Chapter 3 : Becoming a Member of Society

Socialization and Enculturation

John Locke, a British Enlightenment philosopher, said that the human mind at birth is nothing
but a blank slate, or tabula rasa. As a child grows. Various experiences imprint knowledge on his or
her mind. The human mind, for Locke, acquires information about the outside world through the
senses, and this information molds and defines a person’s awareness and view of the outside world.
Locke definitely did not believe that the human mind has innate conceptions. Throughout a person's
life, simple ideas are integrated with more complex ones, and these define his or her political,
economic, and social affairs.
Socialization refers to the lifelong process of social interaction through which people acquire
their identities and necessary survival skills in society. It prepares new members of society and trains
them to think, feel, and act in appropriate ways. Socialization is considered the central process of
social life, and is also a process of member recruitment and replacement. Examples of socialization
include activities like child-rearing, the orientation of a student to his or her new school, an initiation to
an organization, attendance in Sunday school, cathecism for Catholics, recruitment processes for
political parties, and acquainting an immigrant to significant aspects of life in his or her new country.
The process of socialization enables a person to gradually become a self-aware and
knowledgeable human being, and learn the ways, values, rules, and culture of his or her society. The
development of the individual as a member of society is greatly influenced by the context of his or her
respective society, and the social groups that he or she interacts with. Socialization is also important
in politics, and a citizen develops and acquires political ideas, values, attitudes, beliefs, and opinions
through political socialization, a process which enables the development of citizens to function
effectively within a particular polítical system.
In the early years of American sociology, the process of socialization was equated with
“civilization. In this view, it was assumed that an unruly human nature or fierce individualism existed
prior to an individual’s encounter with society. Socialization then was tantamount to “taming”
individualists so that they would willingly cooperate with others on common goals and conform to
socially acceptable ways of behaving.
However, as the field of sociology developed over time, socialization was increasingly viewed
in the context of internalization. Internalization refers to the process of accepting the social norms,
attitudes, roles, and values transmitted by people and social groups within society as one’s own.
Society, for its part, is seen as the primary factor responsible for how individuals learn to think and
behave. This is the view of functionalists like Talcott Parsons, who explains that if people failed to play
their expected roles or behaved “strangely,” there is incomplete or inadequate socialization. This
means the members of society have not yet fully acquired and learned what is expected of them.
However, functionalists do not consider that socialization might vary from person to person, or that
individuals might have needs, desires, values, or behaviors different from those that society expects
or demands of them.
Interpretevist sociologists, on the other hand, see socialization as an interactive process
between individuals and other members of society. This view gives importance to the independence
of the individuals and their capacity to define their own personal views and ideas. They then engage
other members of society in an effort to integrate their own views, beliefs, and ways into society. An
example of socialization in the interpretevist view is the changing definition of the family. Decades
ago, single-parent families, especially an unwed mother and her child, do not conform to the
conventional definition of family and was frowned upon by society. However, the increased
prevalence of single mothers over the next few years, and the growing assertion of single parents
regarding their identity as a family, have led to a gradual acceptance of single-parent families at
present. This phenomenon shows how a segment of society can gradually gain acceptance in society
through constant interaction with other, more mainstream members of society.
For a more comprehensive view on the process of socialization, sociologists suggest
combining the perspectives of functionalism and interpretevism and incorporate them in the analysis
of other aspects of social life. The sociologist William Wentworth has proposed a synthesized view of
socialization which considers how factors such as free will, human autonomy, and social structures
and processes influence socialization. Wentworth believes that socialization is a two-way process
between the individual and the larger groups in society such as social organizations and institutions.
The synthesized view identifies three significant aspects of socialization: social Context,
content and process, and results. Social context refers to the particular circumstances of a society
and consists of its culture, language, and the social structures that define social class, ethnicity, and
gender. It also includes social and historical events, mechanisms of power and control, and
institutions and individuals that engage the person in the socialization process. The content and
process of socialization refer to how socializing activities are structured. Content refers to ideas,
beliefs, behavior, and other information that are passed on by members of society to the individual;
the process refers to the methods of interaction that enable the content to be given to the person
undergoing socialization. Socialization is considered a highly interactive process which enables old
and new members to cooperate with and exercise mutual influence on one another.
Results refer to the outcomes of socialization, and are evident when individuals begin to
practice the behaviors, attitudes, and values that society considers necessary for them to function
effectively as its members. An example of a result is the ability of an individual to speak his or her
native language, and understand and comply with basic rules and norms in his or her community. A
significant result of socialization is self-identity, which refers to the establishment of a unique sense
of identity and an awareness of how it relates to their society and the world.
For their part, anthropologists view socialization in terms of becoming familiar with one's own
culture, and use the term enculturation to describe the process of being socialized into a specific
culture. Through enculturation, individuals learn cultural symbols, norms, values, and language by
observing and interacting with family, friends, teachers, and the rest of society. Furthermore, it is a
process that helps individuals become functional members of society. Going to mass, learning the
local language, and attending school are some concrete examples of enculturation. According to the
renowned American anthropologist Margaret Mead, one must undergo a process of learning a culture
"in all its uniqueness and particularity." Meanwhile, E. Adamson Hoebel considers enculturation as
"both a conscious and unconscious conditioning process whereby a person, as a child and an adult,
achieves competence in his or her culture, internalizes it and becomes thoroughly enculturated."
Melville Herskovits further clarifies the enculturation process by saying that in the early stages of
human growth, the individual unconsciously internalizes his or her culture; but in the conscious stage
during his or her later years, the process already involves innovations and inquiry on the part of the
individual.
Socialization and enculturation go hand-in-hand in instilling in the individual the accepted
values, norms, and standards of behavior in society through social rules on behavior and laws.
Additionally these processes also impart social status, roles, and identity on members of society.
Socialization and enculturation occur throughout an individuals' life from childhood, adolesence,
adulthood, old age, until death.
Agents of Socialization and Enculturation
An important part of the socialization and enculturation processes are the social groups that
people come in contact and interact with throughout their lives. These groups are called participants
or agents of socialization and enculturation, and consist of persons, groups, and institutions that
teach people essential knowledge to participate successfully in society. An individual encounters
these agents or participants throughout his or her life. The most prominent agents of socialization
include the family, school, peer groups, mass media, religion, the state, and social and historical
events.

