ME2112 2. Victor Examples

ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)
Example
A 20mm thick bar with a rectangular cross-section is connected to
two thick plates by a 12mm diameter cylindrical pin. An axial load P is
applied to the bar as shown.
Determine the dimensions a and b of the bar cross-section, so that
when P becomes sufficiently large, failure of the cylindrical pin by
shear and failure of the bar by tension as well as shear occur
simultaneously.
a 12mm diameter pin Material properties of the pin and bar
P/2 bar Quantity Pin Bar
20 mm P Young’s 100 GPa 60 GPa

modulus, E
P/2 Shear 38 GPa 23 GPa
Side view
modulus, G
Poisson’s 0.3 0.28
 12 mm ratio, 
Tensile and fp = 120 MPa fb = 60 MPa
compressive
20 mm failure stress
Shear failure fp = 60 MPa fb = 40 MPa
stress
b Front view A-23
Solution
Relevant quantities:
Shear failure stress of pin τfp = 60MPa
Tensile failure stress of bar σfb = 60MPa
Shear failure stress of bar τfb= 40MPa b
20 mm
a P
For failure of pin by shear: a
b
Top view of bar
Failure of bar by tension:
Failure of bar by shear:

A-24
Check for compressive crushing of bar material by the pin

Average compressive bearing stress on bar material is:
56.66 MPa < 60 MPa (fb); i.e. bearing stress on bar does not
exceed the compressive failure stress
A-25
Example
a) An NUS lecturer carries out a demonstration using a rectangular
plate made of a linear elastic material, as shown below.
On it, he draws a right-angled isosceles triangle with inclined sides
of length s (corresponding to the dashed lines) before applying an
axial compressive stress o to the left and right ends. When the
stress is applied, the height of the triangle increases to a and the
base decreases to b. Derive expressions for the Young’s modulus
and Poisson’s ratio of the material in terms of o, s, a, and b.
s s a
   
A-26
Solution
a
s s
(compressive)     x
b
lxo
For uniaxial stress,

Young’s modulus:
A-27
For Poisson’s ratio:  = –(yy/xx)
A-28
Example
A stepped vertical cylindrical rod is
required for suspension of a 30kN load A
at its lower end and has an upward force
of 65kN applied at the shoulder. The 2.0m
dAB = 30mm
upper portion has a length of 2.0m and a
diameter of 30mm; the rod material has a B
Young’s modulus of 70GPa and a yield 65kN
strength of 180MPa; the lower segment
is 3.0m long and its tip must not move by 3.0m
dBC = ?
more than 2mm. Using a safety factor
(SF) of 1.5, calculate the smallest
diameter of the lower portion of the rod. C
30kN
B-5
Equilibrium
Determine the axial force in each segment of
the shaft by: (i) making an imaginary cut in that
segment; (ii) drawing the unknown internal
forces as positive quantities; (iii) considering FAB
equilibrium to calculate the magnitudes and A
signs of the unknown forces.
(Allowable stress = 180/SF = 120MPa)
FBC B
Segment BC: FBC = 30kN
65kN 65kN
Segment AB: FAB + 65kN – 30kN = 0
FAB = -35kN
Stress in AB: C
(i.e. acceptable)
30kN 30kN 30kN
Stress in BC:
∴
B-6
Use Constitutive (load-deformation) Relationship

to satisfy physical and prescribed Boundary
Conditions
Hooke’s Law for uniaxial stress:  = /E
The displacement at the tip of the smaller rod is determined by

the changes in length of both portions. The total change in length
is given by:
∴ dBC > (based on deformation limit)

The requirement based on strength is dBC > 17.8mm; hence, the
required deformation limitation takes precedence and the
minimum diameter of the lower portion is B-7
Statically Indeterminate Structures

Structures subjected to loading fall into two categories:
• Statically determinate – all the unknown reactions (forces,
moments, torques) at the supports can be obtained by
considering equilibrium alone.
N.B. In a 2-D system, there are only three equilibrium equations –
two translational, for forces in orthogonal directions and one
rotational, for moments. For 3-D analysis, there are six equilibrium
equations – three translational, for forces in the directions of the
three orthogonal axes, and three rotational, for moments in the
three orthogonal planes.
• Statically indeterminate – the number of equilibrium equations
is insufficient to evaluate the unknown reactions (i.e. there are
more than the minimum number of supports required). Many
structures have multiple supports for additional safety, and are
thus statically indeterminate.
Degree of indeterminacy/redundancy – the difference between
the number of unknown reactions and the number of equilibrium
equations that can be used; i.e. Nu - Ne B-8
Examples of Statically Determinate/Indeterminate Structures

(a) Rx P Unknown Usable Degree of
quantities equilibrium indeter-
R1y R2y equations minacy
(b) R1x R2x
(a) Rx • horizontal
F1 F2
P (b) F1 (= F2) • vertical (or

R1y R2y R3y rotational)
(c) R1x R2x R3x
F2 (c) F1 (= F3), F2 • vertical (or

F1 F3
rotational)
P
P
(d) (d) R1, R2, M1 • vertical
M1 • rotational
R1 R2
B-9
For statically indeterminate structures, the number of additional

equations needed to solve for the unknowns, is equal to the
degree of indeterminacy; these come from considering the
deformation of the structure and satisfying compatibility and
boundary conditions. [Hence, studying rigid body statics alone is
insufficient without an understanding of the Mechanics of
(deformable) Materials !] RA
Example A
A vertical brass column, 25mm in 500 mm 25mm

diameter, is built in at its top and bottom B
80kN
ends and is subjected to two vertical loads
300 mm
applied at the locations shown. Determine
C
the stresses in the segments AB, BC and
200 mm
CD. (E = 90 GPa) D 50kN
RD
B-10
Number of unknown reactions =

