Chemistry Revision

Unit 1
States of Matter

• Brownian Motion (Robert Brown)-This is the random motion of particles that follow a
zig-zag path because they are being struck by tiny invisible particles.
• Diffusion is when the particles mix and spread by colliding with other moving particles,
and bouncing off in all directions.
Particles:
• The smallest particles, that we cannot break down further in chemical reactions, are
called atoms.
• In many substances, the particles consist of two or more atoms joined together. These
are called molecules.
• In other substances the particles are atoms or groups of atoms that carry a charge.
These are ions.
3 Different states of matter:
• Solid has a fixed shape and a fixed volume; it does not flow.
• Liquid flows easily; it has a fixed volume but it's shape changes.
• Gas does not have a fixed shape or volume; it spreads out to fill its container and is
much lighter than the same volume of solid & liquid
Keywords:
• Melting———melting point
• Water vapour———evaporation
• Boiling———Boiling Point

Cool below 100 ºC

Condenses to form water Cool below 0 ºC Freezes or solidi es
Steam to form ice

• When some substances are heated, they go straight from solid to gas, this is called
sublimation.
• When particles in a solid are arranged in a fixed pattern or lattice, the strong forces hold
them together. So they cannot leave their positions. The only movements they make
are tiny vibrations to and for.

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• Substances change shape when heated because the particles taken in heat energy and
this changes how the move.
• MELTING ~ Particles get more energy and vibrate more. This makes the solid expand;
at the melting point, the particles vibrate so much that they break away from their
positions. Solid turns to liquid.
• BOILING ~ When a liquid is heated, its particles get more energy and move faster. They
bump into each other more often, and bounce further apart. This makes the liquid
expand. At the boiling point, the particles get enough energy to overcome the forces
between them. They break away to form a gas.
• EVAPORATING ~ Some particles in a liquid have more energy than others. Well below
the boiling point, some have enough energy and form a gas.
• The particles in each substance are different, with different forces between them.
Therefore different amount of heat is needed for different substances.

Kinetic Particle Theory:

• A substance can be solid, a liquid, or a gas and change from one state to another.
• It has different characteristics in each state
• The differences are due to the way its particles are arranged, and move, in each state
Together these ideas make up the kinetic particle theory.

Gas Pressure:
• When particles collide, the exert pressure.
• The pressure depends on the temperature of the gas and the volume it takes up.
• When you heat a gas in a closed container, its pressure increases.
• When a gas is compressed into a smaller space, its pressure increases.
• The lower the mass of its particles, the faster a gas will diffuse.
• The mass of a molecule is called its relative molecular mass: so therefore the lower
its relative molecular mass, the faster a gas will diffuse.
• The higher the temperature, the faster a gas will diffuse.

 Unit 2
Separating Substances

• A mixture contains more than one substance. The substances are just mixed together,
and not chemically bonded together.
• Solute + Solvent = Solution
• Sparingly soluble-Has a low solubility
• A soluble solid usually gets more soluble as the temperature rises
• A solution is called saturated when it cannot dissolve no more solute, at that
temperature
• A solution in water is called an aqueous solution
Volatile~
❖ Solvents that evaporate easily at room temperature are called volatile
❖ This is a sign that the forces between its particles are weak
❖ So volatile liquids have low boiling points too

• A pure substance has no other substance mixed with it

• A pure substance has a definite, sharp, melting & boiling point
• An unwanted substance, mixed with the substance you want is called an impurity
• When a substance contains an impurity:
• its melting point falls and its boiling point rises
• it melts and boils over a range of temperatures, not sharply
• The more impurity there is:
• the bigger the change in melting and boiling points
• the wider the temperature range over which melting and boiling points occur

Seperation~
Method of seperation Used to seperate

Filtration A solid from a liquid

Crystallisation A solute from its solution

Evaporation A solute from its solution

Simple distillation A solvent from a solution

Fractional distillation Liquids from each other

Paper Chromatography Different substances from a solution

The trapped solid in filtration is called the residue

The water is the filtrate
• To separate two solids, you could choose a solvent that will dissolve just one of them

☜simple distillation

 ☜Fractional distillation
•Fractional distillation is important in industry.
•Can be used to refine crude oil into petrol
•Can be used to produce ethanol
•Can separate gases in air

Paper chromatography

•The more soluble a substance is in the solvent, the

further it will travel up the chromatography paper.
•Locating agent is used to show up colourless
substances; it reacts with them to give coloured
substances.

