Advanced Survey Methods

2011
Advanced Survey Methods

TABLE OF CONTAINS
1 . SHAFT PLUMBING ----------------------------------------------------------

Weisbach triangle
Weiss quadrilateral
Assumed base method
The gyro- theodolite
2 . CURVES ------------------------------------------------------------------------
Simple curves and curve ranging
Compound curves
Reverse curves
3 . DIPS AND INTERSECTION OF PLANES -------------------------------------

Major dip of a plane
Ore-pass problems
Three borehole problems
Intersection of planes
4 . SUBDIVISION OF AREAS -----------------------------------------------------

Calculation of areas using coordinates
Common sub – division of areas
Straightening of boundaries
Zimbabwe School of Mine

Page 2

Page 3
SHAFT PLUMBING
THE WEISBACH TRIANGLE
In this method no attempt is made to align the instrument exactly with the two wires. The
points are permanently marked at suitable distances from the wires and if circumstances
permit, nearly in line with them, the approximate alignment being done by eye.
Diagram W1 c W2
y
x
z
C
The angle Z should be kept as small as possible and the distance CW1 should be as short as
possible , just beyond the least focal distance of the instrument. All the three angles at C
should be measured by repetition at least 3 times and adjusted to 360.00.00. Having three
side and an angle triangle CW1W2 can be solved.
It’s main advantage is that errors in measurement will not greatly affect the result.
C/Sin C= x/Sin W1=y/Sin W2
EXAMPLE
The following results were from an underground set up at C
Angles; W1CW2 = 00.12.36
W2CD = 197.10.18
DCW1 = 162.37.06
Distances C-W1 = 1.556m
C-W2 =2.617m
W1-W2 = 1.061m
Coordinates of W2 +6021.177 +1907.376
Bearing W2-W1 = 45.27.23
Solution

Page 4
W1 1,061m W2
α β
y
x
1,556m
2,617m
z
162.37.06 C 0.12.36
197.10.18
Coordinate W1 from W2
Bearing W2-W1 = 45.27.23
HD W1-W2 = 1.061m
Δy = 0.756 Δx = 0.744
W2 + 6021.177 + 1907.376
W1 + 6021.933 + 1908.120
Find angles α and β using sine rule

W2/Sin β= C /Sine C
Β =00.18.29
Angle W2W1C = 180.00.00-{00.12.36+00.18.29}
= 179.28.55
{Angles in a triangle add upto 180.00.00}
Coordinate C from W1
HD =1.556m
Brg W1-C =Brg W1W2 + angle W1
=225.27.23 +179.28.55 = 44.56.18
W1 + 6021.933 + 1908.120
Δy + 1.099 Δx + 1.101
C + 6023.032 + 1909.221
Coordinate C from W2
HD = 2.617m
Brg W2-C =Brg W2W1 –angle W2
=45.27.23 – 00.18.29
= 45.08.54
W2 + 6021.177 + 1907.376
Δy + 1.855 Δx +1.846
C + 6023.032 + 1909.222
Mean coordinates of C + 6023.032 + 1909.222

Page 5
Find Brg C-D

Brg C-D = Brg C- W1- 162.37.06
=224.56.18 – 162.37.06=62.19.12
Check Brg C-D = Brg CW2 + 197.10.18
= 225.08.54+197.10.18 = 62.19.12
EXAMPLE
Surface observations
Angles: PQWs = 112.29.36 Distances = 10.00m
QWsB = 259.00.00 Distances = 5.00m
AWsB = 00.01.20 Distances = 15.00m
Underground observations
Angles: BWuA = 00.01.50
AWuR =202.00.00 Distance BWu = 4.00m
WuRS = 239.20.21 Distance WuA =14.00m
Calculate the direction of the underground baseline RS if the coordinates of the polar of
surface baseline are P +48964.38 +69886.75
Q +48988.66 +62583.18
P Q
Ws
S R A
Wu
Solution {Method only}

Draw the diagram and label it fully
Step 1
Calculate join PQ.
HD =7303.610, Brg P-Q = 179.48.34 and Brg Q-P = 359.48.34
Step 2
Find direction Q-Ws = 247.18.58 and Ws- Q = 67.18.58
Step 3
Coordinate Ws from Q
Brg Ws-Q =297.18.58 and HD = 10.00m
Ws + 48979.434 + 62579.324
Step 4
Find direction Ws-B and coordinate B and also direction Ws-Wu and coordinate Wu from
Ws.
Brg Ws- B = 168.18.58 HD = 5.00m
B + 48980.447 + 62574.428
Brg Ws-Wu = 168.17.38