Number of usable equilibrium equations = (vertical
equilibrium)
Conclusion: Statically indeterminate system with 2 – 1 = 1 degree of
indeterminacy; i.e. 1 additional equation based on deformation of the
structure is required to solve the problem.
Deformation compatibility (boundary) condition: since the ends are
built-in, there should be no change in the overall length of the
column (even though the segments between the applied
forces/reactions can change in length.)
Approach:
1. Consider equilibrium of the whole system.
2. Make successive imaginary cuts between adjacent points where
there is a reaction or an applied load to isolate a free body.
3. Consider equilibrium of the isolated free bodies.
4. Utilise the material constitutive relationship and satisfy deformation
compatibility (boundary) conditions. B-11
Overall equilibrium, and

equilibrium of free-body
RA RA
segments isolated by
RA RA
imaginary cuts
A A A A
RA + 80 – 50 – RD = 0 kN
500 mm
i.e. RA + 30 = RD kN
80kN 80kN
80kN
B B FAB B
FAB =
300 mm
C C FBC =
FBC
200 mm
50kN 50kN
FCD =
FCD D
RD i.e. FCD =
B-12
Constitutive Relationship:
Hooke’s Law for uniaxial stress:  = E
Deformation compatibility condition:

sum of changes in lengths of segments is zero.
∴ RA = -30kN (i.e. 30kN acting in the opposite direction)
Forces in column segments:

FAB = RA = -30kN (i.e. compressive); FBC =
FCD =
B-13
Stresses in column segments:

 = F/A; A =  (25x10-3)2/4 = 4.91x10-4 m2
∴ AB = FAB/A = –30x103/4.91x10-4 =
(important to state that AB is negative to indicate
compression)
BC = FBC/A = 50x103/4.91x10-4 = (tension)
CD = FCD/A = 0/4.91x10-4 =
B-14
Example RD RE
D E
RA
1m
2m 0.5m 0.5m
A B C
30kN
A 3m horizontal rigid bar is hinged to the wall at A and supported by

25mm diameter vertical rods at B and C. The rod at B is made of Al
alloy (E=70GPa) and the one at C is brass (E=90GPa). A 30kN
downward force is applied vertically mid-way between B and C.
Determine:
(a) the stress in each vertical rod
(b) the deflections at B and C
B-15
RD RE
Unknown reactions or forces: RA,
RD (= FDB), RE (= FEC); i.e. three.
D E • Equilibrium (2 usable equations)
Vertical equilibrium: Fy = 0
RA
2m 1m
RA + FDB + FEC – 30 = 0kN (1)
FD FE Rotational equilibrium: Mz = 0
A
Take moments about A:
B C
δB
B δC FDB x 2 + FEC x 3 – 30 x 2.5 = 0kNm
C (2)
∴ Nu – Ne = 3 – 2 = 1
30kN (indeterminate; i.e. one additional
equation based on deformation
compatibility is needed)
• Deformation compatibility
B-16
• Constitutive relationship
Hooke’s law for uniaxial stress:  = /L = /E;  = (FL/AE)
• Deformation compatibility: C/B = 3/2
(3)
The equilibrium equations (1) and (2) can now be combined with
condition (3) to yield three equations to solve three unknowns.
Consequently:
From (2):
From (1):
B-17
Stresses in rods:  = F/A

A = (25 x 10-3)2/4 = 4.91x10-4 m2
DB = FDB/A = 9.63x103/ 4.91x10-4 = 19.62MPa
EC = FEC/A = 18.58x103/ 4.91x10-4 = 37.85MPa
Deflections at B and C:  = (FL/AE) = (L/E)
B = DB(LDB/EAl) = 19.62x106 (1.0/70x109) = 0.28mm
C = EC(LEC/EBr) = 37.85x106 (1.0/90x109) = 0.42mm
Check:
B-18
Example
A pin-jointed truss is attached to a wall
and carries a vertical load of 5,000kg at its 1.0m
tip. The bars are made of Aluminium alloy B

(E=70GPa) and have a circular cross- A 
section of 25mm diameter. The inclined
bar makes an angle of 30o with the
P = 5,000kg
horizontal one.
Determine the horizontal and vertical C
displacements of the tip and thus its FAB
resultant movement. 
FBC
Solution P
Consider equilibrium of the load at the tip:
• the axial force in the horizontal bar is: P
(1) 
• the axial force in the inclined bar is: P/tan
(2)
B-19
• To determine the final position of the tip,

consider the stretched horizontal bar and
the shortened inclined bar, as though BC AB
they were unhinged. Bo
B’
• Each bar can rotate in a circular arc A 
about their hinged connection at the wall. B”
The final position of the tip will be where
the two arcs intersect (B).
• Since the displacements are small, C B

approximate the arcs by straight lines
and thus the final position is also AB B*
approximated by their intersection (B*). Bo B’


BC BCsin
Horizontal displacement: 
B”
H = BoB′ = AB = FABLAB/AE (3) D E
Vertical displacement:
V = B′B* = BoD + EB* BCcos

= BCsin + (AB + BCcos)/tan B*
B-20
V = BCsin + (AB + BCcos)/tan

= BC(sin + cos/tan) + AB/tan
V = BC/sin + AB/tan (4)
BC = B′′Bo = |FBC|LBC/AE = (P/sin)LBC/AE = PLAB/AEsincos
P = 5000 x 9.81 = 49.05kN
A = (25x10-3)2/4 = 4.909x10-4 m2
 = 30o ; E = 70x109 Pa
LAB = 1m ; LBC = LAB/cos = 1.155m
H = AB = FABLAB/AE = PLAB/AEtan
= (49.05x103)(1.0)/(4.909x10-4)(70x109)(0.5774)
H =
BC = PLAB/AEsincos
= (49.05x103)(1.0)/(4.909x10-4)(70x109)(0.5)(0.866)
BC =
B-21
V = BC/sin + AB/tan
= 3.30/0.5 + 2.47/0.5774
V =
Total resultant displacement = [(H)2 + (V)2]1/2
=
B-22
Example
An unloaded horizontal beam comprises two segments A and B, rigidly
joined together. The beam is simply-supported and perfectly balanced at the
interface between the two segments. The geometrical and material
properties of the two segments are in the table below.
Segment Cross- Density Young’s Shear Poisson’s
sectional area modulus modulus ratio
A 100 mm2 2,400 kg/m3 10 GPa 4 GPa 0.25
B 100 mm2 600 kg/m3 20 GPa 8 GPa 0.25
2m 4m
A B
Equal and opposite tensile forces of 6kN are applied to the ends of the
beam. Determine whether the bar will remain horizontal, rotate clockwise, or
rotate anti-clockwise, after application of the tensile forces. (Neglect bending
of the beam arising from self-weight.)
B-23
Solution
2m 4m
6 kN 6 kN
A B
Cross-sectional area = 100 mm2 = 100 x 10-6 m2
mA = (2,400)(100x10-6)(2) = 0.48kg ; mB = (600)(100x10-6)(4) = 0.24kg
After application of the 6kN force, both beam segments will

