BASIC COMPETENCY-BASED

LEARNING MATERIAL

Sector : ELECTRONICS SECTOR

Qualification Title : Electronic Products Assembly and Servicing

NCII
Unit of Competency : OBSERVE GENDER SENSITIVITY IN THE
WORKPLACE

Module Title : OBSERVING GENDER SENSITIVITY IN THE

WORKPLACE

ACES TAGUM COLLEGE, INCORPORATED

Pioneer Avenue, Mankilam, Tagum City, 8100

How to Use this Competency-Based Learning Material

This learning material is designed to guide you in learning at your own

pace. To start with, talk with your trainer and agree on how you will both
organize the training for this module. Most probably your trainer will also
be your supervisor or manager. He/she is there to support you and guide
you the correct way to do things. From time to time you will be required to
practice and demonstrate the skills that you’ve learned from this module
and you will be requiring some assistance from your trainer (as instructed
in the learning material).

To proceed with the learning session you just have go through the
Learning Activity Sheet where in you will follow series of learning
instructions towards attaining the learning outcome.

This procedure should be repeatedly done until you have completed all
the learning elements in this Competency-Based Learning Module or until
such time that you are ready to take the final assessment for this module.
You may skip some learning activities if you can demonstrate that you are
competent enough on the said task/s.

At the end part of this module is a Learner’s Diary. Use this diary to
record important dates, jobs undertaken and other workplace events that
may provide further details to your trainer or assessor. A Record of
Achievement will be provided to you by your trainer for you to accomplish
once you complete the module.

Upon completion of this module, study the evidence plan at the end of
the last learning element of this module then ask your instructor to assess
you. You will be given a certificate of completion as proof that you met the
standard requirements (knowledge, skills and attitude) for this module. The
assessment could be made in different methods, as prescribed in the
competency standards.

If you have questions, don’t hesitate to ask your instructors for

assistance. Your instructor will always be available to assist you during
the training.

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Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)

You may already have some or most of the knowledge and skills
covered in this module because you have:
 been working for some time
 already completed training in this area

If you can demonstrate to your trainer that you are competent in

particular skill, talk to him/her about having them formally recognized so
you would not have to undergo the same training again. If you have a
qualification or Certificate of Competency from previous trainings, show it
to your trainer. If the skills you acquired are still current and relevant to this
module, they may become part of the evidence you can present for RPL. If
you are not sure about the level of your skills, discuss this with your
trainer.

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 CAREGIVING NC II
COMPETENCY BASED LEARNING MATERIALS

LIST OF BASIC COMPETENCIES

No. Unit of Competency Module Title Code

Participate in workplace Participating in

1. communications workplace 500311105
communications
Work in a Team  Observing gender
2. Environment sensitivity in the 500311106
workplace
 Working in a Team
Environment
Practice Career  Demonstrating work
3. Professionalism values and gender 500311107
sensitivity
 Practicing Career
Professionalism
Practice Occupational  Practicing basic
4. Health and Safety housekeeping 500311108
Procedures procedures
 Practicing Occupational
Health and Safety
Procedures

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 Contents of this Competency-Based Learning Material:

Inside this Competency-Based Learning Material are several

“Learning Activities”. Each Learning Activity guides the learner to
achieve one learning outcome.

You must follow the “Learning Activity Sheet”. The Learning Activity
Sheets will guide you through different “Instruction Sheets” that will
assist you in performing different learning activities towards the
attainment of the learning outcome.

 Information Sheet - This will provide you with information

(concepts, principles and other relevant
information) needed in performing certain
activities.

 Operation Sheet - This will guide you in performing single task,

operation or process in a job.

 Job Sheet - This is designed to guide you on how to do

the job that will contribute to the attainment
of the learning outcome.

 Assignment Sheet - The assignment sheet is a guide used to

enhance (follow-up) what you have learned
in the information sheet, operation sheet or
job sheet.

 Worksheet - Worksheets are the different forms that you

need to fill-up in certain activities that you
performed.

- Talk to your trainer and agree on how you will both organize the
training of this unit. Read through the learning guide carefully. It is
divided into sections which cover all the skills and knowledge you need
to successfully complete this module.

- Work through all the information and complete the activities in each
section and complete the self-check. Suggested references are
included to supplement the materials provided in this module.

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- Most probably your trainer will also be your supervisor or manager.
He/she is there to support you and show you the correct way to do
things. Ask for help.
- Your trainer will tell you about the important things you need to
consider when you are completing activities and it is important that you
listen and take notes.
- Talk to more experienced work mates and ask for their guidance.

- Use the self-check questions at the end of each section to test your
own progress.

- When you are ready, ask your trainer to watch you perform the
activities outlined in the learning guide.
- As you work through the activities, ask for written feedback of your
progress from your trainer. After completing each element, ask your
trainer to mark on the report that you are ready for assessment.
- When you have completed this module (or several modules) and feel
confident that you have had sufficient practice your trainer will arrange an
appointment with you to asses you. The result of your assessment will be
recorded in your Competency Achievement Record.

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UNIT OF COMPETENCY : Work in a Team Environment

MODULE TITLE : Observing Gender Sensitivity in the Workplace

MODULE DESCRIPTOR : This unit covers the knowledge, skills and

attitudes required to prepare students to
observe gender sensitivity in the workplace.

NOMINAL DURATION : 12 hours

LEARNING OUTCOMES :

At the end of this module, you MUST be able to:

LO 1 Discuss the differences between sex and gender.

LO 2 Discuss gender identity and sexual orientation.

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 LEARNING OUTCOME SUMMARY

LEARNING OUTCOME #1 Discuss the differences between sex and

gender

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

1. Assessment criteria are established clearly and are explicit to ensure

reliability and uniformity of assessment and to optimize objective
measurement and evaluation, so that subjective judgment is kept to the
minimum.

2. Scoring and grading of methods to assess performance are used with

caution until they have been validated and

3. The prime criterion is that a student demonstrates the ability to carry out a
task safely and effectively to the satisfaction of the teacher/assessor.

CONTENTS:

1. Sex

2. Gender

3. Sex and Gender Roles

4. Sex Role Stereotypes

CONDITIONS

Portfolios used for assessment purposes are most commonly characterized

by collections of student work that exhibit to the faculty and the student’s
progress and achievement in given areas. Included in the portfolio’s may be
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research papers and other process reports, multiple choice or essay
examinations, self evaluations, personal essays, journals, computational
exercises and problems, case studies, audiotapes, video tapes, and short
answer quizzes. This information may be gathered from in class or as out of
class.