R⒡ Value = Distance moved by amino acid

⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻
Distance moved by solvent

• The R⒡ Value of a compound is always the same for a given solvent, under the
same conditions

 Unit 3
Atoms & elements

• Atoms are the smallest particles of matter, that we cannot break down further by
chemical means
• Each atom consists of a nucleus and electrons that whizz around it
Sub-atomic Particle Mass Charge

Proton 1 Positive

Neutron 1 No charge

Electron 1/1840 Negative

• The mass number tells us the number of nucleon-protons & neutrons

12—Mass number (nucleon) (Protons + Neutrons)
C
6—Atomic number (Protons) (Protons = electrons)
• You can identify an atom by the number of proton it has
• The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called its proton number (or
atomic number)
• The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called its
nucleon number (or mass number )
• Isotopes are atoms pf the same element which have the same proton number,
but a different nucleon number (not the same number of neutrons)
• Radioactive-when the atom breaks down naturally or decays, giving out
radiation in the form of rays and particles, plus a large amount of energy.
• Radioactive isotopes or radioisotopes
Radiation may contain:
❖ alpha particles-made up of 2 protons & 2 neutrons
❖ beta particles-electrons moving at high speed
❖ neutrons
❖ gamma rays-high energy rays
Radiation can cause radiation sickness where people vomit a lot, eel really tired, hair
fall, gum bleeding, and die within weeks.
Use of radioisotopes:
• To check for leaks
• To treat cancer
• To kill germs and bacteria
• Carbon dating
• Used as fuel in nuclear power stations

In electron shells, the first shell which is closest to the nucleus, is the lowest energy level.
❖ The first shell can hold only 2 electrons. It fills first
❖ The second shell can hold 8 electrons. It fills next
• The period number tells you how many shells there are
• All the elements in a group have the same number of electrons in they outer shell.
These outer-shell electrons are also called the valency electrons
• The group number is the same as the number of outer-shell electrons.

 • The valency electrons dictate how an element reacts. So the elements in Group I all
have similar reactions.

Metals & Non-Metals~

General Properties of Metals General Properties of Non-Metals

Good conductors of electricity and heat Do no conduct electricity or heat

High melting and boiling points-which means they
are solid at room temperature
Hard, strong, do not shatter if you hammer them
Can be hammered into different shapes (they are
malleable) and drawn out to make wires (they are
ductile)
Look shiny when they are polished
Lower melting and boiling points-many are gases at
room temperature
Solid non-metals break up easily thus they are
brittle
Solid non-metals are not malleable or ductile-they
are brittle
Look dull, in the solid state

Make a ringing noise when struck-they are Solid non-metals break up when you strike them
sonorous
Have high density-they feel ‘heavy’ Solid non-metals have low density

Form positive ions when they react Often form negative ions when they react

React with oxygen to form oxides that are bases React with oxygen to form oxides that are acidic

• Physical property & chemical property

• Not all metals are hard solids
• Hydrogen is a non-metal but forms positive ions like metals do
• Carbon is a non-metal, but graphite is a good conductor; diamond is very hard with a
very high melting point
• Metals have high melting points because it takes a lot of heat energy to break
up the lattice, with its strong metallic bonds.
• Metals are malleable and ductile because the layers can slide over each other
without breaking the metallic bond, because the electrons are free to move too.
• Metals are good conductors of heat because the free electrons take in heat
energy which makes them move faster. They quickly transfer the heat through
the metal structure.
• Metals are good conductors of electricity because the free electrons can
move through the lattice carrying charge, when a voltage is applied across the
metal



 Unit 4
Atoms Combining

• An element contains only one kind of atom.