elongate, causing a change in the location of their respective
CGs. This will result in a loss of rotational equilibrium.
B-24
Elongation of segment A:
Elongation of segment B:
New distance of CG of segment A from pivot:
Resulting anticlockwise moment MA = (0.48)(1.006)(9.81) = 4.7371 Nm
New distance of CG of segment B from pivot:
Resulting clockwise moment MB = (0.24)(2.006)(9.81) = 4.7229 Nm
B-25
Example
A spaceship is stationary in outer space. Its power source is a cylinder of
radio-active material, aligned parallel to the axis of the spaceship, as
shown below. (The material has a density of 8,000 kg/m3, a Young’s
modulus of 180 GPa, a shear modulus of 72 GPa, a Poisson’s ratio of
0.25 and a failure stress of 400 MPa.) The diameter of the cylinder is
100 mm, its length is 2m and it is supported (clamped) at one end,
nearer the tail of the spaceship. When the spaceship accelerates
forward, describe what stress is induced in the material and whether/how
the stress varies with location along the cylinder. (NB: Recall Newton’s
2nd Law that Force = Mass x Acceleration.) What is the maximum
acceleration the spaceship can attain without damaging its power
source?
power source cylinder
B-26
Solution
A
Power source
x
F0
2m
Fxx
x 2-x
Newton’s 2nd law:
Axial stress is generated because of inertial resistance.
B-27
At location x, mass of portion of rod being accelerated is:
(compressive)
x
2m
Stress distribution
(What everyday situation do you personally experience that

is somewhat similar to this?)
B-28
Maximum stress when material yields:
(yield stress)
Max acceleration:
B-29
By definition, the polar second moment of area is:
Note that for a solid cross-section, di = 0; hence the polar second

moment of area of a circle is:
(The polar second moment of area of an annulus can be considered to

be the difference between Jouter and Jinner; i.e. the difference between J
of the outer circle and “J of the hole”.)
C-13
Example
A stepped solid shaft is fixed at one end (A) and subjected to three
applied torques. Determine (i) the reactive torque at A; (ii) the value of
d if max = 100 MPa and (iii) the angle of twist of the free end F relative
to A. (G = 20 GPa)
TA B 5kNm
C
A 4kNm
A 2d 2kNm
D
1
E
2 F
d
Applied torques:
(anti-clockwise); (clockwise);
(anti-clockwise) C-14
Equilibrium:
(i) Reaction at A:
To determine the torque distribution along the shaft, make
successive imaginary cuts between the reactions or applied torques
and consider equilibrium of the isolated free body.
5kNm 4kNm 2kNm
3kNm
1 2 x
A B C D E F
200 100 200 200 100
3kNm
TAB
5kNm
3kNm
TBD
5kNm 4kNm
3kNm
TDE
C-15
• Segment AB: TAB – 3kNm = 0; ∴ TAB = 3kNm

• Segment BD: TBD + 5kNm – 3 kNm = 0; ∴ TBD = –2kNm
• Segment DE: TDE – 4kNm +5kNm – 3kNm = 0; ∴ TDE = 2kNm
Torque distribution:
Txx
3kNm
2kNm
C
x
A B D E F
-2kNm
(ii) To determine the value of d: use

Segment 1: ; Tmax = 3kNm
C-16
For x = 100 MPa at r = d,
Segment 2: , Tmax = 2kNm
For x = 100 MPa at r = d/2,
∴ to sustain the given loading, the larger value of d is selected
(iii) To determine the angle of twist of the free end F relative to A:
C-17
At A,  = 0; the angle of twist between the ends of each

segment is given by:
Segment AB:
Segment BC:
Segment CD:
Segment DE:
There is no torque in segment EF; hence the rotation at F is the same

as that at E. The rotation of F relative to A is:
C-18
Example
A composite shaft made of an aluminium alloy core and cladded with
stainless steel is required to transmit 20 MW at 2000 r.p.m. Determine
the dimensions of the shaft cross-section if the maximum allowable
shear stress x(max) is 50 MPa for aluminium alloy and 200 MPa for
stainless steel, and both materials experience their limiting shear
stresses simultaneously. Allow for a safety factor of 2. GAl = 25 GPa;
Gst = 80 GPa.
a - aluminium alloy
s - stainless steel
m - maximum
 - shaft rotational speed
For a safety factor of 2:
Power transmission = torque x rotational speed = T = 20 x 106 W
C-19
Equilibrium: Total torque carried by the shaft = sum of torques carried

by Al and steel components:
Two unknowns (Ta and Ts) and one equilibrium equation.

 problem is statically indeterminate – one degree of indeterminacy
Deformation compatibility: For concentric shafts, /L is common for
the Al and steel components.
Steel
AL-alloy Ds
Da
D
C-20
Use to obtain the relationship between the

diameters of the steel and Al parts
For the steel and Al to experience their max stress simultaneously,
Determine the ratio of the torques carried by the steel and Al portions:
i.e. the outer steel section carries 82% of the torque. (Hollow shafts
are more efficient because most of the torque is carried by the outer
cross-section where the stresses are larger.) C-21
Total torque: T = Ta + Ts = 95.49 kNm