Page 6
Using Sine rule calculate distance Ws- Wu = 9.499m

Brg Ws Wu = 168.17.38 HD = 9.499m
Wu + 48981.361 + 62570.022
Step 5
Calculate direction Wu-R and calculate R from Wu
Brg Wu-R = 146.17.38 HD = 4.00m
R +48983.581 +62566.694
Brg RS = Brg RWu + WuRS
= 326.17.38+239.20.21 = 205.37.59
Bearing of the underground baseline is = Brg RS = 205.37.39
EXAMPLE
A double weisback connect two coordinated points A and B to underground points U and V.
Using the data below.
i} Evaluate angles AQR and UPQ
ii} Determine direction AQR and UPQ
iii} Coordinate traverse APQUV
Coordinates
A + 549.30 + 1163.02
B + 638.15 + 1174.82
OBSERVATED HORIZONTAL ANGLES
BAQ = 221.18.16
QAP = 000.00.29
QUP = 000.00.40
PUV = 218.49.10
Distances: AP = 6.325m; PQ = 8.00m; QU = 6.952m and UV = 89.632m.
WEISS QUADRILATERAL
A
α
1
β B
6
2
3
C 4 5
Set two arbitrary points to make a quadrilateral with A and B .Set theodolite at points C and
D and measure 2,3,4,and 5 and deduce 1 and 6. From the theory of braced quadrilaterals let

Page 7
X = 3+4 = α + β
ϒ = Sin α = Sin1.Sin3.Sin5
Sin β Sin2.Sin 4.Sin6
ϒ + Cos x =Cot β
Sin x
Get β and hence α
The advantage of this method is that it gives coordinates.
Question
When transferring coordinates down a vertical shaft Surveyor Makopa discovered that he
could not use the weisback triangle method so he opted to use the weiss quadrilateral
method. From the following information calculate the coordinates of Peg 310 and 302.
Coordinates
Wire 1 +8473.906 +12342.179
Wire 2 +8472.793 +12341.306
HD W1-W2 =1.415m Brg W1-W2 =231.53.25
Observations @ Peg 301 Angle W1, 301, W2 =33.17.00
Angle W2, 301,302 = 55.53.00
@ Peg 302 Angle W2, 302, W1 = 63.29.00
Angle W1, 302, W2 = 26.44
THE GYRO-THEODOLITE
Bacis operation principle
A gyro –theodolite is a surveying instrument composed of a gyroscope mounted to a
theodolite. It is used to determine the orientation of true north by locating the meridian
direction. It is the main instrument for orientating in mine surveying and in tunnel
engineering where astronomical star sights are not visible.
Basic principle of operation
A gyroscope is mounted in a sphere, lined with Mu-metal to reduce magnetic influence and
connected by a spindle to the vertical axis of the theodolite.
The battery powered wheel is rotated at 20000 rpm or more, until it acts as a north seeking
gyroscope.
A separate optical system within the attachment permits the operator to rotate the
theodolite and thereby bring a zero mark on the attachment into coincidence with the
gyroscope spin axis.
By tracking the spin axis as it oscillates about the meridian, a record of the azimuth of a serie
of the extreme stationary points of that oscillation may be determined by reading the
theodolite azimuth circle.
A mid-point can later be computed from these records that represent a refined estimate of
the meridian.
Careful setup and repeated observation observations can give an estimate that is within
10arc seconds of the true meridian.
This estimate of the meridian contains errors due to the zero torque of the suspension not
being aligned precisely with the true meridian and a measurement errors of slightly damped
extremes of oscillation.
These errors can be moderated by refining the initial estimate of the meridian to within a
few arc minutes and correctly aligning the zero torque of the suspension.

Page 8
When the spinner is released from restrain with it’s axis of rotation aligned close to the
meridian, the gyroscopic reaction of spin and earth‘s rotation results in precession of the
spin axis in the direction of alignment with the plane of the meridian.
This is because the dairly rotation of the Earth is in effect continuously tilting the west-east
axis of the station.
The spinner axis then accelerates towards and overshoots the meridian, it then slows to a
halt at an extreme point before similarly swinging back towards the initial point of release.
This oscillation in azimuth of the spinner axis about the meridian repeats with a period of a
few minutes.
In practice the amplitude of oscillation will only gradually reduce as energy is lost due to the
minimal damping present.
Gyro-theodolites employ an undamped oscillation system because a determination can be
obtained in less than 20 minutes, while the asymptotic settling of a damped gyro-compass
would take many times that before any reasonable determination of meridian could
possibly be made.
When not in operation the gyro assembly is anchored within the instrument. The electrically
powered gyroscope is started while restrained and then released for operation.
During operation the gyroscope is supported within the instrument assembly, typically on a
vertical tape that constrains the gyroscope spinner axis to remain horizontal. The alignment
of the spinner axis is permitted to rotate in azimuth by only the amount required during
operation. An initial approximate of the meridian is needed.
This might be determined with a magnetic compass from an existing survey network orby
the use of the use of the gyro-theodolite in an extended tracking mode.
Calculating the C factor
Which relates the theodolite angle measurement to the corresponding scale measurements.
The purpose of conducting a spun up mode procedure is to calculate the position of the
centre of oscillation (for an assumed un damped simple harmonic motion) so that from the
results obtained from such determinations , the constant C may be derived although in
practice several factors such C determinations are made and these are employed in later
error factor calculations.
Steps in determining the azimuth of an unknown line
Step 1
The line’s back sight reading V is recorded. This can be checked at later stages of the
acquisition procedure to ensure that no slipping of angle has occurred.
Step 2
Initial tape zero determinations are made at the approximate true north position and the
mean scale value (d1) of these is recorded.
Step 3
Spun up mode determination are made at two pointing on either side estimated true north
direction with an angular separation of about 30’ to 90’. The pairs of reading of
corresponding theodolites and centre of oscillation scale readings (□1, □2 and D1, D2) are
recorded. The dimensionless constant C is now calculated from the equation:
1+C= (□2 -□1)/p (D1-D2)
Where the constant p is the value of one scale division in angular measure which converts
the scale reading ( D1,D2) into angular units ; for example if the □ readings are in
degrees ,then p = 1/6 and if the readings are in minutes then p = 10 etc. by taking suitable
pair combinations from several such pointing, it is possible to derive a number of C value