The Family
The family is the primary agent of socialization of an individual upon birth. Throughout infancy,
and up to childhood. Parents and other family members are essential for the early care and
development of the child, and as the child matures, the i family becomes an important venue for social
engagement and political socialization.
Apart from defining the identity of the individual as a member of society, the family itself as an
institution is also defined by the changes that society undergoes. The i traditional view of the family at
present is experiencing change, and more children – are receiving primary care from other individuals
apart from their parents. The prevalence of single-parent families and OFWs has given rise to families
where one or both parents are absent, leading to other individuals to take on the responsibility of child
rearing. These may include members of the extended family such as aunts, uncles, cousins, and
other relatives who influence the child during his or her formative years. Other households also
employ helpers or yayas who are tasked to look after the child. Children who attend preschool or
daycare centers also receive care from teachers or early childhood development professionals who
supervise the child’s early education and training.
Despite the changes to the dynamics of the family, it continues to be a primary network for the
transmission of values, attitudes, and behaviors Children are first socialized at home within the family
structure and they learn what is and what is not permissible behavior. They learn obligations, often
with clearly defined responsibilities, from family members, and also become aware of their rights and
privileges. Parents and family members also have a significant role in planning the future of their
children. The family, as a significant agent of political socialization, also determines the political
values and views of children. In most Western countries, individual affiliations with political parties are
often determined by the party. Affiliations of family members. The family also exerts a great influence
on religious affiliation and belief. Oftentimes, the child is baptized or indoctrinated into the religious
belief of the family. It is only later in adulthood that most individuals assert their own religious and
political beliefs, often coming into conflict with the ideas and beliefs of their family.
The family’s social and cultural backgrounds are also significant factors that define a child’s
social opportunities and experiences. The family’s social class, economic position, and ethnic
background influence the child in various ways. The unique context of families may lead them to
emphasize certain behaviors and values which they deem more important. For instance, a religious
and conservative family may forbid their children from dating or having relationships at a young age;
while other families may have a more liberal view regarding relationships and allow their teenaged
children to engage in them. More politically-minded and socially-aware families may choose to
discuss political and social issues with their children regularly and even involve them in social action
or advocacies. Also, families who belong to the political or economic elite will have lifestyles and
experiences that are different from those who come from middle-class or lower-income families.
Individuals raised in families considered as “minorities,” such as the poor or indigenous communities,
may exhibit distrust in the government and have less interest in political involvement. Gender roles
and values are also heavily influenced by the family; how family members value certain gender
identities and roles influences the individual’s outlook on gender and sexuality.

Schools
Schools have a critical and active role in socialization, as their various academic and social
activities mold students’ beliefs, values, and attitudes. Schools teach students important values like
competitiveness, cooperation, conformity, innovation, punctuality, orderliness, and respect for
authority. In addition, students learn the value of self-improvement and hard work through classroom
activities and learning tasks which give them opportunities to apply their knowledge and skills.
Students also benefit from the constant guidance and evaluation provided by teachers.
There are varied classifications of schools. There are public schools, private schools, technical-
vocational schools, and alternative schools. Most schools offer a traditional education based on a
standard curriculum, while some schools implement a progressive or constructivist education that put
emphasis on individual needs and skills of students Schools are also distinguished as sectarian or
nonsectarian, with the former being grounded on a particular set of religious values while the latter is
not affiliated to a particular religious group. All activities and elements experienced and encountered
in school including classes, the curriculum, values, the interaction with teachers and other members
of the school administration, extracurricular activities, and participation in student government
influence one’s views about society and his or her role in it.
Schools are also venues for political socialization. Governments make it a point to include in
the curriculum knowledge and values that are essential for the promotion or preservation of the ideal
social, political, and economic system in society. All states attempt to perpetuate certain core values
but the substance of these values, as well as the methods used to instill them, may vary depending
on the particular social context. During Martial Law, for instance, almost all classrooms in public
schools have pictures of the president and the first lady. Students were also required to sing Ang
Bagong Lipunan or “A New Society,” the government slogan or theme during that time.
Children start learning political information and attitudes during their elementary years. Among
the first things that children learn is that they belong to a political unit. Starting with the barangay, then
a town or a city, a province, and the nation. Very young people also develop a sense of identity in
relation to their own country, language. And culture and learn to see their country’s uniqueness from
other countries. The school also shapes the political concepts that expand and develop children’s
feelings wanachment to his or her nation or country. This sense of belonging and identity can be
further influenced by religion, ethnolinguistic identity, and the type of community where one belongs
to.
Schools are also vital in the development of political unity by establishing shared identities
among citizens who come from diverse social and cultural backgrounds Schools provide information
that highlight and reinforce the shared identities that unite members of a nation. Apart from learning
about the varied ethnolinguistic groups. Cultures, religions, and geographic regions in the country,
Filipino children are taught the common values, historical experiences, and shared symbols, rituals,
and practices such as the Lupang Hinirang, the Panatang Makabayan, and the national language.
 Through education, students become more aware of the interactions between people and
social institutions and how these influence society. The school also provides students venues for
increased political and social participation, enabling them to become increasingly aware of political
issues, processes, and opportunities for involvement. This results in students taking on more mature
and responsible political roles as they grow into adulthood, and they begin to exercise their rights and
responsibilities in their respective communities by voting and becoming active supporters of certain
political or social causes.

