Introduction

Strain Energy of Bars

Castigliano’s Theorem
Structures
Castigliano’s theorem applied to Curved
Beams
Castigliano’s theorem applied to Beams
Cantilever beam with a Point Load at the free
end
S/S beam with a Point Load at mid-point
Examples
Exercises
3 — Energy Methods

3.1 Introduction
The energy stored within a material when work has been done is called the strain energy. Energy
is normally defined as the capacity to do work and it may exist in many forms such as mechanical,
thermal, nuclear, electrical, etc. The potential energy of a body is the form of energy which
is stored by virtue of the work which has previously been done on that body. Strain energy
is a particular form of potential energy (PE) which is stored within materials which has been
subjected to strain, i.e. to some change in dimension.
Definition 3.1.1 Strain energy is defined as the energy which is stored within a material
when work has been done on the material.

Strain Energy U = Work Done (3.1)

When an axial force P is applied gradually to an elastic body that is rigidly fixed (no
displacement, rotation permitted), the force does work as the body deforms. We can see this
clearly in Fig. 3.1

L δ

Figure 3.1: Elastic Bar

P
B

Area=U
C
O δ

Figure 3.2: Load vs Displacement

 26 Energy Methods
Rδ
This work can be calculated from U = 0 P dδ , where δ is the work absorbing displacement
of the application of the load.
1
U = Pδ (3.2)
2
where U is the area under the force-displacement diagram. The work of several loads, i.e. P1 ,
P2 , P3 ,..., Pn acting on an elastic body is independent of the order in which the loads are applied.
The work is thus
1
2∑
U= Pi δi (3.3)

where the same U is actually the energy (strain) stored in an elastic body. The unshaded area
above the line ’OB’ is called the complimentary energy, a quantity which is utilised in some
advanced energy methods of solution, [dro]. [dro]

3.2 Strain Energy of Bars

Let us consider a bar of constant cross-sectional area A, length L and Young’s modulus E as
shown in Fig. #. If the axial load P is applied gradually to result in displacement δ , the strain
energy of the bar is
1 P2 L
U = Pδ = (3.4)
2 2AE
This can be better expressed as follows:
Z L 2
1 P
U= dx (3.5)
2 0 2AE

3.3 Castigliano’s Theorem

Theorem 3.3.1 — Castigliano’s First Theorem. Castigliano’s theorem states that if an
elastic body is in equilibrium under the external loads P1 , P2 , P3 ,..., Pn then

∂U
δi = (3.6)
∂ Pi
where δi is the displacement associated with load Pi and U is the strain energy of the body.

The other way of writing Castigliano’s first theorem is as follows:

Theorem 3.3.2 — Castigliano’s First Theorem. If the total strain energy expressed in terms
of the external loads is partially differentiated with respect to one of the loads the result is the
deflection of the point of application of that load and in the direction of that load. Deflection
in direction of Pi will be
∂U
δPi = (3.7)
∂ Pi

In applications where bending provided practially all of the strain energy,

M ∂M
Z
δPi = dA (3.8)
A EI ∂ Pi
Castigliano’s theorem for angular movements states:
 3.4 Structures 27

Theorem 3.3.3 — Castigliano’s theorem for angular movements. If the total strain energy
expressed in terms of the external moments be partially differentiated with respect to one of
the moments, the result is the angular deflection in radians of the point of application of that
moment and in its direction
M ∂M
Z
θ= dA (3.9)
A EI ∂ Mi

where Mi is the actual or dummy moment at the point where θ is required.

3.4 Structures
Displacement in the direction of the applied load is found using the following equation:

n
Fi Li ∂ Fi
δ=∑ (3.10)
i=1 Ai Ei ∂ P

There would be plenty of examples for trusses/structures in the example section

Statically Indeterminate/determinate
Pin jointed structures can either be statically determinate or indeterminate. The challenge is
when the structure is indeterminate. The following steps should be followed when approaching a
pin jointed structure:
• Count the number of joints, members and reactions. m + r − 2 j = 1. If 2 j < m + r, the
structure is indeterminate. There is one redundant member on the structure.
• The number of redundant members is equal to the degree of indeterminacy of the structure.
Release the redundant members to render the structure statically determinate.
• Calculate the forces in the statically determinate structure, subjected to any external loads
plus the redundant reaction forces, using methods of joints of sections.
• Use Castigliano’s method to calculate the required deflections and also slopes.