ASSESSMENT METHODS:

 Written test

 Interview

 Oral questioning

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 LEARNING EXPERIENCE
Observing gender sensitivity in the workplace
Learning Experience Special Instructions

1. Read Information Sheet (LO 2.2-1) This Learning Outcome deals

“The Differences Between Sex and with the development of the
Institutional Competency
Gender”
Evaluation Tool which trainers
2. Answer self check (LO 2.2-1) use in evaluating their trainees
after finishing a competency of
Compare Answers with Answer Key
the qualification.
2.2-1
Go through the learning activities
3. Read Information Sheet (LO 2.2-2) outlined for you on the left
“Gender Identity and Sexual column to gain the necessary
Orientation” information or knowledge before
doing the tasks to practice on
4. Answer self – check (LO 2.2-2) performing the requirements of
Compare Answers with Answer Key the evaluation tool.
2.2-2 The output of this LO is a
5. Read Information Sheet (LO 2.2-3) complete Institutional
Competency Evaluation Package
“The Different Manifestations of for one Competency of Health
Gender Inequality in TVET and in the CareServices NC II. Your output
Society “ shall serve as one of your
portfolio for your Institutional
6. Answer self – check (LO 2.2-3) Competency Evaluation for
Compare Answers with Answer Key Observing gender sensitivity in
the workplace
2.2-3
Feel free to show your outputs to
your trainer as you accomplish
7. Read Information Sheet (LO 2.2-4)
them for guidance and
“Gender and Rights based Approach evaluation.
to Sexual and Reproductive Health
and HIV-AIDS Awareness and
Prevention

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 8. Answer self-check (LO 2.2-4)
Compare Answers with Answer Key
2.2-4

INFORMATION SHEET 2.2-1

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SEX AND GENDER

Learning Objective:

After reading this INFORMATION SHEET, YOU MUST be able to;

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 1. understand the concept of gender and sex,
2. explore the participant's, as well as the teacher's, emotions and ideas
about gender relations,
3. find explanations for the differences between men and women

The Concept of Gender and Sex

Sex, as defined by Susan Basow, is a biological term referring to

people, animals, etc., being either female or male depending on their sex
organs or genes. Sex also refers to the differences between individuals that
make them male or female. These differences are biologically determined,
e.g.:
MEN WOMEN

Have no developed uterus and Have a developed uterus and can

become pregnant and give birth to
cannot become pregnant or give
children
birth to children

Have a penis Have a vagina

Have under-developed breasts Have developed breasts

Grow a beard Do not grow a beard

Sex is therefore biologically determined. According to Stoller, for

example: ‘...to determine sex one must assay the following physical
conditions: chromosomes, external genitalia, internal genitalia, gonads,
hormonal states and secondary sex characteristics....One's sex, then, is
determined by an algebraic sum of all these qualities, and as is obvious, most

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people fall under one of two separate bell curves, the one of which is called
'male' and the other ‘female’. (Cited in Oakley, 1985, p. 158).
Basic Representation of Concepts of Sex and Gender

One of the concessions to introducing a gender perspective to

medicine has been the necessity, in gender studies terms, to adopt the
reductionist approach of representing sex and gender to binary concepts.
Binary (usually oppositional) concepts imply that things are only one or the
other; black or white for example. In medicine we like things to be as black or
white as possible. Many of the social sciences however, embrace the concept
of an infinite range of grey. In terms of sex and gender the binary concepts
are male/female and masculine/feminine.

Sex is not always male or female

Most doctors and medical students can tell that sex is not always male
or female. Occasionally babies are born with indeterminate genitalia which
means that from the outside you can’t tell whether they are male of female
babies. This happens for a variety of genetic and hormonal reasons but the
point is that, though sex is usually a binary concept, it is not always the case.

Gender is not fixed

In our discussion of gender we have tended to imply that the social

roles associated with masculine and feminine within a culture are constant,
but clearly that is not the case. Ideas about gender and gender roles within a
society are numerous and contextually dependent. This is one of the reasons
why it is so hard to identify gender as a variable in many contexts; people’s
interpretation of what it means is so variable.

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 We have chosen to focus on the normative or dominant ‘discourse’ or
perspective on what is masculine and what is feminine within a society. In
sociological terms this is usually represented by the opinion of the dominant
social group within any society. Discourses are therefore tools of exercising
social power, which goes part of the way to explaining why some people find
the challenge to the assumptions associated with the dominant social
perspective, or discourse on gender, so provocative.

Contrary to sex, ‘gender’ has social, cultural and psychological rather

than biological connotations. It is defined in terms of femininity and
masculinity. The proper terms for describing sex, for example, are ‘male and
female’ while the corresponding terms for gender are ‘masculine and
feminine.’ Although the latter may be independent of biological sex,
masculinity pertains to the attributes that describe males in the social and
cultural context. Hence, the ‘normal’ male has a preponderance of
masculinity, while the ‘normal’ female has a preponderance of femininity
(Stoller). According to Stoller, therefore, ‘gender’ is the amount of masculinity
or femininity found in a person.

Gender also refers to ‘subjective feelings of maleness or femaleness

(i.e., femininity or masculinity), irrespective of one's sex’ (Basow). This is
known as gender identity. It is possible to be genetically of one sex with a
gender identity of another sex, e.g., transsexuals identify themselves with the
gender of the opposite sex. This implies that one’s gender may not
necessarily be synonymous with that of one’s sex.

One's gender can be determined in many ways, e.g., behaviour. In

most societies, for example, humility, submissiveness, etc., are considered
feminine behaviour and women are expected to behave that way. Men, on the
other hand, are expected to be dominant, aggressive, etc.

FEMININE MASCULINE

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 submissive Dominant

Gentle aggressive

emotional not emotional

Quiet Talkative

Other determinants of gender may include dress, gestures, occupation,

social network, and especially the ROLES played by the sexes in society.

Self Check 2.2-1

1. A biological term referring to the differences between individuals that

make them male or female is;
a. Gender
b. Sex
c. Genes
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 d. External genitalia
2. The term used to the babies who were born but from the outside you
can’t tell whether they are male or female is;
a. Indeterminate genitalia
b. Internal genitalia
c. Feminine
d. Masculine
3. It is defined in terms of femininity and masculinity.
a. Gender
b. Sex
c. Genes
d. External genitalia
4. Considered as feminine behaviors;
a. Submissive, gentle, dominant
b. Emotional, aggressive, submissive
c. Submissive, gentle, emotional
d. Dominant, aggressive, not emotional
5. Considered as masculine behaviors;
a. Submissive, gentle, dominant
b. Emotional, aggressive, submissive
c. Submissive, gentle, emotional
d. Dominant, aggressive, not emotional

Answers to Self-Check 2.2-1

1. B

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 2. A
3. A
4. C
5. D

INFORMATION SHEET 2.2-2

GENDER IDENTITY AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION

Learning Objectives:

After reading this INFORMATION SHEET, YOU MUST be able to:

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 1. define gender identity and sexual orientation,

2. know the differences between sex and gender roles.