Peer Groups
Peer groups also reinforce acceptable behaviors introduced by the family and school, allow a
certain degree of independence from family and certain figures of authority, and are also a means for
socialization and involvement in social and political issues. Peer groups refer to people who share the
same interests or characteristics such as age and social background. For instance, children going to
school form groups with other children of their age. Through interaction, these children develop habits
such as sharing toys, food, and other resources; playing games; and doing school work. By having a
peer group, a child attains a sense of belonging and a shared identity with other members of the
group because of mutual support, shared activities, and common interests.
Peer groups for the most part are formed by informal, spontaneous, and voluntary means.
There are certain organized groups, however, that can be considered peer groups since they allow
individuals who share similar backgrounds and interests to come together. Examples of these
organizations are the Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, and the Young Liberals. Peer groups, in fact, are often
utilized by governments to further their interests. In these instances, peer groups become active
agents of political socialization, targeting not only the youth but also adults, Democratic states
encourage organizations to foster camaraderie and a sense of unity and purpose. This is to
encourage greater citizen involvement across age groups, Some states with authoritarian
governments use peer groups to reshape attitudes and beliefs, and compel citizens to subscribe to
their views and agendas. This was seen in the decades prior to the Second World War, when the
Nazi Party in Germany directed a large-scale social movement with an elaborate network of centrally-
controlled peer groups. The former Soviet Union also utilized this strategy when its Communist Party
organized clubs and civic associat to further the communist cause.

Mass Media
Mass media includes forms of communication such as books, magazines, newspapers, other
print materials, radio, television, and movies. It is a powerful agent of socialization which is widely
used by many institutions and organizations involved in the use of print and electronic communication.
Decades ago, mass media was characterized as nonproximate agents of socialization,
meaning it lacks direct, face-to-face interaction between the sender and receiver. Nowadays, the
pervasive nature of media and the emergence of social media have led social scientists to focus more
closely on studying the impact of media as significant socializing agents or influences. Filipinos now
spend a considerable amount of time engaging various forms of mass media, particularly television,
radio, and the Internet. The increased access to these forms of mass media in recent years, through
the introduction of innovations such as smartphones and tablets, has transformed the way people
experience the world and have provided an unprecedented amount of information to them.
 Mass media functions as a socializing agent to the following ways it is a source of information
regarding events in society, it presents various viewpoints regarding events and developments within
society, and it provides entertainment by showcasing other people’s experiences. The prevalence of
mass media within society results in its enormous impact and influence on people’s views, behavior,
and attitudes.
Government and mass media are also closely related. Most democratic states have
government-owned television and radio stations that are regulated by agencies tasked with enforcing
policies ensuring freedom of the press and upholding professional standards in media and
communication. The relationship between mass media and politics is very complex, and scholars
have varied views regarding how mass media influences and shapes people’s attitudes and behavior.
The pluralist model portrays media as an ideological marketplace that enhances debate and
electoral choice. Examples of these are talk shows that engage in discussions on relevant social
issues, and live debates that allow political candidates to engage in discussion and inform the citizens
regarding their respective government programs. The market model suggests that media reflects the
views of the general public, and that media presents what they think the people want. This is seen in
television networks where telenovelas and “reality shows” are dominant on air, since these types of
shows are seen by media owners and executives as the most popular forms of entertainment among
the people. The dominant-ideology and elite-valuest models, meanwhile put emphasis on the
influence of bias in the activities of media institutions. The dominant-ideology model traces this bias
to links between media and the political and social elite. This could be seen in instances when
prominent business or political figures own, control, or exert influence over certain media outlets
through their business or social connections. The elite-values model, meanwhile, recognizes media
bias as a product of the personal views of media professionals such as journalists, broadcasters, and
editors.
The influence of media, however, is lesser among people who have been exposed to more
agents of socialization and have a stable set of political and social views. Other views point to the
contribution of media to a decline in political awareness and participation, as people now spend more
time watching television and devote their time to entertainment rather than informing themselves on
significant social issues. This leads to a decline in the sense of community which is vital in upholding
democracy.

Religion and State

Both religion and state are considered as the ultimate sources of authority, making the church
and government important agents of socialization. Religion exerts a great influence on the views of a
person, legitimizes accepted social practices, provides in the Philips has in several instances, taken a
prominent role in bringing ab social and political change to the country. The church was active in the
anti-Marcos movement thering the Martial Law pertos, and has been instrumental during the Pst
People Power in 1986 b 2001, the church was also instrumental in the m mest that led to the ouster of
President Joseph Estrada. The Catholic Church a contests engagement with the government through
its support or opposition to the latter’s policies on social and political issues such as graft and
corruption, land relocus social justice, and reproductive health.
The state’s response to religion is fairly complex. In democratic states, the separation of church
and state is guaranteed, though in reality, the state defines and limits the ilence of religion on society
through laws, regulations, and other means. The interactions between the church and government
often define the boundaries of their relationships and determine the place religion occupies within the
larger political order However, in many nondemocratic states, the government often restricts church
activities and persecutes its members. Some authoritarian states, however, use the church to lend
legitimacy to dictatorial regimes and repressive policies. Throughout history, religion has either been
used to promote noble aims or subverted to serve less righteous causes sach as the persecution of
minorities or to justify wars and conflict.
The state, meanwhile, participates in socialization through laws and other regulations that
reinforce appropriate behavior, and help form values and attitudes of the citizens. Through laws, the
state upholds important concepts such as rights and responsibilities, and regulates the behavior of its
citizens through the use of rewards or sanctions. While the state has an overwhelming influence over
the lives of its citizens, society, on the other hand, also defines certain aspects of the state. Laws are
defined and influenced by the values and attitudes of citizens, and citizens work together to enforce
laws and other regulations in society.