3.5 Castigliano’s theorem applied to Curved Beams

The theorem can be applied to all types of beams, cantilever with point load or udl, simply
supported beam with point load or udl, etc. I will leave you to derive the rest of the beams. You
can confirm your answer by using first principles.

3.6 Castigliano’s theorem applied to Beams

3.6.1 Cantilever beam with a Point Load at the free end
When given any type of beam, follow this procedure:
1. Cut an elemental strip of width dx
2. Measure distance x from the free-end or the fixed-end. If it is from the fixed end, make
sure that you calculate the reaction first
3. Take moments about X − X line, i.e. distance from free-end to where the strip starts, Mxx
4. Determine partial derivative of moment with respect to the load applied, i.e. ∂ Mxx /∂ P
For a cantilever given, Fig. 3.6.1, this is what you do:
 28 Energy Methods

dx x

Figure 3.3: Cantilever Beam with a Point Load

∂ Mxx
Mxx = Px; =x
∂P
Z L
1 ∂ Mxx
δBP = Mxx dx
EI 0 ∂P
1 L
Z
δBP = Px · xdx
EI 0
L
Px3  PL3
δBP = =
3EI  0 3EI

3.6.2 S/S beam with a Point Load at mid-point

The simply supported beam, Fig. 3.6.2 is tackled a bit differently from the cantilever. In this
example the beam has constant cross-sectional area A, length L and Young’s modulus E In this

P
a b

C B
A

Pb x dx dz z Pa
L L
L

Figure 3.4: Simply Supported Beam with a Point Load

problem all we need to do is to take moments about X − X and Z − Z as follows:

Pb ∂ MAC bx
MAC = x; =
L ∂P L
Pa ∂ MCB az
MCB = z; =
L ∂P L
 3.7 Examples 29

The deflection is thus

Z a Z b
1 Pb bx 1 Pa az
δ= x × dx + z× dz
EI 0 L L EI 0 L L
a b
2
Pb x3  Pa2 z3 
δ= 2 +
L EI 3  0L2 EI 3  0
Pb2 a3 Pa2 b3
δ= +
3L2 EI 3L2 EI
Pb2 a2 (a + L)
δ=
3L2 EI

But since a = L/2 = b then

PL3
δ=
48EI

3.7 Examples
 Example 3.1 Calculate the vertical displacement at point B on the pin-jointed structure shown
in Fig. #. The cross-sectional area of both members is 2000mm2 and E = 200GPa 

Solution 3.1 We start by determining what the length of AB and BC is, i.e. LAB = 2m and
LBC = 2m. The only joint that we will deal with is Joint ’B’.

R The structure is statically determinate. j = 3, m = 2 and r = 4. 2 j = m + r

Σ F ↑ = 0 = FAB sin 30◦ − FBC sin 30◦ − Q

FBC = FBA − 2Q . . . Eq. 1
Σ F → = 0 = R − FAB cos 30 − FBC cos 30◦
◦

FBC = 1.155R − FBA . . . Eq. 2

∂ FBA ∂ FBA
FAB = Q + 0.577R with = 1; = 0.577
∂Q ∂R
∂ FBC ∂ FBC
FBC = 0.577R − Q with = −1; = 0.577
∂Q ∂R

∂F ∂F FL ∂ F FL ∂ F
Member Length (m) Load ∂Q ∂R AE ∂ Q AE ∂ R

AB 2m Q + 0.577R 1 0.577 50 × 10−6 28 × 10−6

BC 2m −Q + 0.577R -1 0.577 50 × 10−6 −28 × 10−6
100µm 0

Table 3.1: Table caption

 Example 3.2 A Plate 5mm thick and 30mm wide is bent into the shape shown below. 
30 Energy Methods

