𝐼𝑅 is in phase with the applied voltage
𝑉𝑅 as shown in the phasor diagram of Figure 5(b) . The
phasor diagram may be superimposed on the Argand
diagram as shown in Figure 5(c) . The impedance Z of
the circuit is given by:

𝑉𝑅 ∠0𝑜
𝑍= =𝑅
𝐼𝑅 ∠0𝑜

Figure 5. Retrieved from Ref [1] (a) Circuit

diagram; (b) Phasor diagram; (c) Argand
diagram
APPLYING COMPLEX NUMBERS TO SERIES AC CIRCUITS
PURE INDUCTANCE

In an AC circuit containing pure inductance L only (see

Figure 6(a), the current 𝐼𝐿 lags the applied voltage 𝑉𝐿 by
90° as shown in the phasor diagram of Figure 6(b). The
phasor diagram may be superimposed on the Argand
diagram as shown in Figure 6(c) . The impedance Z of
the circuit is given by:

𝑉𝐿 ∠90𝑜 𝑉𝐿 𝑜 = 𝑋 ∠90𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝑗𝑋
𝑍= = ∠90 𝐿 𝐿
𝐼𝐿 ∠0𝑜 𝐼𝐿

where 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 ohms Figure 6. Retrieved from Ref [1] (a) Circuit diagram; (b)
Phasor diagram; (c) Argand diagram
Where 𝑓 is the frequency in hertz and L is the
inductance in henry.
APPLYING COMPLEX NUMBERS TO SERIES AC CIRCUITS
PURE CAPACITANCE

In an AC circuit containing pure capacitance only (see

Figure 7(a), the current 𝐼𝐶 leads the applied voltage 𝑉𝐶 by
90° as shown in the phasor diagram of Figure 7(b). The
phasor diagram may be superimposed on the Argand
diagram as shown in Figure 7(c) . The impedance Z of the
circuit is given by:

𝑉𝐶 ∠ − 90𝑜 𝑉𝐶 𝑜 = 𝑋 ∠ − 90𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝑗𝑋
𝑍= = ∠ − 90 𝐶 𝐶
𝐼𝐶 ∠0𝑜 𝐼𝐶

where 𝑋𝐶 is the capacitive reactance given by: Figure 7. Retrieved from Ref [1] (a) Circuit diagram; (b)
Phasor diagram; (c) Argand diagram
1 1
𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 ohms

Where 𝐶 is the capacitance in farads.

APPLYING COMPLEX NUMBERS TO SERIES AC CIRCUITS
R-L SERIES CIRCUIT

In an AC circuit containing resistance R and inductance L in

series (see Figure 8(a)), the applied voltage V is the phasor
sum of 𝑉𝑅 and 𝑉𝐿 as shown in the phasor diagram of Figure
8(b) . The current I lags the applied voltage V by an angle
lying between 0° and 90°—the actual value depending on
the values of 𝑉𝑅 and 𝑉𝐿 , which depend on the values of R
and L. The circuit phase angle, that is, the angle between
the current and the applied voltage, is shown as angle φ in
the phasor diagram. In any series circuit the current is
common to all components and is taken as the reference
phasor in Figure 8(b) . The phasor diagram may be Figure 8. Retrieved from Ref [1] (a) Circuit diagram; (b)
superimposed on the Argand diagram as shown in Figure Phasor diagram; (c) Argand diagram
8(c), where it may be seen that in complex form the supply
voltage V is given by:

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑗𝑉𝐿
APPLYING COMPLEX NUMBERS TO SERIES AC CIRCUITS
R-L SERIES CIRCUIT

Figure 9(a) shows the voltage triangle that is derived from

the phasor diagram of Figure 9(b) (triangle Oab). If each
side of the voltage triangle is divided by current I, then the
impedance triangle of Figure 9(b) is derived. The
impedance triangle may be superimposed on the Argand
diagram, as shown in Figure 9(c) , where it may be seen
that in complex form the impedance Z is given by:

𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿
For example, an impedance expressed as 3 + 𝑗4 Ω
means that the resistance is 3Ω and the inductive Figure 9. Retrieved from Ref [1] (a) Voltage triangle; (b)
reactance is 4Ω . Impedance triangle; (c) Argand diagram

In polar form, Z=|Z|∠φ where, from the impedance

triangle, the modulus of impedance 𝑍 = 𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿2
𝑋𝐿
and the circuit phase angle 𝜑 = tan−1 𝑅
lagging.
APPLYING COMPLEX NUMBERS TO SERIES AC CIRCUITS
R-C SERIES CIRCUIT

In an AC circuit containing resistance R and capacitance C

in series (see Figure 10(a)), the applied voltage V is the
phasor sum of 𝑉𝑅 and 𝑉𝐶 as shown in the phasor diagram
of Figure 10(b). The current I leads the applied voltage V
by an angle lying between 0° and 90°—the actual value
depending on the values of 𝑉𝑅 and 𝑉𝐶 , which depend on
the values of R and C. The circuit phase angle is shown as
angle φ in the phasor diagram. The phasor diagram may be
superimposed on the Argand diagram as shown in Figure
10(c), where it may be seen that in complex form the
supply voltage V is given by: Figure 10. Retrieved from Ref [1] (a) Circuit diagram; (b)
Phasor diagram; (c) Argand diagram
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 − 𝑗𝑉𝐶
APPLYING COMPLEX NUMBERS TO SERIES AC CIRCUITS
R-C SERIES CIRCUIT