Major Social and Historical Events

Major social and political events can also be significant socializing forces for an Entire
generation. The changes and developments brought about by historical events often cause
transformations in the values, attitudes, and views that define societies, leading to further changes in
the behavior and traditions of societies Western societies have been greatly affected by major
historical events such as the Great Depression, the Holocaust in Europe, the two World Wars, the civil
rights movement in the United States, and the Vietnam War, Generations of Filipinos have been
allected by various historical events like the Second World War, the Martial Law period, and the First
People Power in 1986. The views and attitudes of Filipinos who have lived through these events were
greatly defined by the changes these events introduced. For instance, those who lived through the
Marcos regime and experienced the First People Power have a high regard for upholding democracy
and fighting authoritarianism. These individuals often express dismay at the tendency of today’s
generation to glorify authoritarianism and embrace personalities who display dictatorial tendencies.
Historical events, however, tend to affect individuals and societies differently. Just as family
members may have varied political and religious views, individuals may consider and react to events
in different ways. This is most evident when considering the legacy of the Marcos dictatorship in our
country. Certain families, groups, and communities that have benefited during the Martial Law period
often see that historical period as a time of progress and stability, and often highlight its benefits.
Others, especially those who were part of the opposition to the Marcos regime, consider this period as
a time of repression and tend to highlight the negative aspects of that time. Variations in the
interpretation of historical events often lead to substantial variations in socialization within a society-
one segment of the population may grow up to appreciate a more positive version of a historical
event, while another will have a different, more negative account of the event. This disparity tends to
give rise to complications that threaten the unity and stability within a society.
This is the reason why the state is one agent of socialization that takes an interest in defining a
cohesive history for its society. Some countries choose to adopt a single, uniform history which must
be taught to all citizens. Other countries, on the other hand, have a more liberal approach in dealing
with their histories, and encourage critical study, discussion, and debate regarding significant
moments in history.
 Other challenges to socialization emerge when dealing with multicultural or multiethnic nations.
These nations attempt to implement a socialization process that will unite people into a single,
cohesive community. However, this process is not often successful and there will be some groups
that will not be successfully integrated and will be unable to share the norms, rules, and laws of the
larger society. Over time, social differences give rise to conflicts, and if these go unaddressed, social
conflicts will give way to the eventual breakup of society.

Conformity, Deviance, and Social Control

Conformity
Groups exert great influence on an individual’s thoughts, values, attitudes, and behavior. They
also provide a sense of identity and belongingness that enable the person to relate fully with other
group members. For an individual to continue functioning as a member of the group, he or she should
conform to the general behaviors and attitudes prevalent within it.
Conformity refers to the process of altering one’s thoughts and actions to adapt to the
accepted behavior within his or her group or society. Social psychology Considers conformity as a
product of pressure exerted by the group on the individual Herbert Kelman identifies three types of
conformity: compliance, identification, and Internalization or acceptance.
Compliance refers to the outward conformity to social pressure but privately disagreeing with
it. This action is often motivated by the desire to gain rewards or avoid punishment. This is the least
enduring type of conformity, since the motivation provided by rewards and punishments may not
always be present, or the authority figure may be unable to exert his or her influence fully on the
group or society at all times.
Identification, on the other hand, refers to the individual adopting a certain behavior because
it enables him or her to have a satisfying relationship with the members of his or her group. The
individuals also adopt the opinions and values of the group, and may strive to emulate an authority
figure usually a parent or leader that he or she respects or admires.
Internalization or acceptance involves both public compliance and internal acceptance of the
norms and standards imposed by the group. This is the most permanent and deeply-rooted response
to social influence. Acceptance or internalization is motivated by the desire to be right, with the
authority figure or person of influence being deemed trustworthy, credible, and of good judgment.
Acceptance eventually results to the integration of the group’s set of beliefs and behavior into the
individual’s own framework.

Deviance
Deviance is defined as a behavior that elicits a strong negative reaction from group members
and involves actions that violate commonly held social norms. What is defined as deviance, however,
varies depending on the context of the group or society. What may be considered normal behavior in
one culture may be considered deviant behavior in others. For instance, during the Nazi regime in
Germany, many individuals were singled out as deviants-Jews, gypsies, the disabled, homosexuals,
and other “non-Aryans.” However, Germany and the rest of Europe at present officially no longer
consider these people as deviants. Another example is the case of women driving cars. In the
Philippines, women drivers are a common sight, but in Saudi Arabia driving a car is considered an
undesirable behavior for women and is banned by law.
 There are various views regarding the causes of and influences on social deviance. Biological
and psychological theories consider deviance as being influenced bry biological factors such as
genetics, but these views have been largely discredited Sociologists believe that conformity and
deviance are closely tied concepts, and that social influences such as socioeconomic status and
relationships of power define how individuals react to authority and behave in certain situations. Thus,
deviant or criminal behavior is learned in the same way as abiding by the law. For example, a child
growing up in the slums and interacting with gangs on a regular basis eventually conforms to the set
of behaviors which are characteristic of “gang behavior” which is considered deviant by the rest of
society. Another child who is brought up in a safe and secure neighborhood eventually acquires and
internalizes law-abiding values that characterize him or her as a “productive citizen.” The child from
the slums and the child from the safe neighborhood will view each other’s behavior as departures
from their idea of what is the norm, thus, each will view the other as a deviant.
This view often lead sociologists to have varied assessments of deviance and crime. Those
who follow a structural-functionalist frame work consider crime and deviance as the result of structural
tensions and lack of moral regulation within society. Emile Durkheim uses the term anomie to refer to
a condition where social control becomes ineffective due to the loss of shared values and sense of
purpose in society. This gives way to either the breakdown of traditional life or a period of social
change..
Another sociologist, Robert Merton, relates deviance to the strain felt by individuals whenever
social norms conflict with reality. His structural strain theory argues that the tensions and strains
between socially-approved goals and an individual’s ability to meet them will lead to deviance. For
example, a construction worker who has been trying to gain employment for months but is unable to
do so will have increasing frustration with society. The worker aspires to socially-approved goals and
gain lawful employment, but society’s inability to provide him the means to gain employment may
force him into less-desirable means of livelihood or even crime.
The subcultural view points to the emergence of deviant behavior within certain groups in
society or subcultures. The set of values and behavior prevalent within these groups makes them very
prone to engage in deviant or criminal behavior. This perspective originated from sociological studies
of gangs and youth culture which determine that these groups tended to celebrate defiance,
delinquency, and nonconformity as traits that define their identity as a group. These traits, however.
Also render them most vulnerable to deviant or criminal behavior.
The symbolic-interactionist view considers deviance as a socially constructed phenomenon
influenced largely by interpersonal relationships between members of society. This view is related to
the labeling theory, which believes that there is actually no deviance in society, deviance only
emerges when society begins labeling ertain actions as Heviant” or “undesirable.”Labeling comes into
play when society deems the behaviors of a certain groups, such as gang members, as deviant. This
Inheling reinforces negative views regarding the group, which further drives them toward deviance.
The judgment of society, in this case, modifies the group’s and their member’s self-concept and also
changes the way other members of society relate to the labeled group or individual. This view also
believes that deviant behavior emerges and is reinforced by interacting with people who display
deviance. Additionally, people are more prone to display deviant behavior when their family members
of other people close to them display the same deviant behavior.
The conflict perspective, meanwhile, analyzes deviance the framework of competing
interests between social groups and the maintenance of power among the elites. This view considers
concepts of deviance as a reflection of society’s inequalities as those who are less powerful in society
or minorities are more likely to be considered as deviants or criminals. Examples of these groups
include the poor and ethnic or religious minorities.
Finally, control theories consider deviance as emerging because of inadequate social controls.
If society is unable to maintain control and order, it encourages members to engage in deviant
behavior. The broken windows theory suggests a direct relationship between social disorder and
deviance, and that maintaining even an appearance of order is sufficient to discourage deviance. An
example is a local government maintaining constant police presence and cleanliness in areas
associated with criminality to discourage the occurrence of petty crimes and vandalism.

