CHAPTER 2 - Periodicity - Students Version CHM092 (2017)

FOUNDATION CHEMISTRY CHM092
CHAPTER 2
ELECTRONIC
STRUCTURE OF
ATOMS AND
PERIODICITY
Contribution by:
Dr. Fatimah Salim

Raihana Mohd Yusof
©2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted
in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
MAIN TOPICS
2.0 INTRODUCTION
2.1 THE BOHR’S THEORY
2.2 THE WAVE MECHANICAL MODEL
2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS
2.4 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS
2.5 PERIODIC TABLE AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
2.6 PERIODICITY
2.7 METALLIC CHARACTER
Lesson Outcome
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
• Define the terminologies of elements, compounds and

atomic structure
• Define the nucleus, proton, neutron and electron.
• Define the atomic number, mass number and isotope
symbols.
• Identify the number of protons and neutrons in an isotope
using the isotope symbol and the mass number.
• Define the Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom.
• Define orbital and wave function.
• State the properties and allowed values of the principal
quantum number, n, the angular momentum quantum
number, l, the magnetic quantum number, ml and the spin
quantum number, ms.
Lesson Outcome
• Recognize the shape of the s, p, d, and f orbital and their respective
quantum numbers.
• Explain the Pauli Exclusion Principle, Aufbau Principle and Hund’s
Rule.
• Draw the electron configurations of atoms and ions (inclusive the
first series of transition elements only) in terms of sublevel notation
and orbital diagram.
• Determine the number of electrons if given certain quantum
numbers.
• Write the set quantum numbers for the particular electron or atom.
• Explain the general principles of electron shielding and orbital
penetration.
• Define valence and core electrons.
• Identify the s, p, d, and f blocks of elements in the periodic table.
• Apply the periodic table to predict electron configurations.
• Define the periodic law and its characteristic.
Lesson Outcome
• Define atomic and ionic radii, first ionization energy and
electron affinity.
• Predict the trends in atomic radii and ionic radii of elements
across the period and down the group and the factors
affecting it.
• Predict the trends in ionization energy and electron affinity
of elements across the period and down the group and the
factors affecting it.
• Explain the abnormality in ionization energy of elements in
group 2A and group 5A.
• Predict the group of an element from the values of
successive ionization energy given.
• Identify and distinguish between paramagnetic and
diamagnetic atoms/ions.
• Recognize the differences in chemical and physical
properties of metal and nonmetal including the basicity of
metal oxides and the acidity of nonmetal oxides.
2.0 INTRODUCTION
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
2.0 INTRODUCTION
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Just Imagine!
“If the atom is the Houston Astrodome, then the nucleus is a

marble on the 50-yard line.”
2.0 INTRODUCTION
ATOMIC MODELS
THOMPSON’S MODEL RUTHERFORD’S MODEL BOHR’S
MODEL
Suggested a model of the  Atoms positive charge is Electron can only have
atom as a sphere of positive concentrated in the nucleus specific (quantized) energy
matter. (dense central core within an values.
Electrons are positioned by atom).
electrostatic forces. Light is emitted as e- moves
 Proton (p) has opposite (+)
from one energy level to a
charge of electron (-).
lower energy level.
• THE BOHR’S MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM
• THE WEAKNESS OF BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL
• Bohr developed an atom model explaining how the

structure of the atom changes when it undergoes
energy transitions
• Bohr’s major idea was that the energy of the atom

was quantized, and
• Amount of energy in the atom was related to its

electron’s position.
*quantized - atom could only have very specific amounts of energy
THE BOHR MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM
(POSTULATE)
• The single electron in H atom moves around
the nucleus in orbits or energy levels
• The orbits are pictured as concentric circles
around the nucleus possessing certain energy
levels, called stationary states .
• Energy levels are arranged in parallel lines.
The higher the energy level, the farther the
orbit is from the nucleus.
• When the H electron is in the first orbit, the
atom is in its lowest energy state, called
ground state.
• The energy levels are specified by the
quantum number ‘n’ (n = 1, 2, 3 etc.)
THE WEAKNESS IN BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL
 Could not predict the energy levels and spectra of most

atoms and ions having more than one electron.
 Could only explain the hydrogen spectrum or any
spectrum of ions that contain only one electron such as
He+ or Li2+
 The modern quantum mechanics retains Bohr’s concept of
discrete energy states and energy involved during the
transition of electron but totally reject the circular orbits
he introduced.
THE WEAKNESS IN BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL
CHECKPOINT 1
Describe and illustrate how the atomic model changed as a result
of research performed or interpreted by i) Thomson, ii)
Rutherford and iii) Bohr
• THE PROPERTIES OF ELECTRON
• THE DE BROGLIE’S POSTULATE & HEISENBERG

UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
• QUANTIZATION & QUANTUM NUMBER (n,l,ml,ms)

THE PROPERTIES OF ELECTRON
 Electron has dual nature properties : particle-like and

wave-like = light
 Electron properties of light:
 Carries energy.
 The energy depends on its frequency and intensity
(shown through photoelectric effect)
 Light (electron) comes in ‘packets’ or ‘bundles’,
called photons (postulated by Albert Einstein).
THE PROPERTIES OF ELECTRONS
 Each photon has an energy that is directly

proportional to its frequency.
Ephoton = hphoton
h is the Planck’s constant = 6.626 x 10-34 J s
 Electron kinetic energy

= photon energy − binding energy
 Ekinetic(electron) = h − h0
Diagram of the energy balance for the

photoelectric effect
ELECTRON TRANSITION
• Absorption and emission spectra:

• Ground state: lowest
energy state of an atom.
• Excited state: when an
atom absorbs a photon.
• When an atom emits a
photon (or radiates heat), it
returns to the ground state.
∆E=± hphoton
ELECTRON TRANSITION
Atoms in their ground Absorbing energy resulted So the electron returns

state have electrons in in an electron jumping to a to the ground state,
low energy levels higher energy level. emitting energy of a
(generally as close to This excited state is photon corresponding to
the nucleus as unstable. the energy gap between
possible). the excited and ground
states.
An analogy: A ball on staircase shows some properties of quantised energy
states.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The excitation of electrons occur when the energy in UV-Visible region of the spectrum been
absorbed by an atom or molecule.
DUAL NATURE OF ELECTRON
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