 Ta + 4.6125Ta = 95.49 kNm

Determine the diameters using
C-22
Example
Determine the sizes of two solid circular shafts designed to transmit
500 kW, one at 1,000 rpm and the other at 10,000 rpm. The maximum
allowable operating shear stress is 50 MPa. Which operating speed
would you recommend ?
Power = Torque x 
For 1 = 1,000 rpm, the torque is
The greatest torsional shear stress occurs at the shaft radius D1/2
C-23
For 2 = 10,000 rpm, the torque is
The greatest torsional shear stress occurs at D2/2
Since D2< D1, D2 is a smaller shaft. From the point of shaft size and
material usage, it is more economical to operate at a higher speed.
(However, note that rotational inertia stresses are higher and bearing
life is shorter for high speed operation.)
C-24
Example
(i) Figure 1 shows two shafts of length L and circular cross-section, built into a
wall at the left end. The first (A) has a constant diameter D, while the
second (B) has a diameter which varies linearly from 2D at the left end to
D at the right end.
A torque T is applied at the right end. On a single graph, sketch the
variation of the angle of twist along the shaft for the two cases to show the
relative magnitudes of the angle of twist (no values of angles need be
calculated). D
(A) T
(B) 2D T
D
L
Figure 1 C-25
(ii) Figure 2 shows two composite shafts made by joining the shafts in (i)
together. In the first case (A), the end with a diameter of 2D is fixed to the
wall, while in the second case (B), the end with a diameter of 2D is at the
free end.
In both cases, a torque T is applied at the right end. On one graph, sketch
the variation of the angle of twist along the two composite shaft for the two
cases to show the relative magnitudes of the angle of twist (no values of
angles need be calculated). If the torque is increased until each shaft fails,
which part(s) of each shaft will fail first?
D
(A) 2D T
2D
D
(B) T
L L
Figure 2
C-26
Solution (i)
D
L
(A) T
L
(B) 2D T
(A)
(B)
x
L
C-27
(ii)
D
L
(A) 2D T
2D
D
L
(B) T
(B)
(A)
x
L 2L
C-28
The shafts will fail when the max shear stress is attained, at the
outer surface:
Based on this, failure will occur where
C-29
Example
The figure shows a schematic diagram of a drill used to create a hole in the
side of a large rock. A cone is drawn as an approximation of the geometric
profile of the drill.
Consider the part of the drill that is inside the rock: The friction between the
rock and the drill is such that the torque at a cross-section varies with the
distance from the tip, such that Txx = , where k is a constant.
If the maximum shear stress at every
cross-section of the drill is maintained at a Nm
constant value of o, derive an expression x
showing how the diameter of the drill
varies with x.
Hence, sketch the geometrical profile of
the drill, now that you know it is not a cone.
If the maximum diameter of the drill is 50
mm, o = 20 MPa and k = 1,800Nm, what
is the maximum hole depth that can be
drilled? C-30
Solution
Torque at location x:
Max operating shear stress:
Use
C-31
Shape of drill:
For
Max hole depth is given by:
C-32
Example
The figure shows a rig to test an
800 hp (horsepower) motor for A
an F1 car. The motor is used to 0.1 m
drive a solid shaft ABCDEF, B 6,000 rpm
which in turn transmits power to 0.4 m

800 hp
(600 kW)
three components via pulleys at C motor
B, D and E, with power outputs 0.3 m

of 250 hp, 350 hp and 200 hp 250 hp D
respectively. (Assume that 1hp 0.3 m
E
= 0.75kW) 0.1 m
F
The shaft is supported by
bearings at the two ends A and 350 hp
F. The motor rotates at 6,000

rpm in the direction shown, and 200 hp
the pulley at C is of the same

size as that connected to the
motor, so that the shaft spins at
the same speed.
C-33
The material properties of the shaft are as follows (Use only the
quantities that you need):
Young’s modulus, E 210 GPa

Shear modulus, G 80 GPa
Poisson’s ratio,  0.31
Tensile failure stress f = 500 MPa
Shear failure stress f = 250 MPa
(a) Sketch the torques acting on the shaft at each pulley and hence
determine the torque in each section of the shaft (AB, BC, CD, DE
and EF). Sketch the torque distribution along the shaft.
(b) What is the minimum diameter of the shaft if a safety factor of 2 is
incorporated?
(c) What is the angle of twist of F relative to A?
C-34
Solution
A
0.1 m
B 6,000 rpm
0.4 m 800 hp
(600 kW)
C motor
0.3 m
250 hp D
0.3 m
E
0.1 m
F
350 hp
200 hp
0.1m x
0.4m 0.3m 0.3m 0.1m
A B C D E F
C-35
Solution
(a) Torque in shaft segments
0.1m x
0.4m 0.3m 0.3m 0.1m
A B C D E F
Segment AB:
Segment BC:
A B
Power:
C-36
Segment CD:
A B C
C-37
Segment DE:
A B C D
Alternatively:
E F
C-38
Segment EF:
Torque distribution:
656.50
238.72
B
C D E F x
A
-298.42
(b) Max torque in shaft is

Max allowable shear stress
C-39
(c) Angle of twist of F relative to A
C-40
Example
Determine the shear force and bending moment distributions of the
simply-supported beam shown below using singularity functions.
(Imagine the deformed shape as a guide to the number of (+) or (–)
portions in the bending moment distribution.)
P
wo Nm-1
y
x
a1
R1 R2
a2
x
L
Work out the unknown reactions R1 and R2 from equilibrium:
• Vertical equilibrium:
• Rotational equilibrium about the left support :
D-19
From the two preceding equilibrium equations:
The shear force distribution can be obtained by two methods:

(1) By integrating the load intensity distribution of the beam.
‹ ›
Note that in this case, the term R2 x - L 0 does not affect the shear
‹
force because R2 x - L 0 = 0 when x = L-. ›
(2) Alternatively, make an imaginary cut at an arbitrary point in the
segment of the beam just before the end. Consider equilibrium of
the left segment isolated by this cut.
D-20
P
wo Nm-1
R1
a1 wo Nm-1
a2
x
The shear force is obtained directly from vertical equilibrium:
Note that the result obtained using this method does not contain a x-L ‹ ›
term.
Similarly, the bending moment distribution can be determined by two
methods:
(1) By integrating the negative of the shear force distribution
D-21
Again, the x-L ‹ › 1 term does not have any net effect.
(2) The bending moment distribution can also be obtained directly by
considering rotational equilibrium of the left beam segment about
the imaginary cut: P
wo Nm-1
R1
a1 wo Nm-1
a2
x
This result does not contain the x-L ‹ › 1 term; R2 has no net effect. D-22
Example
A simply-supported beam has a concentrated anti-clockwise moment
Mo applied at its mid-span. (Simulate this by pinching the centre of your
plastic ruler and rotating it to observe the deflection and deduce the
expected (+) and (–) portions in the bending moment diagram.)
y x
F
Mo
a a
F
From rotational equilibrium:
Make an imaginary cut at an arbitrary position x, just before the end of

the beam; from vertical equilibrium, the shear force is given by:
D-25
Consider the beam segment left of x and take moments about the
imaginary cut; the bending moment is given by:
Alternatively, the shear force and bending moment distributions can be

obtained by formulating the load intensity function and integrating it
successively.
Note that Mo is an externally applied anti-clockwise moment and

therefore is a negative quantity (-Mo) in the load intensity function.
Shear force:
D-26
‹› ‹ ›
Note: Fxy is fully described by the first term –(Mo/2a) x o because x-a -1
‹ ›
has no value and x-2a = 0 until x > 2a, but the beam length is only 2a.
Integrating the shear force and changing the sign yields the bending
moment distribution.
Shear force
Bending moment
D-27
Note:
• A concentrated moment (or force) causes a discontinuity in the
bending moment (or shear force) distribution. Therefore the values of
the bending moment just before and just after the location of the
concentrated moment must be calculated to draw the BM diagram.
• A discontinuity in the bending moment distribution does not
necessarily imply a discontinuity in the shear force distribution. In this
case, there is a sudden change in the value of the bending moment
where the concentrated moment is applied, but the slope of the
bending moment curve is not altered. Since the corresponding shear
force depends on the slope of the moment distribution, it does not
undergo a sudden change.
• Q: Are the (+) and (-) portions of the bending moment diagram
consistent with the deflected shape of the plastic ruler?
D-28
Example
wo N/m
(a) Figure (a) shows three cases of a
distributed load acting on part of
a beam of length L. The first is
uniformly-distributed, while the x
b L-b
other two are linearly varying. wo N/m

Using singularity functions, write
down an expression defining the
load-intensity of the distributed
load for the entire beam in each b L-b
of the three cases, neglecting the wo N/m
reactions at the supports. (NB:

The concept of superposition may
be helpful.)
b L-b
Figure (a)
D-29
Solution (a)
wo N/m
b L-b
x
wo N/m
b L-b
D-30
wo N/m
b L-b
b
wo N/m
D-31
(b) Figure (b) shows a 7m long beam, simply-supported at B and C. An

ME2112 student lays gravel between the supports, giving rise to a
distributed load that decreases linearly from 120 kg/m to zero. The student,
who weighs 60 kg, then sits down at the right-hand end of the beam. The
beam material has a Young’s modulus of E, a shear modulus of G, a
Poisson’s ratio of , and the cross-section has a second-moment of area I.
(Assume that the centroid of the triangular load is located 1/3 the length of
BC from point B. Use only the quantities you need and neglect self-weight
of the beam.) 120 kg/m
60 kg
A B C
2m 3m 2m
Figure (b)
(i) Sketch as accurately as possible, the deflected shape of the beam.
(ii) Calculate the reactions (in Newtons) at the two supports (assume
gravity to be 10 m/s2.) D-32
(iii) Calculate the shear force just before and just after the supports at B and
C, and sketch the shear force distribution.
(iv) Sketch the bending moment distribution. (Ensure that the bending
moment diagram, the shear force diagram and the deflected beam shape
correspond to one another.)
(iv) By noting the relationship between shear force and bending moment,
calculate the location of the maximum positive bending moment between
B and C. (There is no need to calculate the value of the bending moment
itself. Note: An appropriate choice of origin might make your calculations
easier.)
120 kg/m
60 kg
A B C
2m 3m 2m
Figure (b)
D-33
Solution (b) 120 kg/m 60 kg
A B C
2m 3m 2m
RB RC
(i) Deflected shape
D-34
(ii) Reactions at supports: (g=10 m/s2)

Vertical equilibrium:
Rotational equilibrium:
B
D-35
(iii) At B-,
At B+,
At C-,
At C+,
Shear force diagram

1,000N
Fxy
B C 7
x
A 2 5 D
-600N
-800N
D-36
(iv) Bending moment

Mxz
B C D
A x
-1200Nm
(v) • Max bending moment between B and C occurs where the
shear force Fxy = 0 120 kg/m 60 kg
• Let B be the origin (x=0)
A B C
2m 3m 2m
RB RC
D-37
D-38
Second Moment of Area of a Circle
dy
y R dA
z 
(Note that this should not be

confused with the polar second
moment of area about the
centre which is D4/32.) E-11
Example
If the max allowable normal (axial) stress is o, compare the
maximum bending moment to beam weight ratios for the
following beam cross-sections of similar external dimensions.
1 2 3 4
0.8a a 0.8a
a a a a
Normal stress generated by flexure is given by:

(Note: The centroids of the cross-sections are all at the intersections of
their axes of symmetry.)
At the maximum bending moment sustainable, the max stress o will
occur at
E-12
Substitution of these values into the bending stress equation results in:
• The mass per unit length of the beam is  = A kg/m, where A is the
cross-sectional area and  the material density.
• Hence, the ratio of the maximum bending moment to beam weight is:
For Cross-section #1: Iz1/A1 = (a4/64)/(a2/4) = a2/16
E-13
For Cross-section #2: Iz2 = a4/64 – (0.8a)4/64

A2 = a2/4 – (0.8a)2/4
For Cross-section #3: Iz3/A3 = (a4/12)/(a2)
For Cross-section #4: Iz4 = a4/12 – (0.8a)4/12; A4 = a2 – (0.8a)2
Hence, hollow sections are more efficient in sustaining bending

moments from a strength to weight perspective.
E-14
Example
Where does pure bending (without shear) occur in the I-beam
subjected to two symmetrical loads as shown? What is the maximum
bending stress? If the yield stress o is 80 MPa, how much can each
load be increased by before failure occurs?
y
80mm
10mm
P =10kN P =10kN
y 0.5m 2m 0.5m
z
100mm
x 20mm
A B C D
R1 R2 10mm
80mm
From vertical equilibrium and symmetry: R1 = R2 = 10 kN