Social Control and Sanctions

Social control is defined as any systematic means and practices used to maintal norms, rules,
and laws; regulate conflict; and discourage deviant behavior. Sanctions are the most common means
of social control, and are often employed to addres conflicts and violations of social norms. Sanctions
can be formal or informal.
Formal sanctions are those provided for by laws and other regulations in societ Laws formally
designate certain deviant behaviors as crimes, and prescribe sanctio for such acts. The adoption and
enforcement of laws serve to reinforce accepted social norms, as well as define deviant behaviors
that merit punishment in society. Each society has its own set of definitions regarding crime and the
appropriate sanctions be applied. For instance, several states in the United States impose the death
penal on crimes such as murder. Meanwhile, Philippine law provides for the imposition of the death
penalty on certain crimes, but the government has chosen to suspend the imposition of death penalty
since 2006. Other sanctions provided for crimes include imprisonment, banishment, fines, and
corporal punishment.
Informal sanctions are most commonly imposed by smaller societies, communities, or
groups. There are no set laws or regulations that define the nature of these sanctions, and these are
often arbitrarily agreed upon by members of the group or society, Ostracism and social stigma are the
most common forms of informal sanction. An ostracized individual is forcibly isolated from the rest of
society for a certain time. A stigmatized person, on the other hand, still remains within society but is
subject to isolation and rejection by other members of society, Gossip is considered as another way of
imposing informal sanctions, as it is an informal means of monitoring and censuring the behavior of
certain individuals.

Human Dignity and Human Rights

Human dignity refers to the idea that a person has the innate right to be valued, respected,
and treated well. Human rights are legal, social, and ethical principles that consider the human
person as deserving of liberties and protections by virtue of his or her human dignity,
Human dignity and human rights are significant concerns when dealing with socialization and
issues on deviance and social control. Socialization primarily aims to instill recognition of and respect
for human rights and dignity. These issues are also legitimate concerns when society deals with
deviance and the enforcement of social control.
Human rights are founded on natural rights, which are universal and inalienable, And are not
contingent on laws, customs, beliefs, or values of a particular culture.Examples of these rights are the
right to life and freedom. Human rights are considered to have the following characteristics:
  They are universal because they belong to all human beings regardless of race,
religion, gender, and other characteristics.
 They are fundamental since they cannot be taken away from any human Being.
 They are indivisible as various rights are interrelated and given equal importance.
 They are absolute since they cannot be qualified and are considered basic necessities
for living a genuine life.
A major legal instrument that upholds the recognition of human rights is the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which was drafted by the United Nations Commission on
Human Rights in 1948. This document was one of the major results of the end of the Second World
War. The atrocities committed during the war convinced many countries of the need to craft an
international charter that will ensure that such crimes will no longer be repeated.

REVIEW
 Socialization refers to the lifelong process of social interaction through which people acquire
their identities and all necessary skills for survival in society. It prepares newcomers to become
members of an existing group through the adoption of values and behavior that are considered
appropriate by the group.
 Anthropologists use the term enculturation to refer to the process of being socialized to a
particular culture. Through enculturation, individuals learn the symbols, norms, values, and
language of their culture by observing and Interacting with various members of society.
 Agents of socialization refer to persons, groups, and institutions that interact with individuals
and teach them the essential knowledge needed to participate successfully in society. These
agents constantly interact with individuals and influence their thoughts and behavior.
 Socialization is defined by social context which consists of aspects of society such as culture,
language, and the social structures that define social class, ethnicity, and gender. It also
includes social and historical events, mechanisms of power and control, and institutions and
individuals that engage the person in the socialization process.
 The family is considered as the primary agent of socialization from infancy up to childhood.
Other agents of socialization include religion, peer groups, Schools, mass media, and the law,
among others.
 Conformity refers to the process of altering one’s behavior to adapt to more Socially-accepted
means and goals within a society, culture, or group.
 Deviance is defined as behavior that elicits a strong negative reaction from others in a
particular group or setting. It involves actions that violate commonly held norms of a group or
ssociety
 There are different sociological theories that explain deviance. These are Functionalist
theories, interactionist theories, conflict theories, and control Theories.
 Social control refers to any systematic means and practices used to maintain society’s norms,
rules, and laws; regulate conflict; and discourage deviant behavior. Formal sanctions are those
provided by laws and other regulations in society, while informal sanctions consist of actions
such as ostracism, social stigma, and even gossip.
 Human rights are legal, social, and ethical principles to which people are entitled by virtue of
their human dignity. They are said to be universal, fundamental, indivisible, and absolute,
Adherence to human rights may differ from one society to another.
 Chapter 4 : How a Society is Organized