Solution 3.2 Taking moments about z − z

∂ Mzz
Mzz = Fr sin θ ; = r sin θ
∂P
3π
1
Z
2
δ= (Fr sin θ )(r sin θ )rdθ
EI 0
 3π
Fr3

θ sin 2θ  2
δ= −
EI 2 4 
0
3πFr3 (200)(0.2)3 (3π)
δ= = = 60.3mm
4EI 4 × 62.5

 Example 3.3 The structure shown below is made from a pipe with inner and outer diameters
of 80mm and 100mm respectively. Calculate the resultant deflection at A due to bending.
E = 200GPa. 

Solution 3.3 #

 Example 3.4 Determine the vertical deflection of point A on the bent cantilever as shown

below, Fig. 3.5, when loaded at A with a vertical load of 25N. The cantilever is built-in at B and
EI is constant throughout and is equal to 450Nm2 . What would be the horizontal deflection at
point A? 

B
r=
12
5m
m

200mm
P = 25N

Figure 3.5: Castigliano-Semicircular

Solution 3.4 We now look at Fig. 3.6 and we let R become a dummy load.

∂ Mxx
Mxx = Px , = xXX
∂P
∂ Mzz ∂ Mzz
Mzz = (0.2 + r sin θ )P + Rr(1 − cos θ ), = (0.2 + r sin θ ), = r(1 − cos θ )XX
∂P ∂R
3.7 Examples 31

r=
12
5m
m
r cos θ

X
x

A
R = 0N
X
r sin θ 200mm
P = 25N

Figure 3.6: Castigliano-Semicircular

The deflections are calculated as follows:

1 0.2 1 π
Z Z
δP = Px · xdx + (0.2 + r sin θ )P(0.2 + r sin θ )rdθ
EI 0 EI 0
 3 0.2
Px P
δP = + (0.04r + 0.4r2 sin θ + r3 sin2 θ )dθ
3EI 0 EI
sin 2θ π
  
0.0667 P 2 3 θ
δP = + 0.04rθ − 0.4r cos θ + r − X
EI EI 2 4 0
0.0667 P
δP = + (0.0157 + 0.0125 + 0.003068)
EI EI
0.8484
δP = XX
EI

1 π
Z
δR = (0.2 + r sin θ )Pr(1 − cos θ )rdθ
EI 0
Pr2 π
Z
δR = (0.2 − 0.2 cos θ + r sin θ − r sin θ cos θ )dθ X
EI 0
π
Pr2 r cos2 θ

δR = 0.2θ − 0.2 sin θ − r cos θ +
EI 2 0
Pr 2  r 
δR = 0.2π − r(−2) + (0)
EI 2
0.3431
δR = XX
EI
 Example 3.5 The steel truss (Fig. 3.7) supports the load P = 30kN. Determine the horizontal
and vertical displacements of joint E. Use E = 200GPa. The cross-sectional area for all members
is 500mm2 . 

Solution 3.5 Referring to Fig. 3.8 We are given A = 500mm2 , P = 30kN and E = 200GPa. We
will use a JOINT method starting with Joint E, D and C. Let us introduce a dummy load R at
point E.
Joint E
32 Energy Methods

2m P

B D E
• • •

2m

A
• •
C

2m

Figure 3.7: Castigliano Truss Structure

2m P

B D E
• • • R(Dummy)
2m

A
• •
C

2m

Figure 3.8: Solution Castigliano Truss Structure

ΣFv = 0 = P + 0.707FEC
∴ FEC = −1.414PXX
∂ FEC
= −1.414
∂P
ΣFH = FED + 0.707FEC − R
∴ FED = P + RXX
∂ FED ∂ FED
=1 =1
∂P ∂R
3.7 Examples 33