Load intensity:
Shear force:
E-15
Bending moment:
kNm
Shear force distribution:

Fxy
+10kN
A B
C D x
-10kN
Bending moment distribution:

5kNm 5kNm
Mxz
E-16
• For a rectangle of width b and height h, the

second moment of area about the centroid is:
Iz = (1/12)bh3 y
• For a symmetrical I-beam, the centroid of the

cross-section is at the intersection of the axes z
h
of symmetry.
• Therefore, the second moment of area of a b
symmetrical I-beam is obtained by taking Iz of
the outer rectangle and subtracting the Iz of the y
two inner rectangular cut-outs (similar concept 80mm
to Iz of a hollow circular cross-section). 10mm
z
100mm 20mm
30mm 30mm
In this example, ymax = +/- 50 mm and the max 10mm
stress occurs at both the top and bottom surfaces 80mm
of the upper and lower flanges respectively.
E-17
There is a linear relationship between max and P:
E-18
Example
Determine the maximum deflection and maximum slope of a uniform
cantilever of length L, carrying a uniformly-distributed load of o Nm-1.
The flexural stiffness of the beam is EIz. (Flex your plastic ruler
accordingly to visualize the expected results.)
y L
o Nm-1
Mo x
Fo
• Vertical equilibrium: Fo = oL

• Rotational equilibrium: Mo = oL2/2
The load-intensity, shear force or bending moment equation can be the
starting point for determining the deflection. The load-intensity is
selected in this instance:
F-5
The load-intensity equation is integrated four times to obtain the

deflection v.
Note that no arbitrary constants are introduced in preceding two

integrations. They are not required as long as all the unknown reactions
(i.e. Fo and Mo in this case) are included in the load-intensity function.
In integration from curvature to slope and from slope to deflection, the

introduction of arbitrary constants is essential. They represent
respectively the slope and deflection at x = 0+.
F-6
Boundary Conditions:
• At x = 0,
• At x = 0,
Deflection:
Slope:
Max deflection occurs at x = L:
Max slope occurs at x = L:
F-7
Example
Determine the shear force and bending moment distributions, and the
point of maximum deflection in the following beam. (Visualize the
deformed shape and deduce the (+) and (-) portions in the bending
moment diagram, and where the max deflection occurs.)
Mo=2Pa P
2a a a
x
(+)
R1 (-) R2
(+) these are points of
inflexion on the curve
• Vertical equilibrium: R1 + R2 = P
• Taking moments about the left end: 2Pa + R2(4a) – P(3a) = 0

F-8
Shear force:
Fxy 3a
a x
Bending moment:
Mxz
x
F-9
Boundary Conditions:
• At
• At ; substitute this into the deflection equation:
The deflection
is therefore:
The point of maximum deflection corresponds to dv/dx = 0 (i.e. zero

slope). This condition must be checked for each beam segment
between adjacent point loads.
F-10
For 0 < x < 2a :
For 2a < x < 3a :
This quadratic equation has no real roots, because:
Hence, the beam does not have a zero slope in the segment 2a < x < 3a.
F-11
For 3a < x < 4a :
Both these values lie outside the range 3a < x < 4a and are therefore
inadmissible.
 the max deflection is at
N.B. The condition dv/dx = 0 (i.e. zero slope) does not always imply
maximum deflection. It is essential to visualise the expected deflected
shape as a guide; e.g. the earlier example of a cantilever carrying a
transverse load has the maximum deflection at its tip, where dv/dx ≠ 0,
but no deflection at its built-in end (x=0), where dv/dx = 0.
F-12
Example
a) Figure (a) shows a cantilever of length L with a vertical load P

applied at its tip. The beam has a Young’s modulus of E and the
second moment of area of the cross-section about the axis of
bending is I. Derive an expression for the vertical deflection at the
tip in terms of P, L, E and I.
L
Figure (a)
F-13
Solution (a)
y P
M0
x
L
R0
Vertical equilibrium:
Rotational equilibrium:
Bending moment equation:
Slope:
Deflection:
F-14
Boundary conditions:
At x=L, slope = 0:
At x=L, deflection = 0:
F-15
b) Figure (b) shows an L-shaped pipe in a horizontal plane, built into a

vertical wall at one end. A 200 N downward-acting load is applied at the
other end. The pipe has a circular cross-section with an outer diameter of
30mm and an inner diameter of 24mm. It is made of a material with a
Young’s modulus of 200 GPa and a shear modulus of 80 GPa.
(i) Determine all the reactions at the built-in 0.6 m

A
end A.
B
(ii) What is the vertical deflection of point B
with respect to A?
200 N
(iii) What is the vertical deflection of point C 0.8 m
with respect to A?
C Figure (b)
(iv) Calculate the largest bending stress and
the largest torsional shear stress in the
pipe.
F-16
Solution (b) To
(i) Reactions at built-in end: Mo
0.6 m
Vertical reaction: A
B
Bending moment:
R0
Torque:
0.8 m
(ii) Deflection of B relative to A:
C D = 30 mm
Deflection at B arises only from bending d = 24mm
induced by the 200N load. E = 200GPa
G = 80GPa
Using the result from part (a), 200 N
F-17
(iii) Deflection of C relative A:
F-18
(iv) Max bending stress occurs at B:
Max shear stress:

Torque is constant in AB
F-19
Example
A simply-supported 5m long beam with a rectangular cross-section, 120mm wide and
15mm thick is made of a material that has a Young’s modulus of 50GPa, a shear
modulus of 20GPa and a Poisson’s ratio of 0.25. A uniformly-distributed load of
2kN/m acts along the beam between the supports. Another point load P is applied 4m
from the left end. The magnitude of P is such that the right end of the beam is
horizontal. 4m P
2 kN/m
15 mm
120 mm
2m 3m
a) Carefully sketch the shape of the deformed beam, ensuring that the deflections and
curvatures are correctly portrayed.
b) Sketch the bending moment distribution along the beam. (Ensure that this
corresponds to the deflected shape.)
c) Sketch the shear force distribution. (Ensure that this corresponds to the bending
moment distribution.)
d) Calculate the required value of P and the reactions at the supports.
e) What is the slope of the beam at the left end? F-20
Solution
y
4m P
2 kN/m
15 mm
x
120 mm
2m 3m
R1 R2
(a) Deflected shape

inflexion
2m 2m
F-21
(b) Bending moment

Mxz
2m 4m
x
(c) Shear Force

Fxy
2m 4m
x
F-22
(d) To determine the value of P and the support reactions:

Vertical equilibrium: (1)
Rotational equilibrium about Left-Hand end:

2R2 = 2(2)(1) + P(4) kNm
R2 = (2)
Start with load-intensity:
or start with bending moment:
F-23
Boundary conditions:
(3)
(iii) Since the slope at the Right-Hand end is zero and there is no load
between P and the RH end,
___________ (4)
F-24
Unknowns: R1, R2, C1, P

Eliminate R2
___________ (5)
___________ (6)
Eliminate R1
________________________________________________
________ (7)
_______ (8)
_______ (9)
F-25
(e) Slope at LH end of the beam is
From (7):
F-26
Example
Students taking ME2112 are planning a party and have designed
decorative balls, each of mass M, to be mounted in three ways using
cylindrical rods, each of length L and cross-sectional diameter d, as
shown in the figure.
L
ME2112
ROCKS! ME2112
ROCKS!
(b)
L
L
ME2112
ROCKS!
(a) (c)
F-27
In the first case (a), the rod is vertical and the ball is mounted on top of it; in
the second case (b), the rod is horizontal and the ball is suspended from its
tip; in the third case (c), the rod is inclined at  to the horizontal and the ball
is suspended from its tip. The rod material has a Young’s modulus of E, a
shear modulus of G, a Poisson’s ratio of , and gravitational acceleration is g.
(Use only the quantities that you need and neglect self-weight.)
(a) Determine the vertical deflection of the tip of the rod in the first case.
(b) Determine the vertical deflection of the tip of the rod in the second
case.
(c) Using the results of (a) and (b) or otherwise, show that the vertical
deflection in the third case is:
(NB: An appropriate choice of orientation of axes may help.)

F-28
Solution
(a) Vertical deflection
Vertical deflection arises from
axial compression of the rod:
Mg
F-29
(b) Vertical deflection arising from bending:
y
L
Mo Mg
x
F-30
F-31
(c) Vertical deflection of tip is the combination of axial shortening

and transverse deflection arising from bending.
L 
y
Mg x

 
4𝑀𝑔𝐿sin𝜃
From part (a): 𝛿
𝜋𝐸𝑑
64𝑀𝑔𝐿 cos𝜃
From part (b): 𝛿
3𝜋𝐸𝑑
4𝑀𝑔𝐿sin 𝜃 64𝑀𝑔𝐿 cos 𝜃
∴ 𝛿
𝜋𝐸𝑑 3𝜋𝐸𝑑
𝛿
F-32
Solving Statically Indeterminate Beams Problems

You MUST:
• VISUALISE the deformed shape of the structure (beam); sketch it
out; use your plastic ruler to help you!
• Identify the key boundary conditions that must be fulfilled – i.e. where
the deflections and slopes are known.
There are two commonly-used approaches:
1. Direct application of beam deflection equations – Macauly’s
method of double integration
2. Superposition – decomposition of statically indeterminate
problem to a sum of statically determinate situations, assuming
that the deformations are small and therefore the resultant is
the sum of the components.
(Both approaches must ultimately fulfil the boundary
conditions of the original situation exactly!)
F-35
Example
A horizontal beam is clamped at A, simply supported at B and carries a
vertical load P as shown. It is made of a linearly elastic material with a
Young’s modulus of E, a shear modulus of G and a Poisson’s ratio of . The
beam has a second moment of area of Iz about the z-axis. Determine all the
unknown reactions.
y
P
A B x
MA
a
RA L RB
Method 1 – Direct application of beam deflection equations
Consider:
a) Equilibrium of entire system
b) Load-deformation (constitutive) relationship (Hooke’s Law in this
case)
c) Deformation-compatibility relationships (boundary conditions) F-36
y
P
A B x
MA
a
RA L RB
• Three unknowns – RA, MA, RB

Equilibrium
Vertical equilibrium: (1)
Rotational equilibrium about A: (2)
Note: Three unknowns, two usable equilibrium equations; hence,
statically indeterminate. Degree of indeterminacy NI = 3 – 2 = 1
Additional equation to solve problem comes from deformation
compatibility (boundary conditions)
F-37
Load-deformation relationship
Start from load-intensity equation using singularity functions
Load intensity:
𝑞 𝑥 𝑅 𝑥 𝑀 𝑥 𝑃𝑥 𝑎 𝑅 𝑥 𝐿
Shear force:
𝐹 𝑞 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑅 𝑥 𝑀 𝑥 𝑃𝑥 𝑎 𝑅 𝑥 𝐿
Bending moment:
𝑑 𝑣
𝑀 𝐸𝐼 𝐹 𝑑𝑥 𝑅 𝑥 𝑀 𝑥 𝑃𝑥 𝑎 𝑅 𝑥 𝐿
𝑑𝑥
Gradient (slope):
𝑑𝑣 𝑥 𝑃 𝑅
𝐸𝐼 𝑅 𝑀 𝑥 𝑥 𝑎 𝑥 𝐿 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 2 2 2
Deflection:
𝑥 𝑀 𝑃 𝑅
𝐸𝐼 𝑣 𝑅 𝑥 𝑥 𝑎 𝑥 𝐿 𝐶𝑥 𝐶
6 2 6 6
F-38
Deformation-compatibility relationships (boundary conditions):