Groups within Society

You share certain similarities with your classmates, just like individual members of society have
commonalities with other members. These similarities could be the initial basis for individuals to be
drawn together and interact more closely These similarities could also be the basis for the
establishment of deeper and more meaningful relationships.
Beyond the individual, groups are the smaller units that compose society. Societies can be as
big as the members of a particular religious organization, such as the Filipino Catholic Church or
Muslim community, or as small as a household. Regardless of size, however, membership in groups
constitutes a fundamental aspect of our social existence and being. Groups have been responsible for
the development and advancement of cultures, economies, politics, and other aspects of human
civilization.
The ancient philosopher Plato believed that man is a social animal. This means human beings
are naturally equipped with tools such as language and reason that enable them to engage others in
meaningful interaction. This desire and ability to interact is seen in various ways. People spend a
great deal of their time with various groups Young people meet their barkada in restaurants to catch
up with one another’s lives: they play sports or engage in different hobbies with their classmates and
neighbors; they attend schools, churches, and all sorts of community activities. Within the
neighborhood; and they use social media to communicate with their peers. It is quite impossible to
imagine human existence without social groups.
A social group is a collection of individuals who have relations with one another that make
them interdependent to some significant degree. Interdependence is a necessary condition that
exists within social groups because it is what enables its members to pursue shared goals or promote
common values and principles. This notion is recognized by different social and behavioral scientists.
Sociologists, anthropologists, educators, psychologists, criminologists, economists, and social
workers have devoted a lot of attention studying the dynamics within and between social groups.
These experts define and analyze social groups based on their particular perspective. Some put
emphasis on groups as units of interaction while some focus on the structural relations within groups.
Interdependence is also what differentiates a social group from an aggregate, or a mere
collection of people within a particular place and time. In the context of our social groups, our
thoughts, actions, and behavior are defined by our interaction with people to whom we share certain
degrees of interdependence. Aggregates, on the other hand, do not necessarily influence our social
actions as there might be no direct interaction and interdependence with the people composing it. For
example, a group of friends decided to hang out in a mall. While this group of friends is considered a
social group, the same cannot be said about the rest of the people in the mall. The group of friends
interacts with one another but not necessarily with the rest of the people in the mall. Furthermore, the
group of friends may depend on one another in various aspects, while the rest only belong to an
aggregate of people who occupy the same space at a certain time.
Individuals assign great value to their relationships with people within their group, to the extent
that it defines their respective identities. Some individuals, for instance, take pride in their group
affiliations and often proclaim it publicly. They spend a considerable amount of time getting involved in
the various activities of this group. Additionally, these group members also prescribe to the
preferences and ways of thinking and doing of its members. As a result, an individual is enculturated
as he or she forges a significant bond with the rest of the members of his or her group..
However, not all groups produce positive consequences and benefits for their members. Some
groups such as criminal gangs and terrorist groups use violence and force to achieve their objectives.
For example, “doomsday” religious cults demand firm and unquestioning loyalty from its followers to
the point of physical harm. Meanwhile, there are instances when individuals experience conflict with
other members of their group (family, friends, etc.), which could drive them away from the group. For
better or for worse, our social groups profoundly define our identity, as well as our roles in society.

Primary and Secondary Groups

Members of society belong to social groups that vary not only in size but also in the level and
depth of interaction and interdependence among its members. An individual is generally closest to his
or her immediate family (parents, siblings, first cousins, etc.) but not to his distant relatives.He or she
may have deep bonds with his or her close friends but could have cordial or casual relations with
other acquaintances. As one enters adulthood, he or she will discover that there are some social
groups that will exert a more profound impact on his or her life than others.
Sociologists agree that not all groups are equivalent in terms of their level of importance. A
primary group is a small, intimate, and less specialized group whose members engage in face-to-
face and emotion-based interactions over an extended period of time. The interdependence among
members of a primary group is characterized by a deep and profound relationship with each other.
Examples of primary groups include the family, close friends, work-related peers, classmates, and
church groups. Every society is comprised of various primary groups that are responsible for the
continual social development of its members.
Primary groups are the first groups where an individual experiences his or her initial encounter
with social affinity and belonging. It is within these groups that an individual establishes and defines
his or her identity, values, ideals, and aspirations. The other members of the primary groups also
serve as his or her first agents of socialization. The individual’s basic ideas on the different facets of
his or her society are significantly shaped by the members of his or her primary groups.
In the Philippines, the primary group affiliation of Filipinos is based on kinship ties. It is through
kinship that young Filipinos realize the great importance our culture assigns to the family and its
extended nature. Filipinos are among several societies that recognize bilineal kinship which traces
lineage from both parents. People are aware of this every time they answer a question regarding their
place of origin. A Filipino tends to put emphasis on the place of origin of both his or her father and
mother. This is because it is customary in Filipino culture to nurture primary relationships on both
sides of the family. This familial network is so strong that Filipinos sometimes build instant affinity with
people they do not know but either share a family name or place of origin.
Secondary groups, in contrast, are larger, less intimate, and more specialized groups where
members engage in an impersonal and objective-oriented relationship for a limited time. Unlike
primary groups, the level of interaction and interdependence within secondary groups is not deep and
significant. Furthermore, while an individual knows every member of his or her primary groups at the
personal level, the same cannot be said about his or her secondary groups. The impersonal nature of
interaction between members of secondary groups allows one to treat others as merely a means to
achieve his or her immediate objectives. Individuals also recognize that their membership to these
groups is less intrinsic and more instrumental. For example, employees treat their colleagues as a
secondary group since they know that they need to cooperate with one another to achieve certain
goals in the workplace. Mutual benefit, rather than emotional affinity, becomes the primary driving
force that compel individuals to stay together in a secondary group. Another example is the
professional relationship between lawyers and clients, and a corporation that has hundreds of
employees, stockholders, and shareholders. Throughout individual’s lifetime, he or she will have
different sets of primary and secondary groups. Consensus among social scient is that much of
people’s time will be spent with secondary groups given the continued urbanization and expansion of
societies. Emile Durkheim argued, that the shift from traditional to modern society will impact how
individuals. Relate to one another. As the division. Of labor in society becomes more complex, people
will have less time nurture and interact with their primary groups. This may have negative effects on
the personal well-being of individuals, but they can adapt by building more personal and profound
relationships with the members of their secondary groups. For example, an employee in a factory may
initially consider his workplace as a secondary group but soon fosters a deep bond with his or her
colleagues after a considerable amount of time spent together. He or she could also strengthen these
relationships through certain cultural practices, such as inviting colleagues to his or her wedding as
sponsors, or be the godparents to his or her newborn baby. A ritualistic kinship tie is therefore formed
which leads to a primary relationship being established in the workplace-a supposedly secondary
group.
The pressure to form a primary relationship within secondary groups is quite high in modern
societies. This is also the reason why the notion of a family and the barkada as the two major primary
groups in a person’s life may no longer be as relevant as before. Though primary groups are
significant in the formative years of each individual, their influence may decrease upon reaching
adulthood. Street gangs and other underworld organizations, for example, may provide the same
companionship and emotional support as any other primary group. In other words, incorporation into a
group both helps people to adapt to various social processes and attain their goals in life, but may
also encourage them to commit wrongdoing or lead others to socially deviant practices.

