Network Theorems- Superposition Theorem, Maximum Power Transfer Theorem and

Norton’s Theorem

Aim: To verify Superposition theorem, Maximum Power Transfer theorem and Norton’s theorem.

Simulation: Circuit Simulator Applet

Circuit Diagram

1. Superposition Theorem

2. Maximum Power Theorem

 3. Norton’s Theorem

Theory

1. Superposition Theorem

In any linear network containing impedances, and energy sources, the current flowing in any
element is the vector sum of currents that are separately caused to flow in that element by each
energy source.
 Short circuit E2, but keep its internal resistance in the circuit (keep it in R2)

Short circuit E1, but keep its internal resistance (in R1)

According to Superposition Theorem: I1=I1' + I2'' and I2=I2' + I2''

From diagram A
𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅3
I1= 𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅2 𝑅 3+𝑅 𝑅 𝐸1 + 𝑅1𝑅2+𝑅2𝑅3+𝑅3𝑅1
𝐸2
1 2 2 3 3 1

𝑅3 𝑅1+𝑅
I2=− 𝑅1𝑅2+𝑅2𝑅3+𝑅3𝑅1
𝐸1 − 2
𝑅1𝑅2+𝑅2𝑅3+𝑅3𝑅1
𝐸2

Short circuit E2, but keep its internal resistance in the circuit (keep it in R2) as shown in diagram
B
𝑅 +𝑅
I1’ = 𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅2 𝑅 3+𝑅 𝑅 𝐸1
1 2 2 3 3 1

𝑅3
I2’ =− 𝑅1𝑅2+𝑅2𝑅3+𝑅3𝑅1
𝐸2

Short circuit E1, but keep its internal resistance (in R1)
𝑅3
I1”= 𝑅1𝑅2+𝑅2𝑅3+𝑅3𝑅1
𝐸2

𝑅1+𝑅
I2”= − 2
𝑅1𝑅2+𝑅2𝑅3+𝑅3𝑅1
𝐸2

therefore we see that

I1= I1’+ I1”

I2= I2’+ I2”

To verify the theorem first and foremost we shall construct a circuit as shown in diagram A.
Select the battery voltage values and resistance values according to you. Measure the current
through R3 and tabulate it as I3 .Construct two more circuits. This time short remove E1 in one and
E2 in another as shown in diagram C and diagram B respectively. Measure the currents through R3
in both the diagrams and tabulate them as I3’ and I3” . Check whether I3= I3’ + I3”.If it comes out to
be identical then the superposition theorem holds to be true. Repeat it for different values of R3 in
all three circuits.

2. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

The maximum power transfer theorem states that, to obtain maximum external power from a
source with a finite internal resistance, the resistance of the load must equal the resistance of the
source as viewed from its output terminals.

Derivation-

We know,

Power consumed : P=IL2RL ----------------------------(1)

where , IL is the load current and RL is the load resistance.

Load current: IL= ε/(Ri+RL) ----------------------------- (2)

where Ri is the internal resistance and ε is the battery voltage

substituting (2) in eqn (1)

2
𝑃= ( ) ε
𝑅𝑖+𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿

For maximum or minimum, the first derivative will be zero. So, differentiate Equation (1) with
respect to RL and make it equal to zero.

𝑑𝑃 2 1 𝑅𝐿
=ε [ 2 − ]
𝑑𝑅
(𝑅𝑖+𝑅𝐿 ) (𝑅𝑖+𝑅𝐿 )3
2
ε[
1
−
𝑅𝐿
=0
]
(𝑅𝑖+𝑅𝐿 )2 (𝑅𝑖+𝑅𝐿 )3

therefore,

𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝐿 = 2𝑅𝐿

𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅𝐿
 As a result, RL=Ri is the condition for maximum power dissipation over the load. That is, if the
load resistance is equal to the source resistance, i.e., Thevenin's resistance, the power dissipated
across the load will be at its maximum.

To verify the maximum power theorem we shall first construct a T-network circuit and find the
thevenin’s resistance. Then we shall measure the power dissipated(P) through various load
resistance(RL) and tabulate them. After tabulating them we shall plot a graph of P vs R L and find
the peak.If the power dissipated peaks at thevenin’s resistance the theorem is stated to be true ,
thus verifying the theorem.

3. Norton’s Theorem

According to Norton’s theorem, the current in a load resistance RL connected to two output
terminals of a network consisting of one or more voltage/current sources and resistances is same
as if the load resistance RL were connected to a constant current source IN in parallel with an
resistance RN .The Norton current IN is obtained when the two terminals connected to the load are
short-circuited together. RN is the resistance measured across the load terminals when all sources
are reduced to zero and the load resistor is open.

Voltage source: An ideal DC voltage source produces a constant load voltage for different load
resistances.

A real voltage source always has some (low) internal resistance in series with the ideal voltage
source.

Current source: An ideal DC current source produces a constant load current for different load
resistances.
A real current source always has some (high) internal resistance in parallel with the ideal current
source.