(What does your plastic ruler tell you about the boundary conditions?
; substitute this into the deflection equation:
0 𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 𝑎 (3)
Three equations in three unknowns:
Vertical equilibrium: RA + RB = P (1)
Rotational equilibrium about A: MA + RB L = Pa (2)
Deformation compatibility: 0 𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 𝑎 (3)
Solving (1), (2) and (3) yields:
_____________________ ______________________ _______________

F-39
Method 2 – Superposition
Approach:
a) Decompose statically indeterminate problem into statically
determinate components
b) Sum up statically determinate situations such that deformation
compatibility (boundary conditions) of the original situation is fully
satisfied – i.e. deflections, slope, etc.
(N.B. this approach is applicable when the problem is linear – i.e.
deformations are small and the material properties are linearly elastic –
so that superposition is valid.)
Consider the same problem as comprising two statically-determinate
components:
y y y
P P
A B A B
= + A B
MA a MA(I) a MA(II)
RA L RB RA(I) L RA(II) L RB(II)
(I) (II)
F-40
Component (I) – Cantilever with a downward point load P at a

distance a from the built-in end.
y
Equilibrium
P
A B Vertical equilibrium: (1)
Rotational equilibrium about A:
MA(I) a (2)
RA(I) L
Load intensity:
𝑞 𝑥 𝑅 𝑥 𝑀 𝑥 𝑃𝑥 𝑎
Shear force:
𝐹 𝑞 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑅 𝑥 𝑀 𝑥 𝑃𝑥 𝑎
Bending moment:
𝑑 𝑣
𝑀 𝐸𝐼 𝐹 𝑑𝑥 𝑅 𝑥 𝑀 𝑥 𝑃𝑥 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
F-41
Gradient (slope):
𝑑𝑣 𝑥 𝑃
𝐸𝐼 𝑅 𝑀 𝑥 𝑥 𝑎 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 2 2
Deflection:
𝑥 𝑀 𝑃
𝐸𝐼 𝑣 𝑅 𝑥 𝑥 𝑎 𝐶𝑥 𝐶
6 2 6
Deformation-compatibility relationships (boundary conditions):
Deflection at tip of beam (substitute x = L into deflection equation):

𝐸𝐼 𝑣 𝑃 𝐿 𝑎 3𝐿 𝑎
i.e. __________________ (3)
F-42
Component (II) – Cantilever with an upward point load RB(II) at the

tip of the beam.
y Results for Component (I) can be
used to determine upward deflection
A B of beam tip in this case, by changing
P to (-RB(II)) and a to L. Hence:
MA(II)
(4)
RA(II) L (5)
RB(II)
Deflection at beam tip:
𝑣 3𝐿
𝐿 (upwards)𝐿 (6)
______
Deformation-compatibility (boundary conditions) between Components (I)
and (II):
; hence from superposition:
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 0 3𝐿 𝑎 𝐿
i.e. ______________________ (7)

F-43
To obtain RA and MA, superpose (add) the results from (I) and (II):
RA = RA(I) + RA(II) = P - RB(II) = 𝑃 3
____________________
MA = MA(I) + MA(II) = Pa - RB(II)L = 𝑃𝑎 3 𝐿
_____________________
• Answers are the same as those obtained from Method 1
• Check: Do the answers make sense when the load P is applied at x = 0
and x = L? (Useful means of ascertaining validity of answers is to check
extreme situations.)
• Important: When choosing statically determinate components to
decompose a statically indeterminate problems into, it is essential to
ensure that the components do not violate any boundary conditions
(deflections, slopes, etc) of the original problem when they are summed up.
E.g. in the example, the components were both cantilevers; decomposition
to a cantilever + a simply-supported beam would not satisfy the zero slope
at the left-hand end, even though the deflections are satisfied. F-44

ME2112 2. Victor Examples

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ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)

20 mm P Young’s 100 GPa 60 GPa

ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)

Top view of bar

Failure of bar by tension:

Failure of bar by shear:

Check for compressive crushing of bar material by the pin

ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)

For uniaxial stress,

ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)

For Poisson’s ratio:  = –(yy/xx)

ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)

Use Constitutive (load-deformation) Relationship

The displacement at the tip of the smaller rod is determined by

∴ dBC > (based on deformation limit)

ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)

Statically Indeterminate Structures

Examples of Statically Determinate/Indeterminate Structures

P (b) F1 (= F2) • vertical (or

F2 (c) F1 (= F3), F2 • vertical (or

ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)

For statically indeterminate structures, the number of additional

A vertical brass column, 25mm in 500 mm 25mm

Number of unknown reactions =

ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)

Overall equilibrium, and

Deformation compatibility condition:

∴ RA = -30kN (i.e. 30kN acting in the opposite direction)

Forces in column segments:

ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)

Stresses in column segments:

A 3m horizontal rigid bar is hinged to the wall at A and supported by

ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)

• Deformation compatibility: C/B = 3/2

ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)

Stresses in rods:  = F/A

tip. The bars are made of Aluminium alloy B

ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)

• To determine the final position of the tip,

approximated by their intersection (B*). Bo B’

V = BCsin + (AB + BCcos)/tan

ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)

ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)

Cross-sectional area = 100 mm2 = 100 x 10-6 m2

mA = (2,400)(100x10-6)(2) = 0.48kg ; mB = (600)(100x10-6)(4) = 0.24kg

After application of the 6kN force, both beam segments will

New distance of CG of segment A from pivot:

Resulting anticlockwise moment MA = (0.48)(1.006)(9.81) = 4.7371 Nm

New distance of CG of segment B from pivot:

Resulting clockwise moment MB = (0.24)(2.006)(9.81) = 4.7229 Nm

ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)

Newton’s 2nd law:

Axial stress is generated because of inertial resistance.

ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)

At location x, mass of portion of rod being accelerated is:

(What everyday situation do you personally experience that

Maximum stress when material yields:

By definition, the polar second moment of area is:

Note that for a solid cross-section, di = 0; hence the polar second

(The polar second moment of area of an annulus can be considered to

ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)

ME2112 – Strength of Materials (Victor Shim)

• Segment AB: TAB – 3kNm = 0; ∴ TAB = 3kNm

(ii) To determine the value of d: use