De Broglie’s (1924) Postulate
(1925)
If light wave can behave like a Schrödinger

It is impossible to know
steam of particles (photons), then equation simultaneously both the
perhaps particles (electron) can
(1926) momentum and the position of a
possess wave properties
particle with certainty.
QUANTIZATION & QUANTUM NUMBER
Schrödinger equation (the origin of Orbital Theory):
 For each quantised energy value, the Schrödinger

equation generates a wavefunction that describes how
the electrons are distributed in space. A one-electron
wavefunction is called an orbital.
Each quantised property can be identified, or indexed, using a quantum
number.
• The three quantum numbers that specify the variable properties for
each electron are
Principal (n),
Angular/Azimuthal (l), and
Magnetic (ml)
• The fourth quantum number describes the spin (ms) of a specific
electron and completes the description of electrons in atoms.
Principal Quantum Number, n:
• Indexes energy for any atom; principal energy level (shell

– distance of electron from nucleus).
• The principal quantum number must be a positive

integer (n = 1,2,3…).
• n is correlated with orbital size.
• As n increases, the energy of the electron in the orbital

increases, the size of orbital increase.
Principal Quantum Number, n
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ….
Letter: K,L, M, N…
distance of e- from the nucleus
n=1 n=2 n=3
Angular/Azimuthal quantum number, l:
 Indexes the angular momentum of the orbital (Subshell),
designated as below.
 The value correlates with the number of preferred axes in a
particular orbital.
 It thereby identifies the three-dimensional SHAPE of an
electron distribution within the orbital.
 The value of l from zero to n-1 (positive integer).
ANGULAR MOMENTUM QUANTUM NUMBER, l
for a given value of n, l = 0, 1, 2, 3, … n-1
n = 1, l = 0
n = 2, l = 0 and 1
n = 3, l = 0, 1, and 2
Shape of the “volume” of space

that the e- occupies
Magnetic quantum number, ml:
• The magnetic quantum number indexes the restricted

numbers of possible orientations = No of orbital diagram to
be draw in a respective subshell.
• The magnetic quantum number (ml) can be any positive and

negative integer between -l to +l : ml = 0,± 1,± 2… (there are
2l+1 possible values for ml).
Angular Momentum Quantum Number, l
l = 0 (s orbitals)
orbital shape
Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
1 orbital diagram
0
l = 1 (p orbitals)
orbital shape
3 orbital diagram
-1 0 +1
l = 2 (d orbitals)
±
orbital shape
5 orbital diagram
-2 -1 0 +1 +2
Spin quantum number ms:
 All electrons have a property called spin.
 An electron can spin on its own axis in one of two

ways in a magnetic field either clockwise or
anticlockwise.
 The spin quantum number indexes this behaviour in

Two possible values:
ms = +½ or -½
Spin Quantum Number, ms
ms = +½ ms = -½
The Pauli exclusion principle:

• It states that each electron in an atom has a unique set of
quantum numbers, which must meet all the restrictions
summarised below.
• Thus, any orbital can contain a maximum of two electrons.
CHECKPOINT 2
What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal

quantum number n = 3?
CHECKPOINT 3
Write the four quantum numbers for an electron in a 3p orbital

(differ in mℓ & ms )
CHECKPOINT 4
List the values of n, ℓ, and mℓ for orbitals in the 3d subshell.

CHECKPOINT 5
What is the maximum number of electrons that can be

present in the principal level for which n = 3?
2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS
• ELECTRONS DISTRIBUTION IN ORBITALS & SHAPE
• ORBITALS ENERGY
2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS
INTRODUCTION
Orbital electron distributions:
 Distribution of electrons can be described using

electron density.
 Orbitals describe the delocalisation of electrons.
 An atom that contains many electrons can be

described by collecting (at respective axes) the orbitals
for all of its electrons to obtain the overall size and
‘shape’ of the atom.
2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS
ELECTRON DISTRIBUTION IN ORBITAL
Orbital depictions:
 Orbital pictures provide maps of how an
electron wave is distributed in space.
 An electron density plot (a): electron
distribution in an orbital as a 2 D graph.
 Electron density pictures (b): 3 D nature
of orbital.
 A boundary surface diagram (c):
simplified orbital picture.
2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS
Orbital size:
 An orbital gets larger as

the value of n increases:
• A specific orbital
becomes smaller as the
effective nuclear charge
(Zeff ) increases (will be
covered later)
2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS
Orbital energies:
 All orbitals
corresponding to
one level of n have
the same energy
and are said to be
degenerate.
2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS
ORBITAL SHAPE
 The l quantum number primarily determines the shape of the

orbital
 l can have integer values from 0 to (n – 1)
 Each value of l is called by a particular letter that designates the

shape of the orbital
– s orbitals are spherical
– p orbitals are like two balloons tied at the knots
– d orbitals are mainly like four balloons tied at the knot
– f orbitals are mainly like eight balloons tied at the knot

2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS
ORBITAL SHAPE
l = 0, the s orbital
 Each principal energy level has one s

orbital
 Lowest energy orbital in a principal

energy state
 Spherical
 As n increases, the s-orbitals get

larger.
2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS
ORBITAL SHAPE
l = 1, p orbitals
• Each principal energy state above n = 1 has three p orbitals

• ml = −1, 0, +1
• Each of the three orbitals points along a different axis
• px, py, pz
• 2nd lowest energy orbitals in a principal energy state
• Two-lobed
2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS
ORBITAL SHAPE
The 2p orbitals
2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS
ORBITAL SHAPE
l = 2, d orbitals
• Principal energy level where n = 3 or greater has five d orbitals
– ml = −2, − 1, 0, +1, +2
• Four of the five orbitals are aligned in a different plane
– dxy, dyz, dxz, dx2 – y2
– the fifth is aligned with the z axis, dz2
• Mainly four-lobed
– one is two-lobed with a donut-shaped ring along the xy
plane
2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS
ORBITAL SHAPE
3d orbitals
2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS
ORBITAL SHAPE
l = 3, f orbitals
• Each principal energy state with n = 4 or greater has seven f
orbitals
• ml = −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3
• 4th lowest energy orbitals in a principal energy state
• Mainly eight-lobed
• other complex structures
2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS
ORBITAL SHAPE
The 4fxyz orbital, one of the seven 4f orbitals.