In-groups and Out-groups

Another relevant approach in understanding the characteristics of social groups is the self-
categorization theory. It proposes that people’s appreciation of their group membership is influenced
by their perception towards people who are not members of their groups. Basically, people’s
perceptions of other people as well as other groups are influenced whether they perceive others as
members of their group or not.
An in-group is a group to which one belongs and with which one feels a sense of identity. An
out-group, meanwhile, is a group to which one does not belong and to which he or she may feel a
sense of competitiveness or hostility. For every individual, distinguishing between his or her in-groups
and out-groups is essential in developing his or her identity and self-worth. One usually treats
members of his or her in-group more favorably than those of his or her out-group. However, people’s
shifting group memberships throughout their lives means that their notions of in-groups and out
groups are likely to change.
Social scientists identify several characteristics of in-groups. First, members of such groups
devise ways to distinguish themselves from nonmembers. This may come in the form of group titles,
symbols that represent the group and its members, and even rituals required for membership. These
means of identification perform the role of infusing group solidarity as well as exclusivity. Second,
members within a certain in-group display positive attitudes and behavior toward their fellow members
for the most part, while they may exhibit negative attitudes and even form negative views toward
members of their out-groups. These shared feelings form important bonds that further solidify the
cohesiveness of the in-group. Lastly, as similarities and shared experiences foster unity and
cooperation among group members, differences with nonmembers could transform into feelings of
competition and even hostility. The establishment of modern societies is often defined by the creation
of boundaries between in-groups and out-groups.
A representative example of the social dynamics between in-groups and out groups are
university fraternities and sororities. A fraternity is an exclusive all male student organization, while a
sorority is an exclusive all-female organization. A lot of university students join these organizations
as they have an extensive list of accomplishments promoting academic excellence, camaraderie, and
community service. A fraternity or sorority is also a network that weaves past and present members
into an interconnected entity from different generations. This enables them to become powerful
groups with a nationwide reach as their older members become influential members of society,
government, the private sector, and many other institutions.
To promote cohesion among members, a fraternity or sorority makes every effort to
differentiate themselves from their counterparts and even other student organizations. They have their
respective names (e.g., Alpha Phi Omega, Sigma Rho, Upsilon Sigma Phi, etc.), symbols, flagship
activities, and other markers of differentiation. Certain fraternities, however, have become notorious
for their unorthodox initiation rites that have resulted in the deaths of several neophytes or aspiring
members. These rites of passage are part of their tradition and are originally intended to generate a
sense of intense group loyalty among members through the shared experience of an ordeal.
Apart from experiencing the practice of hazing upon entry into the in-group, it is inevitable for
fraternities to engage in some competition, which may result in violence at times. Periodically, people
watch or read reports of clashes between rival fraternities. This is an indication of people's distinction
between an in-group and an out-group. The solid cohesion within an in-group may come to a point
whereby personal squabbles between individual members of different fraternities escalate into an "all-
out war" between the entire groups themselves. The negative sentiments or stereotypes toward out-
groups breed antagonism, hostility, or even a desire to inflict injury by members of the in-group. This
is also pushed by the intention of defending the fraternity's identity and integrity as well as reinforcing
the strength within the in-group. However, sometimes, the violence spreads beyond the fraternities.
For example, in 1998, an innocent male college student was mistakenly killed in the premises of the
University of the campus by a hired gunman of a fraternity who thought he was a member of a rival
fraternity. People might wonder how such violent acts prevail in an academic institution such as a
university. This behavior relates to the concept of self-categorization, as members of fraternities
often lose their individuality and they consider themselves more as members of an exclusive group.
Their identity in other groups (university, family, community, etc.) may be overshadowed by their
sense of belonging to the in-group.
There are still remaining questions that continue to challenge the dynamics of different groups
within a society. Some of these include the extent to which individuals are willing to go on behalf of
their in-group as well as the question of how to attain a harmonious coexistence with their out-groups.
Another important question is how to extend the intrinsic cohesion within in-groups to out-groups
despite their differences in order to maintain order in society.