SEX AND GENDER ROLES

The trainer must ensure that students are able to realize the
differences between biological and social roles. Often the social dimension of
labour is treated as natural.

This leads to the wrong assumption that women are not capable of
playing roles normally played by men and vice-versa.

Sex Role

A sex role is a function or role which a male or female assumes

because of the basic physiological or anatomical differences between the
sexes. It is a biologically determined role which can be performed by only one
of the sexes, e.g., women give birth to children while men make women
pregnant.

FEMALE SEX ROLE MALE SEX ROLE

child-bearing ovum fertilization

Lactation produces spermatozoa

Gestation determine child's sex.

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These roles are not exchangeable because they are biologically determined.

Gender Role

A gender role, as defined by Susan Basow, refers to society's

evaluation of behavior as masculine or feminine, e.g., cooking is feminine,
while fishing is a masculine role in most societies.

FEMININE ROLE MACULINE ROLE

Cooking Fishing
Childcare Hunting
House care repair work in the home
e.g., repairing broken furniture

Differences Between Sex Roles and Gender Role

GENDER ROLES
1. May differ from society to society.
2. Can change with history.
3. Can be performed by both sexes.
4. They are socially, culturally determined.

SEX ROLES
1. Same in all societies: they are universal, e.g., it is only women who give
birth to children all over the world.
2. Never change with history
3. Can be performed by only one the sexes.

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4. They are biologically determined.

Activity 1: Building Gender Awareness

Choosing the Sex of Your Child

Objectives:

1. To bring out participants’ assumptions about female and male children.

2. To examine how true and deep-rooted these assumptions are.

Method:

1. Tell the participants this story:

A couple is struggling to conceive a child. They go to a diviner who tells

them they will have a child, but only after they have decided which sex they

want it to be.

2. Give each participant a piece of paper and ask them to imagine being in
this

situation. Ask them to write down the sex they would choose for their child.

3. Ask participants also to write down their reasons for choosing the sex. Give

them a few minutes and collect the papers. Put the result on a flipchart:

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‘Number of those who chose girls’ and ‘Number of those who chose boys’,

and list the reasons.

4. Discuss with participants:

a) Number of boys and girls.

b) Reasons for choosing the sex.

c) The effect of assumptions like:

Boys will continue the line.

Boys will take care of parents during old age.

Boys will remain with parents, girls will get married.

Boys will inherit, girls will not.

d) Discuss the implications of how male and female children are socialized

and treated, to prepare them for the roles they play in society.

Note to the Facilitator:

1. This activity was used with grassroots women and men in Kenya and was
revealing.

The discussion took several directions. Almost all participants chose boys.
Family

planning became the centre of discussion because women and men continue
to have

children in order to have a boy. The whole question of who determines the sex
of

the child (biologically) was addressed.

2. It raised the question of how the community looks at a woman with only girl

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children, and the implications of succession and inheritance differences for
boys

and girls.

3. The activity can provoke a great many issues. It is a good introduction to

looking at

socialization processes and conceptualizing gender roles and the relationship

between men and women.

4. If the group is made up of different cultures, you may need to look at very
different

assumptions made about girls and boys, and discuss these differences
between one

culture and another(Source of the activity: The Oxfam Gender Training

Manual, Oxfam UK and Ireland,

1994.)

Activity 2: Preparing for a Baby

In this activity, two couples are preparing for the birth of a child. One couple is

preparing for a boy, the other for a girl. Each couple is engaged in a

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discussion

about:

a) What provisions they need to buy for the baby, such as types of clothing,
toys

and materials needed to decorate the room the baby will occupy.

b) What plans and dreams they have for the baby, such as education,
profession,

hobbies, interests.

c) What each one will be able to contribute to the child’s upbringing, e.g., what

she/he will do for the child at home, what he/she will teach the child, what

leisure or recreational activities each will share with the child.

d) Why each one is happy that the child will be a boy/girl.

1. Form groups of two. Half the groups should discuss preparing for the birth
of

a girl, the other half for the birth of a boy. Use (a) to (d) above to guide your

discussion.

a) What conclusions did you draw?

b) At what stage does gendering begin?

c) Which sex would you prefer for your own baby and why?

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 Self-Check 2.2-2

1. A function which a male or female assumes basic physiological

differences between sexes, is;
a. Sex roles
b. Gender roles
c. Female roles
d. Male roles
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2. Refers to society’s evaluation of behavior as masculine or feminine.
a. Sex roles
b. Gender roles
c. Female roles
d. Male roles

3. The following are considered as feminine role;

a. Cooking, fishing, hunting
b. Childcare, house care, repairing broken furniture
c. Fishing, hunting, repair work in the home
d. Cooking, childcare, house care

4. The following are considered as masculine role;

a. Cooking, fishing, hunting
b. Childcare, house care, repairing broken furniture
c. Fishing, hunting, repair work in the home
d. Cooking, childcare, house care

Answers to Self-Check 2.2-2

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 1. A
2. B
3. D
4. C

Information Sheet 2.2-3

THE DIFFERENT MANIFESTATIONS OF GENDER INEQUALITY IN TVET

AND IN SOCIETY

Learning Objectives:

After reading this INFORMATION SHEET, YOU MUST be able to:

1. define gender inequality

2. know the different manifestations of gender inequality.

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SEX-ROLE STEREOTYPES
According to the Pocket Oxford Dictionary, a stereotype is a ‘person or
thing seeming to conform to a heavily accepted type’. Sex-role stereotypes
have also been defined as ‘the rigidly held and oversimplified beliefs that

MALES & FEMALES possess distinct (and similar) psychological traits and
characteristics.’ These beliefs tend to be very widely held in society. (Basow)
In some societies, for example, the following stereotypes are thought to
pertain either to males or females only.
FEMININE MASCULINE

Females are thought to be: Males are thought to be:

Emotional Unemotional

not aggressive very aggressive

not good at making decisions very good at making decisions

Dependent Independent

Gentle Rough

Tactful Blunt

Do Sex-Role Stereotypes Reflect the True Situation?

Stereotypes may reflect the generally observable characteristics of a

particular sex group. However, stereotypes can be unfair because they tend
to GENERALIZE. They are unfair to those people who do not possess those
traits or characteristics.

Activity : Sex-Role Stereotypes

What are Male/Female Stereotypes?