An atom that contains many electrons can be described by collecting (at respective axes) the orbitals
for all of its electrons to obtain the overall size and ‘shape’ of the atom.
2.3 ATOMIC ORBITAL
ORBITAL ENERGIES
Splitting of Levels into Sublevels
 Each energy level is split into sublevels of differing energy.
 Splitting is caused by penetration and its effect on
shielding.
 For a given n value, a lower l value indicates a lower
energy sublevel.
Order of sublevel energies: s < p < d < f

Energy of orbitals in a single electron atom
n=3
n=2
Energy only depends on principal

quantum number n
n=1
2.3 ATOMIC ORBITAL
ORBITAL ENERGIES
The effect of multi-electrons atom:

• Electrons affect each other’s properties.
• A given orbital is of higher energy in a multi-electron atom
than it is in a single-electron ion with the same nuclear
charge.
Energy of orbitals in a multi-electron atom
n=3 l = 2
n=3 l = 1
n=3 l = 0
n=2 l = 1
n=2 l = 0
Energy depends on n and l
n=1 l = 0
2.3 ATOMIC ORBITAL
ORBITAL ENERGIES
Penetration and sublevel energy.
Orbital shape causes

electrons in some
orbitals to “penetrate”
close to the nucleus.
Penetration increases
nuclear attraction and
decreases shielding.
2.3 ATOMIC ORBITAL
ORBITAL ENERGIES
SHIELDING EFFECT
Defined as a reduction in nuclear charge on the electron cloud due to a
difference in the attraction forces of the electrons on the nucleus.
It describes the attraction between an electron and the nucleus in any atom with
more than one electron shell (inner electrons shield/repel the valence electrons
from the nucleus)
• THE AUFBAU PRINCIPE & ORDER OF ORBITAL FILLINGS
• HUND’S RULE
• ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF ATOMS
• ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF IONS
• MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF TRANSITION METALS
1st 20 elements from main group and 1st series of

transition metal
THE AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
• Electrons occupy orbital in the

order of the energy levels of the
orbital starting with 1s as shown
by the diagram
• Arrows are drawn through the

diagonals, looping back to the
next diagonal each time
• The order is :
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s
ORDER OF ORBITAL FILLING (AUFBAU PRINCIPLE)
In general, energies of
sublevels increase as n
increases (1 < 2 < 3, etc.) and
as l increases (s < p < d < f).
As n increases, some
sublevels overlap.
PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
• No two electrons in an atom may have the same set of four

quantum numbers (n, l, ml, ms)
• Therefore the exclusion principle states that each orbital may
contain a maximum of 2 electrons, which must have opposite
spins.
A horizontal orbital
He (Z = 2) 1s2 diagram for the He
ground state.
1s
(a)
1s 1s
(b) (c)
Electrons in (a) and (b) are both having

the same set of quantum number - Only (c) is acceptable
not acceptable
HUND’S RULE
 The most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells is the one

with the greatest number of parallel spins (electrons occupy the
orbital singly with parallel spins before they occupy in pair)
 An atom tends to have as many unpaired electrons as possible
 Example: Nitrogen (Z= 7)
Allowed
1s2 2s2 2p3
Not allowed
1s2 2s2 2p3
The most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells is the one
with the greatest number of parallel spins (Hund’s rule).
CHECKPOINT 7
An oxygen atom has a total of eight electrons. Write the four

quantum numbers for each of the eight electrons in the ground
state.
CHECKPOINT 8
Write a set of quantum numbers for the third electron and a set
for the eighth electron of the F atom.
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION &ORBITAL DIAGRAM
Electron configuration is how the electrons are distributed among the
various atomic orbitals in an atom.
number of electrons
in the orbital or subshell
1s 1
principal quantum angular momentum

number n quantum number l
Electron configuration
H Orbital diagram
1s
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
 There are 3 common ways to represent electronic

configurations.
 Example of lithium atom (3 electrons):
Quantum Spectroscopic Arrow

numbers notation diagram
Example 6
Write the ground-state electron configurations for
(a) Sulfur (S), Z=16
(b) Zinc (Zn), Z=30

PARTIAL ORBITAL DIAGRAMS AND CONDENSED
CONFIGURATIONS (ATOM)
A partial orbital diagram shows only the highest energy sublevels being filled
(valence electrons).
Al (Z = 13) 2 2 6 2
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 1
3s 3p
A condensed electron configuration has the element symbol of the previous

noble gas in square brackets.
Al has the condensed configuration [Ne]3s23p1

For this element the 3 valence electrons is located in 3s and 3p orbitals
VALENCE ELECTRONS
 The electrons in all the sublevels with the highest principal
energy shell are called the valence electrons.
 Electrons in lower energy shells are called core electrons.
 Chemists have observed that one of the most important
factors in the way an atom behaves, both chemically and
physically, is the number of valence electrons
VALENCE ELECTRONS
P = 23 electrons
1s22s22p63s23p3
[Ne]3s23p3
there are 10 core electrons and 5 valence electrons
Kr = 36 electrons
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6
[Ar] 4s23d104p6
Mn = 25 electrons (Transition Element)
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d5
[Ar] 4s23d5
Partial Orbital Diagrams and Condensed Electron Configurations* for the
Elements in Period 3.
*Colored type indicates the sublevel to which the last electron is added.
CHECKPOINT 9
Using the periodic table, give the full and condensed electron
configurations, and partial orbital diagrams for the following
elements:
(a) potassium (b) lead

(K; Z = 19) (Pb; Z = 82)
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
For the d block metals, the principal energy level is one less than
the outmost (valence) shell
 one less than the Period number
 sometimes an s electron is “promoted” to d sublevel
Zn
Z = 30, Period 4, Group 2B
[Ar]4s23d10
4s 3d
TRANSITION ELEMENTS (Based on Periodic Table)
1A 8A
1 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
2
3 3d10 Ar
4 4s2 As
5 4p3
6
7
As = [Ar]4s23d104p3
As has five valence electrons
ANOMALOUS
 Sublevel splitting causing the 4s sublevel lower in energy than

the 3d; and therefore the 4s fills before the 3d
 But the difference in energy is not large
 Some of the transition metals have irregular electron
configurations in which the ns only partially fills before the
(n−1)d or doesn’t fill at all
 Their electron configuration has stability associated with half-
filled or completely filled subshell.
ANOMALOUS
Expected Half-filled or full subshells
• Cr = [Ar]4s23d4 • Cr = [Ar]4s13d5
• Cu = [Ar]4s23d9 • Cu = [Ar]4s13d10
• Mo = [Kr]5s24d4 • Mo = [Kr]5s14d5
• Pd = [Kr]5s24d8 • Pd = [Kr]5s04d10
IONS
 Many metals and nonmetals form one ion where the