Reference groups
Among the most significant and influential social groups for an individual are his or her
reference groups. A reference group is a group to which an individual compares himself or herself.
Such groups strongly influence an individual’s behavior and social attitudes whether he or she is a
member of these groups. Examples of reference groups include an individual’s primary groups
(family, work colleagues, schoolmates, etc.) or his or her in-groups (church, fellow club members,
neighbors in the community, sports team, etc.). Individuals often identify with and emulate the traits of
people they feel closest to. For instance, they seek to emulate the career or profession of one of their
parents. In other cases, individuals may find themselves outside their reference group and seek to
become a member in the future. In this regard, members of the reference group provide models that
shape their attitudes, beliefs, and behavior. The reference group is considered a source of role
models since the individual uses it as a standard for self-assessment. The tendency of individuals to
emulate their desired reference group have led these groups to become powerful agents of
socialization.
By now, high school students like you should already have an idea of your chosen reference
group. It may be a successful sports team, a dance group, a political organization, or even a group of
friends in school. Members of a reference group may indirectly apply “peer pressure” for younger or
newer members to emulate them or conform to their actions and views. On a more positive note,
individuals are provided with an opportunity for self-evaluation and identity formation by having a
reference group. For instance, a lawyer exhibiting eloquence and wit during a trial can make a lasting
impact on a certain individual’s career choice. An articulate and intelligent politician can be a decisive
factor for a young person to study political science and engage in politics. A reference group sets self
apart from other groups in the sense that it can mold people's aspirations in life and inspire them to
pursue greater things.
It is not necessary for an individual to engage in face-to-face interaction with his or her
reference group. He or she might not even meet the members of his or her reference group
personally in his or her lifetime. Imitation of reference group behavior can have positive and negative
consequences. For example, a young person might consider a rock band as his or her reference
group. He or she might form his or her own rock band and draw inspiration from the said reference
group in terms of singing, physical appearance, and demeanor. However, he or she may also pick up
some of their bad habits like throwing tantrums, displaying unpleasant behavior, and engaging in bad
vices such as smoking, drinking, and doing drugs. It is therefore important to have as much
information and knowledge regarding a person's reference groups given the critical role that they will
play in the future. The social norms people follow, the attitudes they adopt, and the behaviors they
exhibit are significantly influenced by those displayed by members of their reference group.

Networks
How people interact within their established social groups and with other groups in society is
often a complicated affair, requiring individuals to situate themselves in a complex web of
relationships. Individuals often have overlapping memberships with different social groups, and have
varying levels of interactions with each. This leads to various issues and concerns regarding
balancing loyalties and identities given the often complex interactions among groups in society.
Sociologists use the concept “network” to understand the complex world of social groups. A
network refers to the structure of relationships between social actors or groups. These are
interconnections, ties, and linkages between people, their groups, and the larger social institutions to
which they all belong to. In the age of the Internet, a good example of networks are those provided by
social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram. One can instantly map his or her
own social network through his or her accounts in these online platforms of communication. One can
identify close friends, acquaintances, and “followers” as this technological tool lets one envision his or
her very own complex web of social interaction and group memberships. Social media is a significant
development in the twenty-first century and its rapid evolution continues to change the way people
manage the complicated nature of their social relationships and group affinities.
Sociologist and anthropologists differentiate between the networks formed in traditional and
modern societies. In traditional or primitive societies, networks are exclusive, limited, and mostly
defined by Kinship. They provide solidarity through shared identities and a simple division of labor and
social rates Modern society, meanwhile, redefined the safe and secure arrangement provided by
traditional networks by allowing the individual to become part of a more expanded and cosmopolitan
network with overlapping circles of social interaction. Through modern social networks, an individual
is provided a diversity of social roles and identities unavailable in more traditional societies. People
are more empowered in craft a more complicated set of identities with the help of various social
groups whose membership is not based on blood relations and kinship ties. Despite a wide array of
differences, individuals become increasingly reliant on their social relationships for support and the
means to achieve mutual objectives, People’s networks enable them to appreciate and accept
differences and diversity within the society, and this mindset contributes to a more stable and intact
society.
A network perspective in examining the multitude of social relationships and group
memberships entails a dynamic appreciation of their interrelated and interdependent nature. A social
network also provides an important context in understanding how various groups are interrelated with
one another. For example, if an individual examines his or her entire school’s social network, he or
she will realize that his or her goals, behavior, norms, attitudes, and beliefs are shaped by how he or
she is situated in these networks and his or her relationships to specifie groups. Moreover, one will
also realize that his or her decisions and actions are not merely a product of individual choice or
group membership but are also influenced by one’s interaction with his or her social network. When
individuals finish their basic education and enter college, their social networks become more
complicated. Their daily lives will be significantly affected by the addition of new group memberships
and social relationships.
A social network provides a bigger pool from which people draw their possible sources of
identity, self-esteem, and self-actualization. It is the larger source where people find alternative
groups if their previous ones fall or disappoint them. They may find new reference groups within their
ever-growing social network. And sometimes, when they face the stress of social life or the pressures
of school and work, they retreat to the more familiar parts of their network such as their family or
immediate circle of friends. Some proactively expand their social network as they grab every
opportunity to meet new people, establish links, and make connections Others are more content with
their existing network and will seek to expand it only when necessary. The increasing mobility of
people and the diverse opportunities brought about by improved communication and technology are
signs that the dual task of maintaining and expanding one’s social network will soon become less of a
choice but rather a necessity in the years to come.

REVIEW
 A social group is a collection of individuals who have relations with one qnother that make
them interdependent to some significant degree.
 The presence of mutual interdependence is what differentiates a social group from a social
aggregate. A social aggregate is a mere collection of people in the same place at the same
time and does not necessarily influence an individual’s social actions due to the lack of direct
interaction and interdependence with the people composing it.
 A primary group is a small, intimate, and less specialized group whereby members engage in
a face-to-face and emotion-based interaction and interdependence over an extended period of
time. Secondary groups, in contrast, are larger, less intimate, and more specialized groups
whereby members engage in an impersonal and objective-oriented relationships for a limited
period of time.
 An in-group is a group to which a person belongs and with which he or she feels a sense of
identity. An out-group, meanwhile, is a group to which one does not belong and to which he or
she may feel a sense of competitiveness or hostility.
 A reference group is a group to which an individual compares himself or herself. It has a
strong influence on an individual’s beliefs, values, behavior, and attitudes.
 A network refers to the structure of relationships between social actors or groups. These are
interconnections, ties, and linkages between people. Their groups, and the larger social
institutions to which they all belong. Modern societies feature more expansive, diverse, and
overlapping social networks than primitive ones.