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Objectives:

1. To increase awareness of male/female stereotypes.

2. To initiate discussion about some of the consequences of stereotyping.

Method:

1. Divide the group into small single-sex groups and give them two sheets of

flipchart paper and some pens.

2. Explain that ‘We are going to look at what we mean by sex stereotypes’.
Ask

each group to brainstorm all the characteristics of the opposite sex which they

believe, or which they have heard commonly expressed, e.g., women are

talkative, patient. They should write at the top of the first sheet ‘women/men

are…’.

3. Ask them to repeat the list for their own sex. They should head the sheet

‘men/women are…’, e.g., men are aggressive, do not show feelings.

4. The small groups take five minutes to share initial reactions to these lists.

5. Put up the sheets on the wall and ask each group to present their ideas for
five

minutes.

6. Ask ‘If these are some of the images of men and women that are commonly

believed in our society, what are the consequences for men and women?,
e.g., if

the male image is aggressive and the female image passive, what can
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happen?’

Each small group lists up as many consequences as it can.

7. Put up the sheets on the wall and allow the participants time to read them.

8. With the whole class, lead a discussion on stereotypes and their

consequences.

(Include the points found in the Facilitator’s Notes.)

(Source of the activity: The Oxfam Gender Training Manual, Oxfam UK and
Ireland,

1994.)

Effects of Sex-Role Stereotypes on Individuals

Sex-role stereotypes can have both positive and negative effects on
females and males in society. If the stereotype describing a sex group is
negative, it could have negative effects on some members of that group and
vice-versa. The following are the main effects of sex-role stereotypes on
individuals:

1. Conformity
Many people tend to conform to the stereotypes in two main ways:
a) Impression management
b) Self-fulfilling prophecy
c) Impression Management

In order to be accepted by society, women and men may start

behaving in the way stereotypes portray their respective sex. Hence girls may
tend to be shy, submissive, quiet, etc. They may conform to very negative
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stereotypes, e.g., girls are not good at mathematics and science. Studies
done in the United States show that some girls deliberately perform less well
than their boy friends in the ‘hard’ or ‘masculine’ subjects so as not to
embarrass them. Boys on the other hand will behave in the opposite way, by
trying to be good at mathematics and science, because society expects them
to be good. They may also try to be aggressive and assertive just to impress
others that they are ‘real men’.
People who conform to stereotypes through Impression Management
do not necessarily believe in the stereotype. They merely conform to the
stereotypes in order to impress other people.

b) Self-fulfilling Prophecy
The effect of sex-role stereotypes is much more deeply rooted when
people conform through what is known as ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’. In this type
of conformity, people tend to believe in the stereotype (i.e., they regard the
stereotype as the best way to behave as females or males). If they are male,
they believe that men ought to be aggressive. If females are viewed as ‘not
good at mathematics and science’, they may set a negative goal for
themselves in order not to achieve in these subjects. They may stop working
hard in these subjects because they believe that they cannot do it. If males on
the other hand are viewed as ‘good at mathematics and science’, they will set
a positive goal to fulfilL the stereotype. They will work hard in order to achieve
good results in these subjects. This is done unconsciously and girls and boys
do not realize that they are fulfilling a stereotype.
Through the different mechanisms of conformity, there tend to be a lot
of women and men in society who behave in stereotyped ways.
The trainer must sensitize students to the existence of stereotypes in every
society, and warn them about the dangers that may exist when people
conform to negative stereotypes, e.g., females may perform poorly or fail, if
they believe that mathematics and science are for boys.

2. Self-Image
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 Sex-role stereotypes can also affect a person's self-image. Self-image
refers to the way in which individuals view themselves.

Self-image incorporates other concepts, e.g.:

a) Self-esteem - how one thinks of oneself;
b) Self-confidence - an estimate of one's abilities; and
c) Locus of control - a sense of control over one's life.

All these are aspects of self-image. Research findings based on

American society indicate that, generally, females tend to have a somewhat
more negative selfimage than do males. This is due to the fact that sex-role
stereotypes contain many more negative characteristics of females than
males.

a) Self-esteem
Research further shows that, in early adolescence, levels of self-esteem by
females and males are almost the same. However, by the time they reach late
adolescence ‘Self esteem appears to be correlated with sex-typed role
performance for both sexes’. Females tend to think of themselves as less
important than men. Females have significantly lower self-esteem than males.

b) Self-confidence
Research findings in the U.S.A. found striking sex differences in the areas
of self-confidence and task-expectancy. Males on average have been found
to show more confidence in their ability to perform various tasks than females.
Males are also said to have higher expectations of themselves and have more
confidence than females.
Females on the other hand tend to under-estimate their ability to
perform certain tasks. Men, generally, tend to attempt to do more difficult
tasks while women shy away from them.
As far as ‘self-image’ is concerned, sex-role stereotypes tend to have

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negative effects on females and positive ones on males in a number of
aspects.

Consequences of Sex-Role Stereotypes on Society

At the societal level, sex-role stereotypes can have negative or positive
effects WHEN USED AS STANDARDS BY WHICH TO EVALUATE OTHERS
(Basow). For example, stereotypes attributed to women have generally led to
prejudice and discrimination against women. This is particularly the case
in the world of employment. Women may be considered to be less reliable as
workers because of their child-rearing functions. Men on the other hand may
be regarded as more reliable employees because they are deemed not to be
affected by such functions.

The Transmittal of Sex-Role Stereotypes

The main way in which sex-role stereotypes are transmitted from one
generation to another is through the socialization process. According to
Susan Basow, the socialization process has what are known as:
1. Socialization agents, e.g.:
a) Parents
b) Teachers
c) Peers

2. Socialization forces, e.g.:

d) School
e) The media
f) Language
g) Play
h) Art and music
i) Religion, etc.

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 Among the socializing agents and forces, the most relevant for our
purposes are parents, teachers and the school.

Parents
Parents begin to transmit sex-role stereotypes as soon as a child is
born. Girls and boys are treated differently, e.g., they are dressed differently,
given different toys (boys are given toy cars, airplanes, etc., while girls are
given dolls, toy pots, plates and cups). The toys given to girls indicate their
role as home-makers rather than workers.

Teachers
Teachers reinforce the sex-role stereotypes learnt at home. Teachers,
too, have a tendency to treat boys and girls differently through role
assignments, rewards and punishment for academic work. Teachers, for
example, may tend to reprimand boys more severely than girls for doing badly
in such subjects as mathematics and science, because they are ‘expected’ to
do better than girls in these subjects.