Joint D

ΣFV = 0 = FDC XX
ΣFH = FDE − FDB + R
∴ FDB = P + RXX
∂ FDB ∂ FDB
=1 =1
∂P ∂R
Joint C

ΣFv = 0.707FCE + 0.707FCB

ΣFv = −P + 0.707FCB
∴ FCB = 1.414PXX
∂ FCB
= 1.414
∂P
ΣFH = 0 = 0.707FCE − 0.707FCB − FCA
ΣFH = −P − P − FCA
∴ FCA = 2PXX
∂ FCA
=2
∂P

∂F ∂F FL ∂ F FL ∂ F
Member L(mm) Load ∂P ∂R AE ∂ P AE ∂ R
AC 2000 2P 2 0 1.2 0
BC 2828 1.414P 1.414 0 1.696 0
BD 2000 P+R 1 1 0.6 0.6
CD 2000 0 0 0 0 0
DE 2000 P+R 1 1 0.6 0.6
CE 2828 -1.414P -1.414 0 -1.696 0
δP = 2.4mm δR = 1.2mm

 Example 3.6 For the simply supported beam (Fig. 3.9) loaded with a uniformly distributed
load, determine the maximum deflection in the middle of the beam. Let the udl be q N/m. 

Solution 3.6 We can solve this problem by concentrating on half the length of the beam. Since
we need to calculate the maximum deflection which occurs in the middle, we need to place a
dummy load at the middle of the beam. We then need to cut the beam at distance x from the left
hand support and take moments about X − X section as follows:
qL P
RA = + = RB
2 2
qx2 qLx Px qx2
Mxx = RA x − = + −
2 2 2 2
∂ Mxx x
=
∂P 2
Since deflection is determined using the following
1 ∂M
Z
δP = M dA (3.11)
EI A ∂P
 34 Energy Methods

q N/m

A B

L/2

Figure 3.9: SS Beam with UDL

2 L/2 qLx Px qx2 x

Z  
δP = + − dx
EI 0 2 2 2 2
1 L/2 qLx2 Px2 qx3
Z  
= + − dx
EI 0 2 2 2
L/2
1 qLx3 Px3 qx4 

= + −
EI 6 6 8 0
"
3
3
4 #
1 qL L2 P L2 q L2
= + −
EI 6 6 8
 3
qL4 qL4

1 PL
= + −
EI 48 48 128
 3 4

1 PL 5qL
= +
EI 48 384

3.8 Exercises
Exercise 3.1 Calculate the vertical displacement as well as the horizontal displacement at
point B on the pin jointed structure shown in the figure below. The cross-sectional area of
both members is 2000 mm2 and E = 200GPa.
3.8 Exercises 35

• A

2m
•B

2m

2m
10 kN

•
C

Exercise 3.2 Calculate the magnitude of the force R on the pin-jointed structure, shown in
the figure below, if the vertical deflection at node E is zero. The cross-sectional area of all the
members is the same.
R

D• •E •F
4m

A• • •C
B

10 kN
3m 3m

Exercise 3.3 Calculate the resultant displacement at point E on the pin-jointed structure
shown in the figure below. The cross-sectional area for all members is 200mm2 and E =
200GPa.
36 Energy Methods

20 kN

• 60◦
60◦
90◦
•

2m
60◦
•

Exercise 3.4 Calculate the vertical displacement at point D and the horizontal displacement
at C on the pin-jointed structure shown in the figure below. The cross-sectional area for all
members is 1200mm2 and E = 200GPa.
B
•
3m

A• •D •C

20 kN
4m 4m

Exercise 3.5 Calculate the resultant deflection at point A on the pin-jointed structure shown
in the figure below.
2m

• • •
3m

10 kN
3.8 Exercises 37

Exercise 3.6 Calculate the vertical deflection at point B on the pin-jointed structure shown
below. The cross-sectional are of the members in tension is 30mm2 and for those in compres-
sion is 200mm2 . E = 200GPa

•
•
0 .6

0.5m
m

•
1m

m
0.8 10 kN

Exercise 3.7 Calculate the resultant deflection at point D on the pin-jointed structure shown
below. The cross-sectional area of the members in tension is 1000mm2 and for those in
compression is 2000mm2 . E = 200GPa

• •
0.6m

• •

8 kN
1m