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Biochemistry
Inorganic chemistry – Mostly concerned with non-carbon-containing substances
o Inorganic Compounds
1. Oxygen (O2 ) - involved with the extraction of energy from food molecules to make ATP
2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ) - a by-product of the breakdown of food molecules
3. Water (H2O) - has many important properties for living organisms and is essential for life
Properties of Water
a. Stabilizes body temperature – The high heat capacity of water allows it to absorb and
release large amounts of heat before changing temperature
b. Protection – acts as a lubricant or cushion
c. Chemical reactions – Reacting molecules are dissolved in
d. Transport –serves as the body’s major transport medium
Organic chemistry – Substances contain carbon, are covalently bonded, and are often large
o Organic Compounds - Molecules unique to living systems
1. Carbohydrates - Ratio of 1:2:1 (C:H:O)
- supply a source of cellular food
a) Monosaccharides – glucose and fructose
b) Disaccharides – sucrose and lactose
c) Polysaccharides – starch and glycogen
2. Lipids - Dissolve in nonpolar solvents
Fats: found in subcutaneous tissue and around organs
Phospholipids: chief component of cell membranes
Steroids: cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, sex hormones, and adrenal cortical hormones
Eicosanoids: prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes
Fat-soluble vitamins: vitamins A, D, E, and K
Lipoproteins: transport fatty acids and cholesterol in the bloodstream
3. Proteins – Macromolecules (C, H, O, N, and some S)
- regulate chemical reactions (enzymes- speed up chemical reactions)
- provide the framework for many of the tissues & responsible for muscle contraction
- Composed of 20 basic types of amino acids
Dipeptide, Tripeptide & Polypeptide
Amino Acids (AA) - Building blocks of proteins and organic acids.
Denaturation – Disruption of hydrogen bonds, and makes proteins nonfunctional
Structural Levels of Proteins:
Primary - determined by the number, kind, and arrangement of amino acids.
Secondary- results from folding or bending of the polypeptide chain.
Tertiary- results from the folding of the helices.
Quaternary: spatial relationships between proteins to form a functional unit
4. Nucleic Acids- Composed of C, O, H, N, and P
- The basic unit of nucleic acids is the nucleotide,
Two major classes:
DNA - Double-stranded helical molecule with genetic material of the cell
- Contains monosaccharide deoxyribose & adenine, THYMINE, guanine, cytosine
RNA - Single-stranded molecule and uses URACIL
- Three varieties of RNA: messenger RNA , transfer RNA , ribosomal RNA
Module 3- Cell Structures and Their Functions
Cell Organization
Cell - the basic structural and functional unit of life
Plasma membrane - forms the outer boundary of the cell
- a selective barrier that regulates what goes into and out of the cell
Ions and molecules move across plasma membranes :
1. Diffusion - movement of a solute from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration
o Solution - any mixture of liquids, gases, or solids & substances are uniformly distributed
o Solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution
o Concentration gradient - the concentration difference between two points divided by the
distance between those two points
2. Osmosis - diffusion of a solvent (water) across a selectively permeable membrane.
o Osmotic pressure- force required to prevent the water across membrane
o Isosmotic solutions -concentration of solute particles = reference solution
o Hyperosmotic solutions - concentration of solute particles > reference solution
o Hyposmotic solutions - concentration of solute particles < reference solution
3. Mediated transport - transport proteins mediate, assist in, the movement of ions & molecules.
Types of transport proteins:
1. Channel proteins - form membrane channels
2. Carrier proteins- bind to ions or molecules and transport them uniport (down
It’s concentration gradient), symport (same direction), and
antiport (opposite direction
3. ATP-powered pumps - move ions or molecules against their concentration w
gradient using the energy from ATP
Secondary active transport - uses energy of one substance moving down
to move another substance across the plasma membrane
4. Vesicular transport - transport of large particles and macromolecules across plasma membranes
o Endocytosis- movement of materials into cells by the formation of a vesicle
Phagocytosis- movement of solid material into cells
Pinocytosis- uptake of small droplets of liquids and the materials in them
Receptor-mediated endocytosis- plasma membrane receptors attaching to
molecules that are then taken into the cell
o Exocytosis- the secretion of materials from cells by vesicle formation
Cellular organelles- each performs specific functions
Cytoplasm- the material between the plasma membrane and nucleus
o Half cytosol - consists of a fluid part, the cytoskeleton, and cytoplasmic inclusions
Microtubules – provide support, aid cell division, and are components of organelles
Actin filaments – support the plasma membrane and define the shape of the cell
Intermediate filaments – provide mechanical support to teh cell
o Half organelles
- Cytoplasmic Inclusions = aggregates of chemicals produced by the cell taken in by the cell
- Cytoplasmic Organelles = specialized subcellular structures with specific functions
Nucleus- contains the cell’s genetic material and directs cell activities
o Nuclear envelope consists of two separate membranes with nuclear pores.
o DNA and associated proteins are found inside the nucleus
Chromatin- between cell divisions DNA
During cell division chromatin condenses to form chromosomes consisting of two chromatids
connected by a centromere
o Nucleoli- dark-staining spherical bodies within the nucleus and consist of RNA & proteins.
o Ribosomes- sites of protein synthesis
Cell Functions:
1. Metabolize and release energy
release of energy in the form of heat helps maintain body temperature
2. Synthesize molecules
cells differ from each other
3. Provide a means of communication
• achieved by chemical and electrical signaling
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
• mitosis
• meiosis
Fluid Mosaic Model
• Lipid bilayer – double layer of lipids with imbedded, dispersed proteins
• Bilayer consists mainly of phospholipids and cholesterol (20%)
• Phospholipids have hydrophobic (nonpolar tails) and hydrophilic (polar heads) bipoles.
Membrane Proteins
- Marker molecules , attachment proteins (cadherins and integrins) , transport proteins, receptor proteins, and
enzymes
- Protein molecules “float” among the phospholipid molecules
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - Series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that extends into the cytoplasm
Rough ER (RER)
o Studded with ribosomes
o Major site of protein synthesis
Smooth ER (SER)
o Does not have ribosomes attached
o Major site of lipid and carbohydrate synthesis
Golgi Apparatus - membranous sacs that collect, package, and distribute proteins and lipids produced by the ER.
Secretory vesicles- transport material from the golgi apparatus to the exterior of the cell.
Lysosomes - Spherical membranous bags containing digestive enzymes
Peroxisomes - Membranous sacs containing oxidases and catalases.
- Neutralize dangerous free radicals (highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons)
Mitochondria - major sites of the production of ATP.
- Have a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane that is infolded to produce cristae.
- Contain their own DNA, can produce some of their own proteins, and can replicate of the cell.