School
The school transmits a lot of stereotypes about females and males. In
some countries, for example, certain subjects are taught only to boys or girls,
e.g., boys are taught technical drawing, wood and metal work, etc., while girls
are taught domestic science or home economics, secretarial skills, etc.
Schools also offer different games to girls and boys, e.g., girls play netball,
while boys play soccer. Most games played by boys tend to be more
competitive than those for girls.

We clearly differentiate between sex and gender. Sex is biologically

determined, while gender is socially and culturally constructed and transmitted
during the process of socialization. Our sex roles and gender roles are
likewise different. While our sex roles are imposed on us by nature (through
the basic physiological and anatomical differences between women and men),
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our gender roles are usually defined by society (e.g., there are
behaviour/roles which are deemed as either masculine or feminine by
society).
This leads to sex-role stereotyping which may have positive or negative
effects on individuals. It may lead individuals to conform to the stereotypes. It
may also have significant effects on an individual’s self-image, which
comprises his self-esteem, self-confidence and locus of control.
The biggest social agents and forces in the transmittal of sex-role
stereotypes are the parents, the teachers and the schools.

Self-Check 2.2-3
1. A person or thing seeming to conform to a heavily accepted type, is;
a. Stereotype
b. Sex stereotype
c. Sex-role stereotype
d. Gender
2. Is the main effect of sex-role stereotype that an individual in order to be
accepted by society, women and men may start behaving in the way
stereotypes portray their respective sex.
a. Conformity
b. Self-fulfilling prophecy
c. Self-image
d. Self- esteem
3. Refers to the way in which individuals view themselves.
a. Conformity
b. Self-fulfilling prophecy
c. Self-image
d. Self- esteem

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4. Self – image incorporates other concepts;
a. Self-esteem, self-confidence, positive outlook
b. Self-esteem, self-confidence, locus of control
c. Locus of self-control, self-confidence, self-esteem
d. b and c only

5. In this type of conformity, people tend to believe in the stereotype.

a. Conformity
b. Self-fulfilling prophecy
c. Self-image
d. Self- esteem

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 ANSWER KEY 2.2-3
1. A
2. A
3. C
4. D
5. B

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 INFORMATION SHEET 2.2-4

GENDER AND RIGTHS BASED APPROACH TO SEXUAL AND

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH AND HIV-AIDS AWARENESS AND
PREVENTION

Learning Objective:

After reading this INFORMATION SHEET, YOU MUST be able to;

1. Know the gender and rights based approach to sexual and

reproductive health
2. Discuss the HIV-AIDS awareness and prevention

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 Reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating
to reproduction and reproductive health.[1] The World Health
Organization defines reproductive rights as follows:

Reproductive rights rest on the recognition of the basic right of all couples
and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing and
timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so, and
the right to attain the highest standard of sexual and reproductive health. They
also include the right of all to make decisions concerning reproduction free
of discrimination, coercion and violence.
Reproductive rights may include some or all of the following: the right to
legal or safe abortion; the right to birth control; freedom from coerced
sterilization, abortion, and contraception; the right to access good-
quality reproductive healthcare; and the right to education and access in order
to make free and informed reproductive choices. [3] Reproductive rights may
also include the right to receive education about sexually transmitted
infections and other aspects of sexuality, and protection from gender-based
practices such as female genital mutilation .

Reproductive rights began to develop as a subset of human rights at the

United Nation's 1968 International Conference on Human Rights. [4] The
resulting non binding Proclamation of Teheran was the first international
document to recognize one of these rights when it stated that: "Parents have
a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the
spacing of their children.” States, though, have been slow in incorporating
these rights in internationally legally binding instruments. Thus, while some of
these rights have already been recognized in hard law, that is, in legally
binding international human rights instruments, others have been mentioned
only in non binding recommendations and, therefore, have at best the status
of soft law in international law, while a further group is yet to be accepted by
the international community and therefore remains at the level of advocacy.[7]
Issues related to reproductive rights are some of the most vigorously
contested rights' issues worldwide, regardless of the
population's socioeconomic level, religion or culture.
Reproductive rights are a subset of sexual and reproductive health and
rights.

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 Since most existing legally binding international human rights
instruments do not explicitly mention sexual and reproductive rights, a broad
coalition of NGOs, civil servants, and experts working in international
organizations have been promoting a reinterpretation of those instruments to
link the realization of the already internationally recognized human rights with
the realization of reproductive rights. [18] An example of this linkage is provided
by the 1994 Cairo Program of Action:

Reproductive rights embrace certain human rights that are already

recognized in national laws, international human rights documents and other
relevant United Nations consensus documents. These rights rest on the
recognition of the basic right of all couples and individuals to decide freely and
responsibly the number, spacing and timing of their children and to have the
information and means to do so, and the right to attain the highest standard of
sexual and reproductive health. It also includes the right of all to make
decisions concerning reproduction free of discrimination, coercion and
violence as expressed in human rights documents. In the exercise of this
right, they should take into account the needs of their living and future children
and their responsibilities towards the community. [19]
Similarly, Amnesty International has argued that the realization of
reproductive rights is linked with the realization of a series of
recognized human rights, including the right to health, the right to freedom
from discrimination, the right to privacy, and the right not to be subjected to
torture or ill-treatment.[3] However, not all states have accepted the inclusion
of reproductive rights in the body of internationally recognized human rights.
At the Cairo Conference, several states made formal reservations either to the
concept of reproductive rights or to its specific content. Ecuador, for instance,
stated that:

With regard to the Program of Action of the Cairo International Conference

on Population and Development and in accordance with the provisions of the
Constitution and laws of Ecuador and the norms of international law, the
delegation of Ecuador reaffirms, inter alia, the following principles embodied in
its Constitution: the inviolability of life, the protection of children from the
moment of conception, freedom of conscience and religion, the protection of
the family as the fundamental unit of society, responsible paternity, the right of
parents to bring up their children and the formulation of population and
development plans by the Government in accordance with the principles of
respect for sovereignty. Accordingly, the delegation of Ecuador enters a
reservation with respect to all terms such as "regulation of fertility",
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"interruption of pregnancy", "reproductive health", "reproductive rights" and
"unwanted children", which in one way or another, within the context of the
Program of Action, could involve abortion.
Similar reservations were made by Argentina, Dominican Republic, El
Salvador, Honduras, Malta, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru and the Holy See.
Islamic Countries, such
as Brunei, Djibouti, Iran, Jordan,Kuwait, Libya, Syria, United Arab Emirates,
and Yemen made broad reservations against any element of the programme
that could be interpreted as contrary to the Sharia. Guatemala even
questioned whether the conference could legally proclaim new human rights.
[20]