charge on that ion is predictable based on its position
on the Periodic Table
Group 1A = 1+, Group 2A = 2+, Group 7A = 1−,
Group 6A = 2−, etc.
 Their ions’ electron configuration will be similar with
that of the nearest noble gas configuration.
Main-group elements whose ions have noble gas electron configurations.
IONS (ANIONS)
 Anions are formed when nonmetal atoms gain enough

electrons to have eight valence electrons
 filling the s and p sublevels of the valence shell
 The sulfur atom has six valence electrons
S atom = 1s22s22p63s23p4
 Sulfur atom gains two electrons at the valence shell to form
S2- anion
S2− anion = 1s22s22p63s23p6
IONS (ANION-HALOGENS)
 The electron configurations of the halogens all

have one fewer electron than the next noble gas
 Forming an anion with charge 1−
 Reactions with metals, the halogens tend to gain

an electron and attain the electron configuration
of the next noble gas
 Reactions with nonmetals, they tend to share

electrons with the other nonmetal so that each
attains the electron configuration of a noble gas
IONS (CATION)
 Cations are formed when a metal atom loses all its

valence electrons
– resulting in a new lower energy level valence shell
 The magnesium atom has two valence electrons
Mg atom = 1s22s22p63s2
 When magnesium forms a cation, it loses its valence
electrons
Mg2+ cation = 1s22s22p63s0
IONS (CATION-ALKALI METAL)
 The alkali metals have one more electron than the

previous noble gas
 In their reactions, the alkali metals tend to lose one

electron, resulting in the same electron
configuration as a noble gas
forming a cation with a 1+ charge

IONS (CATION-TRANSITION METALS)
• When transition metals form cations, the first electrons removed are
the valence electrons (even though other electrons were added after)
• Electrons may also be removed from the sublevel closest to the
valence shell after the valence electrons
• The iron atom has two valence electrons
Fe atom = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
• When iron forms a cation, it first loses its valence electrons
Fe2+ cation = 1s22s22p63s23p63d6
• It can then lose 3d electrons
Fe3+ cation = 1s22s22p63s23p63d5
IONS (CATION-TRANSITION METALS)
When a cation is formed from an atom of a transition metal,

electrons are always removed first from the ns orbital and then
from the (n – 1)d orbitals.
Fe: [Ar]4s23d6 Mn: [Ar]4s23d5

Fe2+: [Ar]4s03d6 or [Ar]3d6 Mn2+: [Ar]4s03d5 or [Ar]3d5
Fe3+: [Ar]4s03d5 or [Ar]3d5
IONS (REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS)
Na [Ne]3s1 Na+ [Ne]

Atoms lose electrons so that
Ca [Ar]4s2 Ca2+ [Ar] cation has a noble-gas outer
electron configuration.
Al [Ne]3s23p1 Al3+ [Ne]
H 1s1 H- 1s2 or [He]

Atoms gain electrons so
that anion has a noble-gas F 1s22s22p5 F- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
outer electron
configuration. O 1s22s22p4 O2- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
N 1s22s22p3 N3- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

Cations and Anions Of Representative Elements
+2
+1
+3
-3
-2
-1
ISOELECTRONIC
Isoelectronic: chemical species having the same number of

electrons, and hence the same ground-state electron
configuration
Na+: [Ne] Al3+: [Ne] F-: 1s22s22p6 or Ne]
O2-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne] N3-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
Na+, Al3+, F-, O2-, and N3- are all isoelectronic with Ne
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF TRANSITION METALS
A species with one or more unpaired electrons exhibits

paramagnetism – it is attracted by a magnetic field.
(Z=16)
A species with all its electrons paired exhibits diamagnetism –

it is not attracted (and is slightly repelled) by a magnetic field.
(Z=18)
Measuring the magnetic behavior of a sample.
The apparent mass of a diamagnetic The apparent mass of a paramagnetic

substance is unaffected by the substance increases as it is attracted by
magnetic field. the magnetic field.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF TRANSITION METALS
Magnetic behavior can provide evidence for the electron

configuration of a given ion.
Ti (Z = 22) ↑↓ ↑ ↑
4s 3d 4p
Ti2+ ↑ ↑
4s 3d 4p
Ti is paramagnetic.
Ti2+ has 2 unpaired electrons and is still paramagnetic,
providing evidence that the 4s electrons are lost before
the 3d electrons.
CHECKPOINT 10
Write the condensed electron configurations of the following

transition metal ions and predict their magnetic behavior
(a) Mn2+(Z = 25) (b) Cr3+(Z = 24)

CHECKPOINT 11
An atom of a certain element has 15 electrons. Without consulting a periodic table,

answer the following questions:
(a) What is the ground-state electron configuration of the element?
(b) How should the element be classified?
(c) Is the element diamagnetic or paramagnetic?

2.5 PERIODIC TABLE & CLASSIFICATION
OF ELEMENTS
• METALS, NONMETALS & METALLOIDS
• TRANSITION METALS & POST-TRANSITION METALS
• s, p, d, f – BLOCK ELEMENTS
*Main groups & 1st series of transition metals

INTRODUCTION
 The periodic table lists the elements in order of increasing

atomic number.
 Elements can be divided into categories based on subshell
being filled –
 Representative elements
 Noble gases
 Transition elements
 Lanthanides
 Actinides
 First published in 1869 by Dimitri Ivanovich Mendeleev but
ordered by increasing atomic mass.
2.5 PERIODIC TABLE & CLASSIFICATION OF
ELEMENTS
 Elements in the same group of the periodic table

have same number of valence electrons (similar valence
shell electron configurations).
exhibit similar chemical behavior.
PERIODIC TABLE CASSIFICATION
The periodic table is organised into: Horizontal rows called periods
and the Vertical columns called groups.
*The Period number corresponds to the principal energy level

of the valence electrons
*The Group number corresponds to the number of valence electrons

• Metals:
Generally, metal atoms have small numbers of electrons in their valence
shells. All d and f block elements are metals.
• Metalloids:
Metalloids are elements that have the physical appearance of metals but
some nonmetallic properties. This group of elements separates the
metals from the nonmetals in the periodic table.
• Non-metals:
Generally have larger numbers of electrons in their valence shell than metals (except
H). Non-metals are all p– block elements (groups IVA to VIIA).
Examples:
H2, N2, O2, F2 and Cl2 = diatomic gas
Noble gases = monatomic gas
C, P4, S8, I2 = solids with low melting points
Br2 = liquid.
• Group 1 & 2 – Alkali metals & Alkali Earth Metal:

Except for hydrogen and helium, all s block elements (groups I and II) are metals.
**Hydrogen is a group IA element but not an alkali metal

because it does not have any of the chemical characteristics of a
metal. It is a non-metal.
• Group 15 – Pnictogens:
Nitrogen is an inert gas, phosphorous is a very reactive non-metal with at least 3
allotropes, arsenic & antimony are metalloids (poison). Bismuth is a metal &
replacement for lead in electronic solders
• Group 16 – Chalcogens:
Nonmetal (O, S, Se), metalloid (Te) and radioactive metal (Po). Has multiple
allotropes (O2 or O3), sulfur has many (most often S8), selenium can be Se8 or
polymeric. Most form compounds with unpleasant odours.
• Group 17 – Halogens:
Most of these elements found in bleaches, disinfectants & salt.
Their physical properties are vary & are very reactive.
• Group 18 – The Noble Gases:
They are inert, colorless, odorless, stable & unreactive. They are gasses at room
temperature & does not form compounds. Can be excited by electricity to produce
colours, but are chemically unchanged. All have a completely filled p subshell
(except He).
• Transition Metals:
They exhibit moderate to high densities, good electrical conductivity,
high melting point, moderate to extreme hardness which is due to the
delocalization of d electrons in metallic bonding.
Post-Transition Metals (After transition
metals & before metalloids)
Do not have d orbitals which means that there are only
valence electrons in their outer shell just like alkali and
alkaline earth metals.
Characteristic – oxidation number of +3, +4, -4, +5, -3,
depending on its column number.
They are all relatively dense solid, most are opaque in

their pure forms, generally softer and have lower
melting points than transition metals.
Like other metals they malleable, ductile and conduct

heats and electric well.
Sometimes Zn, Cd, and Hg are classified as post-

transition metals instead of transition metals.
*Post-Transition metals/ B-subgroup metals/ Other metals/ p-block metals/ Borderline Metals/poor metals
• Lanthanoids and Actinoids – rare earth elements:
Occur together in nature in mineral (monazite-a mixed earth phosphate),
found combined with non-metal largely in the 3+ oxidation state & small
differences in solubility or complex formation due to size effect.
Classification of the Elements
s, p, d, f – BLOCK ELEMENTS
ORBITAL FILLING AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
The order in which the orbitals are filled can be obtained

directly from the periodic table.
ns1
4f
5f
ns2
d1
d5
d10
ns2np1
ns2np2
s, p, d, f – BLOCK ELEMENTS
ns2np3
ns2np4
ns2np5
ns2np6
2.6 PERIODICITY
• VARIATION IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (Zeff, ELECTRONEGATIVITY,

ATOMIC AND IONIC RADII)
• IONIZATION ENERGY
• ELECTRON AFFINITY
• VARIATION IN CHEMICALPROPERTIES OF THE REPRESENTATIVES
ELEMENTS (ACID-BASE PROPERTIES)
2.6 PERIODICITY
INTRODUCTION
Periodicity is a regular repeating (periodic) patterns of physical
and chemical properties occur among elements that define
group with similar properties.
This help in organizing the elements effectively, especially

those who are newly discovered.
The periodic table displays the repeating patterns, which are

related to the atoms’ outermost electrons.
2.6 PERIODICITY
VARIATION IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Physical properties is the characteristics that can be seen
through direct observation including texture, brittleness,density,
melting and boiling points, state etc.
These physical properties of elements is basically contributed
by Zeff, electronegativity, effect of electrons’ repulsion (shielding)
, atomic and ionic radii which are correlated as follows;
Zeff Shielding
effect
Atomic &
Electronegativity Ionic Radii
2.6 PERIODICITY
SHIELDING EFFECT
 As mention earlier, It describes the attraction between an electron and the

nucleus in any atom with more than one electron shell (inner electrons
shield/repel the valence electrons from the nucleus)
2.6 PERIODICITY
TRENDS OF SHIELDING EFFECT
• The presence of shielding electrons reduces the electrostatic

attraction between the positively charged protons in the nucleus
and the outer electrons.
• The shielding effect increases down a group as each succeeding

member has one inner shell more than the preceding member of
the group, or the quantum number of the valence electron
increases.
• All the elements across a period have the same shielding effect
because the number of inner shells remains the same across a
period
2.6 PERIODICITY
SHIELDING EFFECT (ATOM VS ION)
• The shielding causes a reduction on the attractive forces between the nuclear charge and
the valence electron.
• The total amount of attraction that an electron especially the valence electron feels for the
nucleus is called the effective nuclear charge (Zeff) of the electron.
Additional electron in the same
orbital/energy sublevel
 An additional electron raises the orbital energy through electron

-electron repulsions.
 Inner electrons shield outer electrons more effectively than do

electrons in the same sublevel. - repulsive forces between
electrons in different sublevels are stronger than that between
electrons in the same sublevel.
2.6 PERIODICITY
THE EFFECT OF NUCLEAR CHARGE (ZEFF)
 The effective nuclear charge, Zeff, acting on an electron is the
actual nuclear charge, Z, less the screening effect of inner
electrons in the atom.
Zeff = Z – (number of inner shell electrons)
Example:
 Sodium atom with 1 valence electron in 3s sublevel which is
shielded from the positively charged nucleus by the 1s and 2s
electrons.
 Therefore, experience an effective nuclear charge :

Zeff : (+11) – (10) = +1
 Across a period, the value of Z increases while the number of inner

electrons remains the same.
Effective nuclear charge (Zeff) is the “positive charge” felt by an
electron.
Zeff = Z - s 0 < s < Z (s = shielding constant)
Zeff  Z – number of inner or core electrons
Z Core Zeff Radius (pm)
Na 11 10 1 186
Mg 12 10 2 160
Al 13 10 3 143
Si 14 10 4 132
2.6 PERIODICITY
TRENDS OF ZEFF (REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS)
 Effective nuclear charge increases from left to right of a period of
representative elements in the periodic table.
 The effective nuclear charge remains the same from top to

bottom within a vertical group A of the periodic table.
2.6 PERIODICITY
TRENDS OF ZEFF (REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS)
increasing Zeff
decreasing Zeff
2.6 PERIODICITY
ZEFF (ELECTRONEGATIVITY)
As elements differ in their effective nuclear charges,

atoms of each elements have a characteristic ability to
attract electrons within a covalent bond.
This characteristic is called electronegativity.