Figure 11(a) shows the voltage triangle that is derived from

the phasor diagram of Figure 11(b) . If each side of the
voltage triangle is divided by current I, the impedance
triangle is derived as shown in Figure 11(b) . The
impedance triangle may be superimposed on the Argand
diagram as shown in Figure 11(c) , where it may be seen
that in complex form the impedance Z is given by:

𝑍 = 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶

Thus, for example, an impedance expressed as 9 − 𝑗14 Ω Figure 11. Retrieved from Ref [1] (a) Voltage triangle; (b)
means that the resistance is 9Ω and the capacitive Impedance triangle; (c) Argand diagram
reactance 𝑋𝐶 is 14 Ω .
In polar form, Z = |Z|∠𝜑 where, from the impedance
𝑋𝐶
triangle, angle, 𝑍 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 and 𝜑 = tan−1 𝑅
leading.
APPLYING COMPLEX NUMBERS TO SERIES AC CIRCUITS
R-L-C SERIES CIRCUIT

In an AC circuit containing resistance R, inductance L and

capacitance C in series (see Figure 12(a) ), the applied
voltage V is the phasor sum of 𝑉𝑅 , 𝑉𝐿 and 𝑉𝐶 as shown in
the phasor diagram of Figure 12(b) (where the condition
𝑉𝐿 > 𝑉𝐶 is shown). The phasor diagram may be
superimposed on the Argand diagram as shown in Figure
12(c) , where it may be seen that in complex form the
supply voltage V is given by:

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑗(𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 )

From the voltage triangle the impedance triangle is Figure 12. Retrieved from Ref [1] (a) Circuit diagram; (b)
derived and superimposing this on the Argand diagram Phasor diagram; (c) Argand diagram
gives, in complex form,
Impedance 𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 or Z = |Z|∠𝜑
where,
𝑍 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 2 and 𝜑 = tan−1 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 /𝑅
APPLYING COMPLEX NUMBERS TO SERIES AC CIRCUITS

GENERAL SERIES CIRCUIT

In an AC circuit containing several impedance connected in

series, say, 𝑍1 , 𝑍2 , 𝑍3 , … , 𝑍𝑛 then the total equivalent
impedance 𝑍𝑇 is given by:

𝑍𝑇 = 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3 + ⋯ + 𝑍𝑛
 APPLYING COMPLEX NUMBERS TO SERIES AC CIRCUITS

Example 1. Determine the values of the resistance and the

series-connected inductance or capacitance for each of the
following impedances: (a) 12 + 𝑗5 Ω ; (b) −𝑗40Ω ; (c)
30∠60° Ω ; (d) 2.20 × 106 ∠-30° Ω . Assume for each a
frequency of 50 Hz.
 APPLYING COMPLEX NUMBERS TO SERIES AC CIRCUITS

Example 2. Determine, in polar and rectangular forms, the

current flowing in an inductor of negligible resistance and
inductance 159.2 mH when it is connected to a 250 V, 50
Hz supply.
 APPLYING COMPLEX NUMBERS TO SERIES AC CIRCUITS

Example 3. A 3- μ F capacitor is connected to a supply of

frequency 1 kHz and a current of 2.83∠ 90°A flows.
Determine the value of the supply voltage.
 APPLYING COMPLEX NUMBERS TO SERIES AC CIRCUITS

Example 4. The impedance of an electrical circuit is (3 −

𝑗50) ohms. Determine (a) the resistance, (b) the
capacitance, (c) the modulus of the impedance, and (d)
the current flowing and its phase angle, when the circuit is
connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply.
 APPLYING COMPLEX NUMBERS TO SERIES AC CIRCUITS

Example 5. A 200 V, 50 Hz supply is connected across a coil

of negligible resistance and inductance 0.15 H connected
in series with a 32 Ω resistor. Determine (a) the impedance
of the circuit, (b) the current and circuit phase angle, (c)
the voltage across the 32 Ω resistor, and (d) the voltage
across the coil.
 APPLYING COMPLEX NUMBERS TO SERIES AC CIRCUITS

Example 6. Determine the value of impedance if a current

of 7 + 𝑗16 A flows in a circuit when the supply voltage is
120 + 𝑗200 V. If the frequency of the supply is 5 MHz,
determine the value of the components forming the series
circuit.
 APPLYING COMPLEX NUMBERS TO SERIES AC CIRCUITS

Example 6. Determine the value of 𝑉𝑅 , 𝑉𝐿 and 𝑉𝐶 in the

given circuit.
EXERCISES

1. A solenoid having an inductance of 0.5H and resistance of 100 ohms is connected to a 120V, 60Hz source.
What is the magnitude and the phase of the current with respect to the applied emf?
(Ans: 0.563<-62)

2. A coil has an impedance of 80<80 ohms. What is the total impedance when it is connected in series with a
75 ohms resistor?
(Ans: 119<41.6)

3. A coil and a resistor each have an 80 V drop across them when connected in series to a 120V, 60Hz source. If
they draw a 0.5A current from the source what is the resistance of the coil?
(Ans: 20ohms)

4. What capacitance when connected in series with a 500 ohms resitor will limit the current drawn from a
48mV, 465kHz source of emf to 20uA? (Ans: 146pF)
REFERENCES

[1] Maxfield et. al. (2007) Electrical Engineering (Maxfield et al., 2007)

[2] T. F. Bogart Jr, Electric Circuit 2nd Edition, 1988