The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and the World Health

Organization (WHO) advocate for reproductive rights with a primary emphasis
on women's rights. In this respect the UN and WHO focus on a range of
issues from access to family planning services, sex education, menopause,
and the reduction of obstetric fistula, to the relationship between reproductive
health and economic status.
The reproductive rights of women are advanced in the context of the right
to freedom from discrimination and the social and economic status of women.
The group Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era (DAWN)
explained the link in the following statement:

Control over reproduction is a basic need and a basic right for all women.
Linked as it is to women's health and social status, as well as the powerful
social structures of religion, state control and administrative inertia, and
private profit, it is from the perspective of poor women that this right can best
be understood and affirmed. Women know that childbearing is a social, not a
purely personal, phenomenon; nor do we deny that world population trends
are likely to exert considerable pressure on resources and institutions by the
end of this century. But our bodies have become a pawn in the struggles
among states, religions, male heads of households, and private corporations.
Programs that do not take the interests of women into account are unlikely to
succeed...
Attempts have been made to analyze the socioeconomic conditions
that affect the realization of a woman's reproductive rights. The
term reproductive justice has been used to describe these broader social and
economic issues. Proponents of reproductive justice argue that while the right
to legalized abortion[21] and contraception applies to everyone, these choices
are only meaningful to those with resources, and that there is a growing gap
between access and affordability.
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 Men's reproductive rights have been claimed by various organizations,
both for issues of reproductive health, and other rights related to sexual
reproduction.
Three international issues in men's reproductive health are sexually
transmitted diseases, cancer and exposure to toxins.
Recently men's reproductive right with regards to paternity had become
subject of debate in the U.S. The term "male abortion" was coined by Melanie
McCulley, a South Carolina attorney, in a 1998 article. The theory begins with
the premise that when a woman becomes pregnant she has the option of
abortion, adoption, or parenthood; it argues, in the context of legally
recognized gender equality, that in the earliest stages of pregnancy the
putative (alleged) father should have the right to relinquish all future parental
rights and financial responsibility, leaving the informed mother with the same
three options.[24] This concept has been supported by a former president of the
feminist organization National Organization for Women, attorney Karen
DeCrow.[25]
In 2006, the National Center for Men brought a case in the US, Dubay
v. Wells (dubbed by some "Roe v. Wade for men"), that argued that in the
event of an unplanned pregnancy, when an unmarried woman informs a man
that she is pregnant by him, he should have an opportunity to give up all
paternity rights and responsibilities. Supporters argue that this would allow the
woman time to make an informed decision and give men the same
reproductive rights as women.[26][27] In its dismissal of the case, the U.S. Court
of Appeals (Sixth Circuit) stated that "the Fourteenth Amendment does not
deny to [the] State the power to treat different classes of persons in different
ways."

Gender equality and violence against women

Addressing issues of gender-based violence is crucial for attaining

reproductive rights. The United Nations Population Fund refers to "Equality
and equity for men and women, to enable individuals to make free and
informed choices in all spheres of life, free from discrimination based on
gender" and "Sexual and reproductive security, including freedom from
sexual violence and coercion, and the right to privacy," as part of achieving
reproductive rights, [41] and states that the right to liberty and security of the
person which is fundamental to reproductive rights obliges states to:

 Take measures to prevent, punish and eradicate all forms of gender-

based violence
 Eliminate female genital mutilation/cutting

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The WHO states:

"Gender and Reproductive Rights (GRR) aims to promote and protect

human rights and gender equality as they relate to sexual and
reproductive health by developing strategies and mechanisms for
promoting gender equity and equality and human rights in the
Departments global and national activities, as well as within the
functioning and priority-setting of the Department itself."
Amnesty International writes that:

Violence against women violates women's rights to life, physical and

mental integrity, to the highest attainable standard of health, to freedom
from torture and it violates their sexual and reproductive rights."
One key issue for achieving reproductive rights is criminalization
of sexual violence. If a woman is not protected from forced sexual
intercourse, she is not protected from forced pregnancy,
namely pregnancy from rape. In order for a woman to be able to have
reproductive rights, she must have the right to choose with whom and
when to reproduce; and first of all, decide whether, when, and under
what circumstances to be sexually active. [45] In many countries, these
rights of women are not respected, because women do not have a
choice in regard to their partner, with forced marriage and child
marriage being common in parts of the world; and neither do they have
any rights in regard to sexual activity, as many countries do not allow
women to refuse to engage in sexual intercourse when they do not
want to (because marital rape is not criminalized in those countries) or
to engage in consensual sexual intercourse if they want to (because
sex outside marriage is illegal in those countries). In addition to legal
barriers, there are also social barriers, because in many countries a
complete sexual subordination of a woman to her husband is expected
(for instance, in one survey 74% of women in Mali said that a husband
is justified to beat his wife if she refuses to have sex with him ]), while
sexual/romantic relations disapproved by family members, or generally
sex outside marriage, can result in serious violence, such as honor
killings.

HIV/AIDS[

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 Estimated prevalence in % of HIV among young adults (15–49) per country as of 2011. [48]

  No data   1–5

  <0.10   5–15

  0.10–0.5   15–50

  0.5–1

The WHO states that: "All women, including those with HIV, have the right “to
decide freely and responsibly on the number and spacing of their children and to
have access to the information, education and means to enable them to exercise
these rights”". The reproductive rights of people living with HIV, and
their health, are very important. The link between HIV and reproductive
rights exists in regard to four main issues:

 prevention of unwanted pregnancy

 help to plan wanted pregnancy

 healthcare during and after pregnancy

 access to abortion services if the woman asks to

Human immunodeficiency virus infection / acquired immunodeficiency

syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a disease of the human immune system caused by
infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). During the initial infection,
a person may experience a brief period of influenza-like illness. This is
typically followed by a prolonged period without symptoms. As the illness
progresses, it interferes more and more with the immune system, making the
person much more likely to get infections, including opportunistic
infections and tumors that do not usually affect people who have working
immune systems.
HIV is transmitted primarily via unprotected sexual
intercourse (including anal and oral sex), contaminated blood
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transfusions, hypodermic needles, and from mother to child during pregnancy,
delivery, or breastfeeding. Some bodily fluids, such as saliva and tears, do not
transmit HIV.[3] Prevention of HIV infection, primarily through safe
sex and needle-exchange programs, is a key strategy to control the spread of
the disease. There is no cure or vaccine; however, antiretroviral treatment can
slow the course of the disease and may lead to a near-normal life expectancy.
While antiretroviral treatment reduces the risk of death and complications from
the disease, these medications are expensive and may be associated with
side effects.
Genetic research indicates that HIV originated in west-central Africa during
the late nineteenth or early twentieth century. AIDS was first recognized by
the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 1981
and its cause—HIV infection—was identified in the early part of the
decade. Since its discovery, AIDS has caused an estimated 36 million deaths
worldwide (as of 2012).[6] As of 2012, approximately 35.3 million people are
living with HIV globally.[6]HIV/AIDS is considered a pandemic—a disease
outbreak which is present over a large area and is actively spreading.
HIV/AIDS has had a great impact on society, both as an illness and as a
source of discrimination. The disease also has significant economic impacts.
There are many misconceptions about HIV/AIDS such as the belief that it can
be transmitted by casual non-sexual contact. The disease has also become
subject to manycontroversies involving religion. It has attracted international
medical and political attention as well as large-scale funding since it was
identified in the 1980s.