2.6 PERIODICITY
ELECTRONEGATIVITY (EN)
• Electronegativity of an element is a value used to

indicate the ability of an atom to attract electrons to
itself when the atom is sharing electrons with
(covalently bonded to) atom of another element
• Trends in electronegativity are similar to those for
electron affinity.
 EN value decreases from top to bottom within a group
 EN value increases from left to right across a period
Electronegativity Scale
Electronegativity (EN) Values for Representative Elements
Group 1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
Period
1 H
2.1
2 Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
4 K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br
0.8 1.0 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8
5 Rb Sr I
0.8 1.0 2.5
6 Cs Ba
0.7 0.9
2.6 PERIODICITY
ATOMIC & IONIC RADII
Atomic radius of an element is one-half the distance between the two
nuclei in two adjacent metal atoms or two like atoms joined into a
particular diatomic molecule.
metallic radius covalent radius

Defining atomic Radii
A. The metallic radius of aluminum. B. The covalent radius of chlorine.
C. Known covalent radii and distances

between nuclei can be used to find unknown
radii.
2.6 PERIODICITY
ATOMIC & IONIC RADII
 Ions in same group have

same charge.
 Cations smaller than

neutral atoms,
 Anions larger than

neutral atoms
2.6 PERIODICITY
IONIC RADII (CATION VS IONIC)
Cation Anion
The valence electrons are removed. The new electrons are added to the
The rest of the electrons will be valence shell.
attracted more strongly and closer to Repulsion between electrons in the
the nucleus. valence shell causes the valence
 Cations are smaller than their electron to be further from the
parent atoms nucleus.
The cation valence electrons Anions are larger than their
experience a larger Zeff than the parent atoms
valence electrons of its atom, The anion valence electrons
shrinking the ion even more. experience a smaller Zeff than the
Cation is always smaller than atom valence electrons of its atom,
from which it is formed. increasing the size.
Anion is always larger than atom
from which it is formed.
2.6 PERIODICITY
TRENDS IN ATOMIC RADII
• Atomic radii of the representative elements decrease from left to

right in a horizontal row of the periodic table (refers to as a period of
the periodic table)
- a steady increase in the Zeff across the period which causes the
valence electrons to be held more strongly by the nucleus.
• Atomic radii increase from top to bottom within a group of the

periodic table
- principal quantum number, n, of the valence electrons increases down
a group which causes the outer electrons to be farther from the
nucleus.
Trends in Atomic Radii in Periodic Table
Trends in Atomic Radii in Periodic Table
Trends in Atomic Radii Vs Atomic Number
CHECKPOINT 12
Using only the periodic table, rank each set of main-group elements in order of
decreasing atomic size:
(a) Ca, Mg, Sr (b) K, P, Ca (c) Be, Ca, N

2.6 PERIODICITY
TRENDS IN IONIC RADII
Cation Anion
Traversing down a group increases Traversing down a group increases
the n level, causing the cations to get the n level, causing the anions to get
larger. larger .
Traversing to the right across a Traversing to the right across a

period increases the Zeff for period increases the Zeff for
isoelectronic cations, causing the isoelectronic anions, causing the
cations to get smaller. anions to get smaller.
Example: Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+ Example: N3– > O2– >F–
Cation & anion radii comparison in isoelectronic series (same electron

configuration)
N3- > O2- > F1- > Ne > Na1+ > Mg2+ > Al3+
Radii of Atom & Their Radii of Atom & Their
Cations Anions
The Radii of Cation & Anion in Isoelectronic Species
The Radii (in pm) of Ions of Familiar Elements
Cations smaller than anions except Rb+ & Cs+ bigger or same size as
F− and O2−
Atomic Vs Ionic Radii
CHECKPOINT 13
Rank each set of ions in order of decreasing size, and explain

your ranking:
(a) Ca2+, Sr2+, Mg2+ (b) K+, S2−, Cl− (c) Mn+, Mn3+
CHECKPOINT 14
For each of the following pairs, explain why one of the two species is
larger:
(a)N3− or F-
(b)Mg2+ or Ca2+
(c)Fe2+ or Fe3+
SOLUTION 14
(a)N3− andF− are isoelectronic anions, containing 10 electrons. Because N3−

has only 7 protons and F− has 9, the smaller attraction exerted by the nucleus
on the electrons results in a larger N3− ion.
(b)Both Mg and Ca belong to Group 2A (the alkaline earth metals). Thus, Ca2+
ion is larger than Mg2+ because Ca’s valence electrons are in a larger shell (n
= 4) than are Mg’s (n = 3).
(c)Bothions have the same nuclear charge, but Fe2+ has one more electron (24
electrons compared to 23 electrons for Fe3+) and hence greater electron-
electron repulsion. The radius of Fe2+ is larger.
2.6 PERIODICITY
IONIZATION ENERGY (IE)
 The minimum energy required to remove 1 mol electron
from a ground state of 1 mol of atom/ion in the gaseous
state.
 The greater the ionization energy of an atom, the higher the
atom tendency to retain its electrons.
 The first ionization energy is the minimum energy required to

remove the first valence electron from the gaseous atom in its
ground state.
 The second ionization energy is the energy required to

remove the second electron from the gaseous positive ion in its
ground state.
Example:
X (g) X+(g) + e- IE1 first ionization energy
X+(g) X2+(g) + e- IE2 second ionization energy
X2+(g) X3+(g) + e- IE3 third ionization energy
IE1 < IE2 < IE3
 Atoms with a low IE tend to form cations.

 Atoms with a high IE tend to form anions because they
are difficult to ionize (except the noble gases).
2.6 PERIODICITY
TRENDS IN IONIZATION ENERGY
• IE generally increase going from left to right through a

period in the periodic table.
As the atomic radii decrease from left to right of a period, the
outer electrons are more tightly held to the nucleus and
higher IE have to be supplied to remove the first electron.
• IE decrease with elements moving down a group.

As the atomic radii of the elements within a group increase
from top to bottom, the average distance between the
valence electrons and the nucleus increase resulting in
weaker nucleus-valence electron attraction.
Trends in Ionization Energy (Generally)
Increasing 1st Ionization Energy
Increasing 1st Ionization Energy
ANOMALIES IN THE VARIATION OF THE FIRST
IONIZATION ENERGY ACROSS A PERIOD
The increase in the 1st IE across a period is not uniform.