• A compound is made of atoms of different elements, bonded together.
• A mixture contains different substances that are not chemically bonded together.
Signs of a chemical change~
❖ One or more new chemical substances are formed
❖ Energy is taken in (endothermic reaction) or given out (exothermic reaction)
❖ The change is usually difficult to reverse
A chemical change is usually called a chemical reaction
• If no new chemical substance is formed, and is reversible change, the it is a
physical change.
• Nobel gas’s atoms do not form bonds
• Atoms bond with each other in order to gain a stable arrangement of outer-shell
electrons, like the atoms of Group VIII

• An ion is a charged particle. It is charged because it has an unequal number of

protons and electrons.
• The ionic bond is the bond that forms between ions of opposite charge.
• Ionic Compound-Chemical compound composed of ions held together by ionic
bonding
• A metal reacts with a non-metal to form an ionic compound.
• The metal atoms lose electrons. The non-metal atoms gain them.
• The ions form a lattice. The compound has no overall change.
• A single covalent bond is formed when atoms share two electrons
• A molecule is a group of atoms held together by covalent bonds.
• Single covalent bond/single bond (sharing one pair of electrons) Cl-Cl
• Double covalent bond/double bond (sharing two pairs of electrons) O=O
• Triple covalent bond/triple bond (sharing three pairs of electrons) N≡N
• Bonds for CO2 is O=C=O
• Metals and non-metals react together to form ionic compounds.
• Non-metals react together to form covalent compounds.

 • In ionic compounds, the particles are ions.

• In covalent compounds, the particles are molecules
• Solid ionic compounds, the ions are charged so the forces between them are
strong
• Solid molecular covalent compounds, the molecules are not charged, so the
forces between them are weak
• A regular arrangement of particles in a lattice always leads to crystals
Ionic Compounds~
❖ High melting and boiling points
❖ Usually soluble in water
❖ Conduct electricity when melted or dissolved in water
Covalent Compounds~
❖ Low melting and boiling points
❖ Tend to be insoluble in water
❖ Do not conduct electricity

• Diamonds and Silicon(IV) oxide have high melting points with weak lattices so
they are known as giant covalent structure or macromolecules.
• Each atom in a diamond is held in place by four strong covalent bonds thus
making it very hard with a high melting point.
• Each silicon atom bonds covalently to four oxygen atoms, and each oxygen atom
bonds covalently to two silicon atoms.
• Allotropes are two forms of the same element (e.g. diamond & graphite)
Graphite~
❖ Soft & slippery because the sheets can slide over each other easily
❖ Good conductor of electricity because each carbon atom has four outer electrons
but forms only three bonds so the fourth electron is free thus carrying charge.

• Molecular substances have low melting point

• Giant structures such as sodium chloride and diamond have much higher
melting points
• The metallic bond is the attraction between metal ions and free electrons

 Unit 5
Reacting Masses & Chemical Equations

• In giant structures like sodium chloride and silicon dioxide, the formula tells you
the ratio of the ions or atoms in the compound.
• In a molecular compound, the formula tells you exactly how many atoms are
bonded together in each molecule
• The valency of an element is the number of electrons its atoms lose, gain or
share, to form a compound.
• In an ionic compound, the total charge is zero. So you can also work out the
formula of an ionic compound by balancing the charges on its ions.
• A single atom weighs almost nothing. So scientists used mass spectrometer to
find the values of their masses.
• The relative atomic mass Ar for an element is the average mass of its naturally
occurring isotopes, relative to the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
• If the substance is made of molecules, its mass found is called the relative
molecular mass, Mr.
• If the substance is made of ions, the mass found is called the relative formula
mass,Mr.
• To find the percentage purity of a substance = Mass of pure substance in it
⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻⁻ x 100
Total Mass

 Unit 6
Using Moles

• A mole of a substance is the amount that contains the same number of units.
• The Avogadro constant-The number of constituent particles, molecules, atoms or ions
that are contained in the amount of substance given by one mole.
• One mole of a substance is obtained by weighing out the Ar or Mr of the substance, in
grams.

You can find the mass of one mole of any substance by these steps:
1. Write down the symbol or formula of the substance
2. Find its Ar or Mr
3. Express that mass in grams

• Mass of a given number of moles= mass of 1 mole x number of moles

• Number of moles in a given mass= mass / mass of 1 mole

Q:Calculate the mass of 0.5 moles of bromine atoms.The Ar of bromine is 80, so 1 mole of
bromine atoms has a mass of 80 g.
A: So 0.5 moles of bromine atoms has a mass of 0.5 x 80 g = 40 g

Q:How many moles of oxygen molecules are in 64 g of oxygen? The Mr of oxygen is 32,
so 32 g of it is 1 mole.
A: Therefore 64 g is 64/32 moles or 2 moles of oxygen molecules.