Prevention

Sexual contact
Consistent condom use reduces the risk of HIV transmission by approximately
80% over the long term.[80] When condoms are used consistently by a couple
in which one person is infected, the rate of HIV infection is less than 1% per
year. There is some evidence to suggest that female condoms may provide
an equivalent level of protection. ] Application of a vaginal gel
containing tenofovir (a reverse transcriptase inhibitor) immediately before sex
seems to reduce infection rates by approximately 40% among African
women. By contrast, use of the spermicide nonoxynol-9 may increase the risk
of transmission due to its tendency to cause vaginal and rectal irritation.
Circumcision in Sub-Saharan Africa "reduces the acquisition of HIV by
heterosexual men by between 38% and 66% over 24 months". Based on
these studies, the World Health Organization and UNAIDS both
recommended male circumcision as a method of preventing female-to-male
HIV transmission in 2007. Whether it protects against male-to-female
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transmission is disputed and whether it is of benefit in developed
countries and among men who have sex with men is undetermined. Some
experts fear that a lower perception of vulnerability among circumcised men
may cause more sexual risk-taking behavior, thus negating its preventive
effects.
Programs encouraging sexual abstinence do not appear to affect subsequent
HIV risk. Evidence for a benefit from peer education is equally poor ]
Comprehensive sexual education provided at school may decrease high risk
behavior. A substantial minority of young people continues to engage in high-
risk practices despite knowing about HIV/AIDS, underestimating their own risk
of becoming infected with HIV. It is not known whether treating other sexually
transmitted infections is effective in preventing HIV.
Pre-exposure
Treating people with HIV whose CD4 count ≥ 350cells/µL with antiretrovirals
protects 96% of their partners from infection. This is about a 10 to 20 fold
reduction in transmission risk. [98] Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) with a daily
dose of the medications tenofovir, with or without emtricitabine, is effective in
a number of groups including men who have sex with men, couples where
one is HIV positive, and young heterosexuals in Africa. [83] It may also be
effective in intravenous drug users with a study finding a decrease in risk of
0.7 to 0.4 per 100 person years.
Universal precautions within the health care environment are believed to be
effective in decreasing the risk of HIV. [100] Intravenous drug use is an important
risk factor and harm reduction strategies such asneedle-exchange
programmes and opioid substitution therapy appear effective in decreasing
this risk.
Post-exposure
A course of antiretrovirals administered within 48 to 72 hours after exposure
to HIV-positive blood or genital secretions is referred to as post-exposure
prophylaxis (PEP). The use of the single agentzidovudine reduces the risk of
a HIV infection five-fold following a needle-stick injury. As of 2013, the
prevention regimen recommended in the United States consists of three
medications—tenofovir,emtricitabine and raltegravir—as this may reduce the
risk further.
PEP treatment is recommended after a sexual assault when the perpetrator is
known to be HIV positive, but is controversial when their HIV status is
unknown.[105] The duration of treatment is usually four weeks [106] and is
frequently associated with adverse effects—where zidovudine is used, about
70% of cases result in adverse effects such as nausea (24%), fatigue (22%),
emotional distress (13%) and headaches (9%).

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Mother-to-child
Programs to prevent the vertical transmission of HIV (from mothers to
children) can reduce rates of transmission by 92–99%. This primarily involves
the use of a combination of antiviral medications during pregnancy and after
birth in the infant and potentially includes bottle feeding rather
than breastfeeding. If replacement feeding is acceptable, feasible, affordable,
sustainable, and safe, mothers should avoid breastfeeding their infants;
however exclusive breastfeeding is recommended during the first months of
life if this is not the case. If exclusive breastfeeding is carried out, the
provision of extended antiretroviral prophylaxis to the infant decreases the risk
of transmission.
Vaccination
Main article: HIV vaccine

As of 2012 there is no effective vaccine for HIV or AIDS. A single trial of the

vaccine RV 144 published in 2009 found a partial reduction in the risk of
transmission of roughly 30%, stimulating some hope in the research
community of developing a truly effective vaccine. Further trials of the RV 144
vaccine are ongoing.

Management

There is currently no cure or effective HIV vaccine. Treatment consists of high

active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) which slows progression of the
disease and as of 2010 more than 6.6 million people were taking them in low
and middle income countries. Treatment also includes preventive and active
treatment of opportunistic infections.

Antiviral therapy

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Abacavir – a nucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NARTI or
NRTI)

Current HAART options are combinations (or "cocktails") consisting of at least

three medications belonging to at least two types, or "classes,"
of antiretroviralagents.[116] Initially treatment is typically a non-nucleoside
reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) plus two nucleoside analogue reverse
transcriptase inhibitors(NRTIs). Typical NRTIs include: zidovudine (AZT)
or tenofovir (TDF) and lamivudine (3TC) or emtricitabine (FTC). Combinations
of agents which include aprotease inhibitors (PI) are used if the above
regimen loses effectiveness.
When to start antiretroviral therapy is subject to debate. The World Health
Organization recommends antiretrovirals in all adolescents, adults and
pregnant women with a CD4 count less than 500/µl with this being especially
important in those with counts less than 350/µl or those with symptoms
regardless of CD4 count. This is supported by the fact that beginning
treatment at this level reduces the risk of death. [119] The United States in
addition recommends them for all HIV-infected people regardless of CD4
count or symptoms; however it makes this recommendation with less
confidence for those with higher counts. While the WHO also recommends
treatment in those who are co-infected with tuberculosis and those with
chronic active hepatitis B. Once treatment is begun it is recommended that it
is continued without breaks or "holidays". Many people are diagnosed only
after treatment ideally should have begun. The desired outcome of treatment
is a long term plasma HIV-RNA count below 50 copies/mL. Levels to
determine if treatment is effective are initially recommended after four weeks
and once levels fall below 50 copies/mL checks every three to six months are
typically adequate. Inadequate control is deemed to be greater than
400 copies/mL. Based on these criteria treatment is effective in more than
95% of people during the first year.
Benefits of treatment include a decreased risk of progression to AIDS and a
decreased risk of death. In the developing world treatment also improves
physical and mental health. With treatment there is a 70% reduced risk of
acquiring tuberculosis. Additional benefits include a decreased risk of
transmission of the disease to sexual partners and a decrease in mother-to-
child transmission. The effectiveness of treatment depends to a large part on
compliance. Reasons for non-adherence include poor access to medical
care, inadequate social supports, mental illness and drug abuse. The
complexity of treatment regimens (due to pill numbers and dosing frequency)
and adverse effects may reduce adherence.[125] Even though cost is an
important issue with some medications, [126] 47% of those who needed them