Two anomalies occur in Periods 2 and 3.
From groups 2A to 3A (13) and groups 5A (15) to 6A (16)
B and Al (3A) with smaller atomic radius are expected to
have higher IE than Be and Mg (2A), respectively, but the
reverse occurs.
ANOMALIES IN THE VARIATION OF THE FIRST
IONIZATION ENERGY ACROSS A PERIOD
The IE of B are lower than that in Be due to the valence
electrons in the filled 2s orbital of Be is more stable than the
single valence electron in the partially filled 2p orbital of B.
Be  
1s 2s 2p
B   
1s 2s 2p
Similar phenomena in IE was observed between Al and Mg as

the valence electrons in the 3s orbital is more stable than the
single valence electron in the partially filled 3p orbital of Al.
Anomalies in the
First Ionization Energy Trends,
Be and B
   
Be Be+
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
To ionize Be you must break up a full sublevel, costs extra energy
B    B +  
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
When you ionize B you get a full sublevel, costs less
energy
Anomalies in the 1st IE Trends
The single electron in the 2p are better shielded by the inner electrons
than the electrons in 2s
The IE of the group 6A elements are expected to have higher energy
than the group 5A elements but the reverse occur because half-filled p
orbitals have special stability.
In addition, the valence electrons in the 2p orbitals of N are in 3 separate
orbitals with minimum repulsion, whereas, the paired electrons in one of
the p orbitals of O experience strong repulsion.
Therefore, it is easier to remove the valence electron from O than the
valence electron of N which are more stable with the least repulsion
among the valence electrons.
N     
1s 2s 2p
O     
1s 2s 2p
Anomalies in the
First Ionization Energy Trends,
N and O
N      N+    
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
To ionize N you must break up a half-full sublevel,
costs extra energy
O      O+     
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
When you ionize O you get a half-full sublevel,
costs less energy
Similar phenomena in IE was observed between P and S as the valence electrons

of P which are more stable with the least repulsion among the valence electrons.
CHECKPOINT 15
1. Which is easier to remove an electron from, N or O?

Why?
2. Which is easier to remove an electron from B, or Be?
Why?
Summary of the First Ionization Energy vs Atomic number
of Representative Elements
Filled n=1 shell

Filled n=2 shell
Filled n=3 shell

Filled n=4 shell
Filled n=5 shell
The first three
ionization
energies of
beryllium.
Beryllium has 2 valence

electrons, so IE3 is much
larger than IE2.
Successive Ionization Energies of the Elements Lithium
Through Sodium
EXAMPLE 16
Using the periodic table only, rank the elements in each of the following
sets in order of decreasing IE1:
(a) Kr, He, Ar (b) Ge, Ga, As (c) K, Ca, Na

CHECKPOINT 17
Name the Period 3 element with the following ionization
energies (in kJ/mol) and write its electron configuration:
IE1 IE2 IE3 IE4 IE5 IE6
1012 1903 2910 4956 6278 22,230
CHECKPOINT 18
(a) Which atom should have a smaller first ionization energy: oxygen or sulfur?,
Justify.
(b) Which atom should have a higher second ionization energy: lithium or beryllium?
Justify.
2.6 PERIODICITY
ELECTRON AFFINITY (EA)
• The negative energy change (ΔH) that occurs when 1 mol of

electron is accepted by 1 mol of atom in the gaseous state to form
an anion.
X (g) + e- X-(g)
• The more energy that is released, the larger the electron affinity
(EA).
F (g) + e- F-(g) ΔH = -328 kJ/mol EA = +328 kJ/mol
O (g) + e- O-(g) ΔH = -141 kJ/mol EA = +141 kJ/mol

ΔH of the main-group elements.
*The atom with the Highest Electron Affinity (more negative ΔH) in any period is
halogen
2.6 PERIODICITY
The more negative the ΔH, the greater the tendency of the atom to
accept an electron, higher EA.
For multiple charge anions, the electrons are added stepwise with a
different electron affinity for each step. Consider the formation of an
oxide ion from an oxygen atom.
Atoms with a low EA tend to form cations, atoms with a high EA tend to form anions.
2.6 PERIODICITY
• The trends in EA are not as regular as those for atomic size or
IE.
• The second EA is a positive quantity because an electron
approaches an ion with a net charge of –1. It is strongly
repelled, and work must be done to force the extra electron
onto the existing ion.
• The EA values become more positive from left to right
across a period.
As the atomic radius of the element decreases, the attractive
forces of the nucleus increases, hence the tendency to accept
electrons increases.
2.6 PERIODICITY
 The electron affinities of metals (left) are generally more negative
than those of nonmetals.
 Group 5A generally lower EA than expected because extra
electron must pair (partially filled).
 Group 2A and 8A generally very low EA because added electron
goes into higher energy level or sublevel
 All noble gases exist as monatomic species because they are
very unreactive and have little or no tendency to combine among
themselves or with other elements.
 The electron configurations of the noble gases show that their atoms
have completely filled outer s and p subshells, indicating great
stability. Thus, the group VIIIA ionization energies are among the
highest of all elements, and they have no tendency to accept extra
electrons (smallest electron affinity).
Trends in Electron Affinity
2.6 PERIODICITY
BEHAVIOR PATTERNS FOR IE AND EA
 Reactive nonmetals have high IEs and highly positive EAs.
• These elements attract electrons strongly and tend to form

negative ions in ionic compounds.
 Reactive metals have low IEs and slightly positive EAs.
• These elements lose electrons easily and tend to form positive

ions in ionic compounds.
 Noble gases have very high IEs and slightly negative EAs.
• These elements tend to neither lose nor gain electrons.