From a equation of a reaction you can tell:

❖ How many moles of each substance take part
❖ How many grams of each substance take part
The total mass during the reaction does not change because no atoms have disappeared,
they have just been rearranged. The total mass does not change during a chemical
reaction.

Q:Iron reacts with a solution of copper (II) sulfate (CuSO₄) to give copper and a solution of
iron sulfate. The formula for the iron could be either FeSO₄ or Fe₂(SO₄)₃. 1.4 g of iron gave
1.6 g of copper. Write the correct equation for the reaction.
A: Ar: Fe= 56, Cu= 64
1.4/56 moles of iron atoms gave 1.6/64 moles of copper atoms or 0.025 moles of
iron atoms gave 0.025 moles of copper atoms, so 1 mole of iron atoms gave 1 mole of
copper atoms.
So the equation for the reaction must be Fe (s) + CuSO₄ (aq) —> Cu + FeSO₄
rtp-room temperature and pressure
1 dm³= 1000 cm³
1 mole of every gas occupies the same volume, at the same temperature and
pressure.
The volume occupied by 1 mole of a gas is called its molar volume.

volume at
rtp (dm³)

Number of
moles 24 dm³

 Q:What volume of hydrogen will react with 24 dm³ if oxygen to form water?
A: 2H₂ + O₂ —> 2H₂O
2 x 24 dm³ = 48 dm³ of hydrogen will react
Calculating gas volumes from equations:
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute, in grams or moles, that is
dissolved in 1 dm³ of solution
Finding the concentration in moles:

Moles
(mol)

Concentratio Volume
n (mol/dm³ ) (dm³ )

Empirical Formula~
From the formula of a compound, you can tell:
• How many moles of the different atoms combine
• How many grams of the different elements combine
If you know what masses combine, you can work out the formula~
The empirical formula shows the simplest ratio in which atoms combine.

Q:32 g of sulfur combine with 32 g of oxygen to form an oxide of sulfur. What is the
empirical formula?
A:
Elements that combine Sulfur Oxygen

Masses that combine 32 g 32g

Relative atomic masses (Ar) 32 16

Moles of atoms that combine 32/32 32/16=2

Ratio in which atoms combine 1:2

Empirical Formula SO₂

Q: An experiment shows that compound Y is 80% carbon and 20% hydrogen. What is its
empirical formula?
Elements that combine Carbon Hydrogen

Masses that combine 80 g 20 g

Relative atomic masses (Ar) 12 1

Moles of atoms that combine 80/12= 6.67 20/1=20

Ratio in which atoms combine 6.67:20 or 1:3 in its simplest form

 Empirical Formula CH₃

The formula of an ionic compound is the same as its empirical formula.

The molecular formula shows the actual numbers of atoms that combine to form a
molecule.

To find the molecular formula:

i) Calculate the Mr / Empirical mass for the compound. This gives a number; n
ii) Multiply the numbers in the empirical formula by n

Q: Octane is a hydrocarbon-it contains only carbon and hydrogen It is 84.2% carbon and
15.8% hydrogen by mass. Its Mr is 114. What is its molecular formula?
A:First find the empirical formula-C₄H₉. Then use Mr ti fund the molecular formula. So Mr /
Empirical Mass = 114 / 57= 2 So the molecular formula of octane is 2 x C₄H₉ or C₈H₁₈

Yield-The amount of product you obtain from a reaction.

%yield= actual mass obtained / calculated mass x 100%
Purity-How pure a substance is
% purity of a product= mass of the pure product / mass of the impure product
obtained x 100%

• You can check the purity of a sample by measuring its melting and boiling point points,
and comparing them with the values for the pure product.
❖ Impurities lower the melting point and raise the boiling point
❖ The more impurity present, the greater the change.