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were taking them in low and middle income countries as of 2010 [115] and the
rate of adherence is similar in low-income and high-income countries. [127]
Specific adverse events are related to the antiretroviral agent taken. [128] Some
relatively common adverse events include: lipodystrophy
syndrome, dyslipidemia, and diabetes mellitus, especially with protease
inhibitors. Other common symptoms include diarrhea, and an increased risk
of cardiovascular disease. Newer recommended treatments are associated
with fewer adverse effects.] Certain medications may be associated with birth
defects and therefore may be unsuitable for women hoping to have children.
Treatment recommendations for children are slightly different from those for
adults. In the developing world, as of 2010, 23% of children who were in need
of treatment had access. Both the World Health Organization and the United
States recommend treatment for all children less than twelve months of
age. The United States recommends in those between one year and five
years of age treatment in those with HIV RNA counts of greater than
100,000 copies/mL, and in those more than five years treatments when CD4
counts are less than 500/µl.
Opportunistic infections
Measures to prevent opportunistic infections are effective in many people with
HIV/AIDS. In addition to improving current disease, treatment with
antiretrovirals reduces the risk of developing additional opportunistic
infections. Vaccination against hepatitis A and B is advised for all people at
risk of HIV before they become infected; however it may also be given after
infection. Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis between four and six
weeks of age and ceasing breastfeeding in infants born to HIV positive
mothers is recommended in resource limited settings. ] It is also recommended
to prevent PCP when a person's CD4 count is below 200 cells/uL and in those
who have or have previously had PCP. People with substantial
immunosuppression are also advised to receive prophylactic therapy
for toxoplasmosis and Cryptococcus meningitis. Appropriate preventive
measures have reduced the rate of these infections by 50% between 1992
and 1997.
Alternative medicine
In the US, approximately 60% of people with HIV use various forms
of complementary or alternative medicine,[138] even though the effectiveness of
most of these therapies has not been established. With respect to dietary
advice and AIDS some evidence has shown a benefit
from micronutrient supplements. Evidence for supplementation
with selenium is mixed with some tentative evidence of benefit. There is some
evidence that vitamin A supplementation in children reduces mortality and
improves growth. In Africa in nutritionally compromised pregnant and lactating
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women a multivitamin supplementation has improved outcomes for both
mothers and children. Dietary intake of micronutrients at RDA levels by HIV-
infected adults is recommended by the World Health Organization. The WHO
further states that several studies indicate that supplementation of vitamin A,
zinc, and iron can produce adverse effects in HIV positive adults. ] There is not
enough evidence to support the use of herbal medicines.
Prognosis

Disability-adjusted life year for HIV and AIDS per 100,000 inhabitants as of 2004.

  no data   1000–2500

  ≤ 10   2500–5000

  10–25   5000–7500

  25–50   7500-10000

  50–100   10000-50000

  100–500   ≥ 50000

  500–1000

HIV/AIDS has become a chronic rather than an acutely fatal disease in many

areas of the world.[145] Prognosis varies between people, and both the CD4
count and viral load are useful for predicted outcomes. [13] Without treatment,
average survival time after infection with HIV is estimated to be 9 to 11 years,
depending on the HIV subtype. [146] After the diagnosis of AIDS, if treatment is
not available, survival ranges between 6 and 19 months.[147][148] HAART and
appropriate prevention of opportunistic infections reduces the death rate by
80%, and raises the life expectancy for a newly diagnosed young adult to 20–
50 years.[145][149][150] This is between two thirds[149] and nearly that of the general
population.[14][151] If treatment is started late in the infection, prognosis is not as
good:[14] for example, if treatment is begun following the diagnosis of AIDS, life

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expectancy is ~10–40 years.[14][145] Half of infants born with HIV die before two
years of age without treatment.[131]
The primary causes of death from HIV/AIDS are opportunistic
infections and cancer, both of which are frequently the result of the
progressive failure of the immune system. [137][152] Risk of cancer appears to
increase once the CD4 count is below 500/μLThe rate of clinical disease
progression varies widely between individuals and has been shown to be
affected by a number of factors such as a person's susceptibility and immune
function; their access to health care, the presence of co-infections; and the
particular strain (or strains) of the virus involved.
Tuberculosis co-infection is one of the leading causes of sickness and death
in those with HIV/AIDS being present in a third of all HIV infected people and
causing 25% of HIV related deaths HIV is also one of the most important risk
factors for tuberculosis. Hepatitis C is another very common co-infection
where each disease increases the progression of the other. The two most
common cancers associated with HIV/AIDS are Kaposi's sarcoma and AIDS-
related non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.
Even with anti-retroviral treatment, over the long term HIV-infected people
may experience neurocognitive disordes, osteoporosis,] neuropathy,
cancers, nephropathy, and cardiovascular disease. It is not clear whether
these conditions result from the HIV infection itself or are adverse effects of
treatment.

SELF CHECK 2.2-4

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1. The recognition of the basic right of all couples and individuals to
decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing and timing of
their children and to have the information and means to do so, and
the right to attain the highest standard of sexual and reproductive
health.
a. Human right
b. Reproductive right
c. Women’s right
d. Right to health
2. The three international issues in men reproductive health are;
a. STD, cancer, exposure to toxins
b. STD, Aids, cancer
c. Aids, Prostate cancer , STD
d. Cervical cancer, prostate cancer, aids
3. Is a disease of human immune system caused by infection with
human immunodeficiency virus.
a. AIDS
b. STD
c. Cancer
d. Tumors
4. The primary causes of death from HIV/AIDS are;
a. Opportunistic infections and cancer
b. Hepatitis and Kaposi’s sarcoma
c. Neuropathy and lymphoma
d. Tuberculosis and cardiovascular disease
5. HIV is transmitted primarily via;
a. Unprotected sexual intercourse
b. Blood transfusions
c. Hypodermic needles
d. All of the above

ANSWER KEY 2.2-4

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 1. B
2. A

3. A

4. A

5. D

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