Summary of Electron Affinity Vs Atomic Number (H – Ba)
CHECKPOINT 19
Why are the electron affinities of the alkaline earth metals, shown in Table
8.3, either positive or small negative values? Explain.
SOLUTION 19
2.6 TRENDS IN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
ACID-BASE
 The general trend following Period 3:
From strongly basic oxides on the left side to strongly acidic
oxides on the right, via an amphoteric oxide (shows both acid
ic & basic properties) in the middle.
 For this simple trend, focus only to the highest oxides of the
individual elements. Those are the ones on the top row above,
and are where the element is in its highest possible oxidation
state. The pattern isn’t simple if include the other oxides as well.
 Acid-base character of oxides is linked to their structure

 Giant ionic lattices are basic (i.e Na2O & MgO).
 Covalent oxide structure are basic (P4O6, SO3 & Cl2O7)
 Bonding in Al2O3 has both ionic and covalent character
(so it can behave as both acid & a base = Amphoteric)
ACID-BASE PROPERTIES (BASIC OXIDES)
A basic oxide is an oxide that shows basic properties and that either react with water to
form a base, or react with an acid to form a salt. They are mostly metal, especially alkali
and alkaline earth (Group I & III).
Na2(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)

Mg(s) + H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq)
These oxides are basic, thus will neutralize acids.
ACID-BASE PROPERTIES (BASIC OXIDES)
Non metallic oxides react with water to produce acidic solutions:
Phosphorous (V) oxide reacts with water producing;
P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO4(aq)
Phosphorous (III) oxides react with water producing:
P4O6(s) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO3(aq)
Sulfur trioxide react with water producing sulfuric (VI) acid:
SO3(l) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)
Sulfur dioxide react with water producing sulfuric (IV) acid:
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)

ACID-BASE PROPERTIES (AMPHOTERIC OXIDES)
ACID-BASE
• METALLIC TRENDS IN PERIODIC TABLE

• METALLIC PROPERTIES
INTRODUCTION
Metallic behavior is how closely an element’s properties

match the ideal properties of a metal
 typically shiny solids with moderate to high melting
points.
 good conductors of heat and electricity, and can easily
be shaped.
 tend to lose electrons and form cations, i.e., they are
easily oxidized.
 generally strong reducing agents.
 Most metals form ionic oxides, which are basic in
aqueous solution.
TRENDS OF METALLIC CHARACTER
Metallic character relates to the ability to lose electrons.

Nonmetallic character relates to the ability to gain electrons.
The trend of metallic character is:
a) Decreases from left to right across period
The tendency of atom to lose electrons become smaller.
The atom at the right side of the periodic table tends to
accept electrons rather than donate electrons.
b) Increases going down the group
The tendency of an atom to lose electrons become higher.
Trends on strength the metallic character
Francium, Fr has the highest metallic character located at the most bottom in the periodic table and
it’s a group 1 element.
Trends in metallic behavior
Metallic behavior in Group 5A(15) and Period 3.
Metallic behavior decreases across the period
Metallic behavior increases down the group

METALLIC PROPERTIES
In metal, bonding electron are delocalized over the entire crystal. Metal
atoms in the crystal can be imagined as an array of positive ions
immersed in the sea of delocalized valence electron
Cross Section of a Metallic Crystal

nucleus &
inner shell e-
mobile “sea”
of e-
METALLIC PROPERTIES
Due to the above characteristic, metal posses the following

properties:
1. Conduct heat & electricity
The mobility of the delocalization electrons makes metals
good conductor of heat and electricity.
2. Malleable (can be flattened) and ductile (pulled into wires)
The metal structure are hold by the attractive forces and the
attractive forces should not break if positions of the atom
cores shift because the mobility of the electrons allow the
attractions to be maintained.
Malleable (can be flattened)
3. High melting and boiling point
In order to melt, some of the attractions holding the metallic
crystal together must be broken.
In order to boil, all the attractions holding the metallic crystal
together must be broken.
The attractions of the core atoms for the delocalized
electrons is strong because it involves full charges
 metals generally have high melting points and boiling
points
191
192
Summary of the Chemical & Physical Properties Along the
Period and Group
 Electronegativity ↑
 Non-Metallic Character ↓
 Atomic Radii ↓ (Zeff ↑)
 Electron Affinity ↑
 Ionization Energy ↑
 Acidic Qualities ↑
 Atomic Radii ↑
(Shielding Effect ↑)
 Electron Affinity ↓
 Ionization Energy ↓

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CHAPTER 2 - Periodicity - Students Version CHM092 (2017)

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FOUNDATION CHEMISTRY CHM092

Dr. Fatimah Salim

• Define the terminologies of elements, compounds and

“If the atom is the Houston Astrodome, then the nucleus is a

• THE BOHR’S MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM

• THE WEAKNESS OF BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

• Bohr developed an atom model explaining how the

• Bohr’s major idea was that the energy of the atom

• Amount of energy in the atom was related to its

 Could not predict the energy levels and spectra of most

• THE PROPERTIES OF ELECTRON

• THE DE BROGLIE’S POSTULATE & HEISENBERG

• QUANTIZATION & QUANTUM NUMBER (n,l,ml,ms)

 Electron has dual nature properties : particle-like and

 Each photon has an energy that is directly

 Electron kinetic energy

Diagram of the energy balance for the

• Absorption and emission spectra:

Atoms in their ground Absorbing energy resulted So the electron returns

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

If light wave can behave like a Schrödinger

Schrödinger equation (the origin of Orbital Theory):

 For each quantised energy value, the Schrödinger

• Indexes energy for any atom; principal energy level (shell

• The principal quantum number must be a positive

• n is correlated with orbital size.

• As n increases, the energy of the electron in the orbital

for a given value of n, l = 0, 1, 2, 3, … n-1

Shape of the “volume” of space

Magnetic quantum number, ml:

• The magnetic quantum number indexes the restricted

• The magnetic quantum number (ml) can be any positive and

 All electrons have a property called spin.

 An electron can spin on its own axis in one of two

 The spin quantum number indexes this behaviour in

Spin Quantum Number, ms

The Pauli exclusion principle:

What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal

Write the four quantum numbers for an electron in a 3p orbital

List the values of n, ℓ, and mℓ for orbitals in the 3d subshell.

What is the maximum number of electrons that can be

• ELECTRONS DISTRIBUTION IN ORBITALS & SHAPE

Orbital electron distributions:

 Distribution of electrons can be described using

 Orbitals describe the delocalisation of electrons.

 An atom that contains many electrons can be

 An orbital gets larger as

 The l quantum number primarily determines the shape of the

 l can have integer values from 0 to (n – 1)

 Each value of l is called by a particular letter that designates the

– s orbitals are spherical

– p orbitals are like two balloons tied at the knots

– d orbitals are mainly like four balloons tied at the knot

– f orbitals are mainly like eight balloons tied at the knot

 Each principal energy level has one s

 Lowest energy orbital in a principal

 As n increases, the s-orbitals get

• Each principal energy state above n = 1 has three p orbitals

The 4fxyz orbital, one of the seven 4f orbitals.

Order of sublevel energies: s < p < d < f

Energy only depends on principal

The effect of multi-electrons atom:

Energy depends on n and l