Unit 7
Redox Reaction

Oxidation is gain of oxygen, or loss of electrons

Reduction is loss of oxygen, or gain of electrons
Oxidation Oxidation & reduction always take place together
Is So the reaction is called a redox reaction
Loss of electrons
Reduction
Is
Gain of electrons

Another name for burning is combustion. Combustion is a redox reaction. E.g. when an
element burns in oxygen, it is oxidised to its oxide.
Half Equations~
1. Write down each reactant, with the electrons it gains or loses.
Magnesium: Mg—> Mg²⁺ + 2e⁻
Oxygen: O + 2e⁻—> O²⁻
2. Check that each substance is in its correct form (ion, atom or molecule) on each
side of the arrow. If it is not, correct it.
O₂ + 4e⁻ —> 2O²⁻
3. The number of electrons must be the same in both equations. If it is not,
multiply one (or both) equations by a number, to balance them.
Magnesium: 2Mg—> 2Mg²⁺ + 4e⁻
Oxygen: O₂ + 4e⁻ —> 2O²⁻
From half-equations to the ionic equation~
An ionic equation shows the ions that take part in the reaction.
E.g~
Cl₂ + 2e⁻—> 2Cl⁻
2Br—> Br₂ + 2e⁻
Cl₂ + 2e⁻ + 2Br⁻—> 2Cl⁻ + Br₂ + 2e⁻
So it is Cl₂ + 2Br⁻—> 2Cl⁻ + Br₂

Oxidation State tells you how many electrons each atom of an element has gained,
lost or shared, in forming a compound.
Rules for oxidation state:
1. Each atom in a formula has an oxidation state
2. The oxidation state is usually given as a Roman numeral.
3. Where an element is not combined with other elements, its atoms are in
oxidation state 0.
4. Many elements have the same oxidation state in most or all of their compounds.
5. But most of transition elements can have variable oxidation states in their
compounds.
If oxidation states change during a reaction, it is a redox reaction.

A rise in oxidation number means oxidation has occurred.

-IV -III -II -I 0 +I +II +III +IV

A fall in oxidation number means reduction has occurred.

Oxidising agents are also known as oxidants

Reducing agents are also known as reductants
Oxidising agents can also be used to:
❖ Kill bacteria & moulds, so they are widely used in household cleaning

products
❖ Break down coloured compounds by oxidising them, so they are used in

bleaches for clothing and hair

❖ Oxidising agent potassium dichromate(VI) is used in breathalysers to

test drivers for alcohol. It oxidises the ethanol in alcohol, and at the same
time its colour changes from orange to green.


 Unit 8
Electricity & Chemical Change

Electricity is a stream of electrons

In a battery,
• electrons leave through the negative terminal
• electrons enter through the positive terminal
Insulators are channels or objects that do not allow electricity to pass through
Conductors are channels or objects that do allow electricity to pass through

• The only solids that conduct are the metals & graphite:
❖ They have free electrons. The electrons get pumped out of one end of the solid

by the battery, while more electrons glow in the other end.

• Molecular substances are non-conductors:
❖ They contain no free electrons or other charged particles, that can ow through

them
• Ionic substances don’t conduct when solid, but do conduct when melted or dissolved in
water. They break down at the same time
❖ Ionic substance contains no free electrons but do contain ions, which have a

charge. The ions become free to move when the substance is melted or
dissolved, so they conduct the electricity.
• Electrolysis is the breaking down of an ionic compound, when molten or in aqueous
solution, by the passage of electricity
❖ A liquid that conducts electricity is called an electrolyte

Any liquid that contains ions will conduct electricity.

Electrolysis-Using electricity to break down a substance.
The positive terminal is called the anode
The negative terminal is called the cathode
1. Electrons ow along the wire, from the negative terminal of the battery to the cathode.
2. In the liquid, the ions carry the current. They move to the electrode of opposite charge.
3. At the cathode, the positive ions accept electrons. The other substance begins to appear
below the cathode.
4. At the anode, the negative ions give up electrons
5. Electrons ow from the anode along the wire, to the positive terminal of the battery.
• Electrons carry the current through the wires and electrodes. But the ions carry it
through the liquid.
• The graphite electrodes are inert. They carry the current into the liquid, but remain
unchanged
Electrolysis breaks the molten ionic compound down to its elements, giving the metal
at the cathode, and the non metal at the anode.
Rules for the electrolysis of a solution~
1. At the cathode, either a metal or hydrogen forms
2. At the anode, a non-metal other than hydrogen forms
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