T-network circuit Norton Equivalent network

For original T-Networks:-

Current through 𝑅𝐿,

𝑅1+𝑅3
𝐼𝐿 = 𝑅1𝑅3
𝑅1+𝑅3
+𝑅 +𝑅𝐿
2

For Norton’s equivalent Circuit:-

( )
𝐼 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 − 𝐼𝑁𝑅3 = 𝐸 & ( )
𝐼𝑁 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 − 𝐼𝑅3 = 0

On solving these two equations:

 𝐸𝑅3
𝐼𝑁 = 𝑅1𝑅2+𝑅2𝑅3+𝑅 𝑅3
1

Also,
𝑅1𝑅3
𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅2 + 𝑅1+𝑅3

The current flowing through 𝑅𝐿 is,

𝐼𝑁𝑅𝑁
𝐼𝐿 = 𝑅𝑁+𝑅
𝐿

𝐼𝑁
= 𝑅
1+ 𝑅𝑁
𝐿

𝐸𝑅
𝐸𝑅3 ( 𝑅 +𝑅3 )
𝐼𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅1𝑅3
1 3

(𝑅1𝑅2+𝑅2𝑅3+𝑅 𝑅3)(1+ 𝑅 𝑅 ) ( 𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅2+𝑅𝐿)

1 3
1 (𝑅2+ 𝑅 +𝑅
) 1 3
1 3

To verify Norton’s theorem we will first construct a T-network circuit. Thereon we remove the
load resistor and short the voltage sources, replacing them with their internal resistances (if any).
Measure the resistance of an open circuit. This is Norton's resistance. Now , we remove the load
resistor and short the voltage sources, replacing them with their internal resistances (if any).
Measure the resistance of an open circuit. This is Norton's resistance. We then construct another
circuit with a current source whose output is the same as Norton’s current and connect a
resistance equal to Norton’s resistance . A load resistance is now added. We then take readings of
current for different sets of load resistance. If load current is equal in both the circuits , Norton’s
theorem will stand true. We will also construct complex circuits and do the same process and
check its validity for different circuits.

Procedure

1. Superposition theorem
● Construct a circuit with two voltage sources and three resistance as shown in fig 2.
● Measure current I through R3 .
 ● Construct the same circuit but this time with E2 is removed.
● Measure current I’ through R3 .
● Construct the same circuit but this time with E1 is removed.
● Measure current I” through R3 .
● Repeat steps (ii) , (iv) and (vi) for different values of R3.
● Tabulate I, I’ and I”.
● Create a separate column for I’+I” and calculate it alongside the observations.

2. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

● Construct a T-network circuit.
● Calculate and find the thevenin’s resistance.
● Construct another circuit with a resistance equal to thevenin’s resistance connected to it in
series.
● Connect a load resistance in series with thevenin’s resistance.
● Connect a voltmeter in parallel with the load resistance.
● Calculate(using the formula P=V2/R) or measure the power dissipated through load
resistance.
● Repeat step (vi) with different values of load resistance.
● Tabulate the values of load resistance , load voltage and power dissipated in load resistance.

3. Norton’s Theorem
● Construct a proper T-network.
● Incorporate some effective resistances and batteries into the circuit.
● Vary the load resistance and measure the current through it.
● Measure the short circuit current by shorting the load resistor. This is Norton's current .
● Remove the load resistor and short the voltage sources, replacing them with their internal
resistances (if any). Measure the resistance of an open circuit. This is Norton's resistance.
● Construct Norton’s equivalent circuit and measure the current through the same load
resistance values taken in step (iii).
● Tabulate the values found in step (iii) and (vi).

Precautions

● Make sure that the connections are tight.

● Switch off the key when the circuit is not in use because it causes heating which can vary the
resistance.
● When dealing with actual apparatus, just the circuit on the board should be short circuited, not the
terminals of the kit's voltage source.
● In a real-world situation, we should check for ammeter and voltmeter zero errors.
● Vary load resistance(RL) in a range around 1Ω to 10,000 Ω.
Observations

1. Superposition Theorem

E1 (in Volts) 12
E2 (in Volts) 5
R1 (in Ohms) 400
R2 (in Ohms) 300
R3 (in Ohms) 200

S.No. R3 (in Ohms) I3 (in mA) I3' (in mA) I3'' (in mA) I3' (in mA) + I3'' (in mA)
1 1 46.40 15.4667 30.93 46.40
2 50 36.13 12.0430 24.09 36.13
3 150 24.89 8.2963 16.59 24.89
4 550 11.09 3.6963 7.39 11.09
5 1050 6.05 2.0180 4.04 6.05
6 1550 8.68 2.8933 5.79 8.68
7 2050 6.05 2.0167 4.03 6.05
8 2550 4.06 1.3533 2.71 4.06
9 3050 3.17 1.0567 2.11 3.17
10 3550 2.41 0.8033 1.61 2.41
11 4050 1.62 0.5400 1.08 1.62
12 4550 1.23 0.4090 0.82 1.23
13 5050 0.82 0.2743 0.55 0.82
14 5550 0.62 0.2063 0.41 0.62
15 6050 0.41 0.1380 0.28 0.41
16 6550 0.21 0.0690 0.14 0.21
17 7050 0.16 0.0520 0.10 0.16

2. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Vin (in Volts) 10.0

Rint (in ohm) 10.00
R1 (in ohm) 200.00
R2 (in ohm) 300.00
R3 (in ohm) 400.00
Rth (in ohm) 381.43

S.No. Rl (in ohm) Vl (in V) P=Vl^2/Rl (in W)

1 10 0.11 0.0094
2 50 0.53 0.0120
3 100 0.97 0.0139
4 150 1.34 0.0152
5 200 1.67 0.0161
6 250 1.95 0.0165
7 300 2.20 0.0166
8 350 2.41 0.0169
9 375 2.49 0.0172
10 400 2.53 0.0173
11 425 2.61 0.0172
12 450 2.78 0.0169
13 500 2.94 0.0166
14 600 3.21 0.0160
15 700 3.44 0.0156
16 800 3.64 0.0147
17 900 3.80 0.0136
 3. Norton’s Theorem

E (in Volts) 12
R1 (in Ohms) 150
R2 (in Ohms) 150
R3 (in Ohms) 150
I-norton (in mA) 26.7
Rn (in Ohms) 225

S.No. Rl (in Ohms) I-load (in mA) I-load' (in mA)

1 1 26.54 26.54
2 50 21.81 21.81
3 150 18.40 18.40
4 550 14.11 14.11
5 1050 10.04 10.04
6 1550 9.67 9.67
7 2050 6.49 6.49
8 2550 4.89 4.89
9 3050 3.48 3.48
10 3550 2.70 2.70
11 4050 2.20 2.20
12 4550 1.86 1.86
13 5050 1.61 1.61
14 5550 1.42 1.42
15 6050 1.27 1.27
16 6550 1.05 1.05
17 7050 0.96 0.96

Calculations

1. Superposition Theorem
● Error (difference) in I3 and (I3’+I3’’) = nil

2. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

● Rth (as calculated theoretically) = 381.43 ohms
● Rth (as observed from graph) = 400 ohms
● Percentage error = 4.64%
 3. Norton’s Theorem
● Error (difference) in I-load and I-load’= nil

Result: The Network Theorems (Superposition Theorem, Maximum Power Transfer Theorem and
Norton’s Theorem) have been experimentally verified within experimental limits.

Sources Of Error

● Systematic inaccuracy caused by the battery's internal resistance and the resistance of the
cables.
● Error due to least count of voltmeter and ammeter.
● In real situations , improper connections may hamper the readings.
● Error caused by non-ideal measuring devices.

Questions and Answers

1. Suppose a current source has internal resistance Ri in parallel with the current source. How can
this be incorporated in the formulas derived for the equivalent resistance and equivalent current
source value for Norton’s theorem?

From the figure we can see that,

(𝑅𝑖+𝑅1)𝑅3
Norton’s resistance = 𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑖+𝑅1+𝑅3

2. Why should an ideal voltage source have zero internal resistance and an ideal current source
infinite internal resistance?

An ideal voltage source have zero internal resistance because an ideal voltage source has zero
internal resistance and therefore 100% percent efficiency in outputting all of its voltage to a load
 due to perfect voltage division, its voltage output to a load is stable and constant, even if load
resistance values change.

An ideal current source should have infinite internal resistance because when the current source
has infinite internal resistance, the source's output current remains constant despite changes in the
load's resistance value. The current will always try to break free from its infinite resistance and
find a lower one. As a result, the current output will be the most.

3. Resistance between the charging terminals of a mobile phone is 250 Ω . The resistance in the
mobile charger circuit is 1000Ω. What should be done to increase the rate of charging?

If we put a resistor in series with the charging terminals to make Rth=RL , according to the
maximum power theorem, maximum power will be delivered.

4. A load circuit with fixed resistance RL is connected to a potential source with internal resistance
Ri . Show that when the energy transfer rate is fastest, half of the energy delivered by the source
is wasted internally. An environmentally conscious student gives higher priority to energy
conservation, than to faster energy transfer. What value of Ri should she try?

Because the internal resistance is Ri, the internal heat loss is equal to I2 Ri t , and the energy lost
owing to the load resistor RL is equal to I2 RLt.
2
Total Energy𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅𝑖𝑡 + 𝐼 𝑅𝐿𝑡

Now, we know from Maximum Power Transfer Theorem that the energy transfer rate is
maximum when Ri = RL and thus,
2 2
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅𝑖𝑡 + 𝐼 𝑅𝑖𝑡 = 2𝐼 𝑅𝑖𝑡

2 𝐸
As a result,𝐼 𝑅𝑖𝑡 = 2

As a result, half of the energy provided by the source is lost internally when the energy transfer
rate is the quickest.

Because she/he wants to save energy, she/he should lower the internal resistance of the battery
2
and get it as near to zero as possible, since energy lost internally is comparable to 𝐼 𝑅𝑖𝑡 .