Page 9
determinations from which the same number of E evaluations may then be made as
described in (v) and (vi) below. It has been shown (Thomas 1976) that C varies inversely as
the cosine of the latitude consequently local site variations have no significant effect on the
parameter.
Step 4
A second tape zero determination is made as before giving mean scale value D2 and an
approximately weighted mean value (d) of d1 and d2 is recorded.
Step 5
For atypical pointing with parameters □ and mean D, the gyro-theodolite reading (W) of
true north can now be calculated from the equation W = □+p (1+C)-Cd) and it follows that
the gyro bearing of the backsight is given by V –W.
BY TRANSIT METHOD
Given a set of reduced observations from the field as follows:
TRANSIT OSCILLATIONTIN TIME REVERSAL ½(Aw+Ae) HORIZONTAL ΔT
TIME E ,T DIFFERENCE,ΔT READINGS CIRCLE, N
,Aw/Ae
00m00.0s 45.47.00
-3m16.1s -11.8(Aw)
03m16.1s +7.2s 12.35 +4.25
+3m3.3s +12.9(Ae)
06m39.4s +7.7s 12.35 +4.55
-3m15.6s -18.8(Aw)
09m55.0s +7.6s 12.35 +4.49
+3m23.2s +12.9(Ae)
13m18.2s Mean +4.43
ΔN = CAΔT
Where C is the “C” factor, the proportionality constant has been assumed to be 0.0478
minutes of an arc/deviation of gyro-scale X seconds of time.
. A = ½(Aw + Ae)
. ΔT = ∑T
. ΔN = CAΔT
. Horizontal circle readings of gyro, N =N’ + ΔN
Therefore , however the value of the constant ‘C’ can easily be obtained using the above
method, the transit with the instrument oriented say north, then east of north. Thus
N = N’Wn = CA1 ΔT1 = N’E + CA2ΔT2
HENCE
C = (N’w – N e)/ (CA2ΔT2 - CA1 ΔT1)
Calculating the ‘E’ factor
If E is the calibration constant of all the errors that might be present in an instrument , E can
only be determined by carrying out observations on a baseline of known azimuth.
Azimuth could mean:

Page 10
Eastward angle to object from north: the angle measured from north, eastward along the
horizon, to the point where a vertical circle through an astronomical object intersects the
horizon.
Horizontal angle of bearing: the angular distance along the horizon between a point
reference, usually the observation‘s bearing and another object.
Then
E = N – Ng
Where: - N = true or geographical north
Ng = gyro north (the apparent N established by the gyroscope)
E = instrument calibration constant
If azimuth of known base = 30.25.30
Gyro azimuth of base = 30.28.30
E Value = -00.03.00
E represents the mal alignment of the theodolite with the gyro mark.
The north seeking vector.
It is the geographical azimuth of baseline.
NB
Tests have proven that the E value is not always constant; therefore frequent calibration
checks are very necessary.
If the error factor (E) is known, then the true bearing (R) of the back sight is given by
R = V- W- E, thus establishing a new baseline.
Step 6
Step 1 is repeated to check that the initial back sight theodolitereading has not changed. If
the error factor is not known, then the entire procedure (with the variations employed in
the example below) must be carried out, using a known baseline. The main difference
between the two procedures is that if R is known from the outset and E is not, then E is
determined from E = V- W – R, which is a transposed form of the equation in step six.
EXAMPLE
Copper Chikomex Mine was chosen for this exercise and a single second theodolite Wild
T1000 theodolite, with a GAK1 gyro and electronic eye piece attachments was
employed.The objective was to establish the theodolite’s error factor E from a known
baseline (on the surface) so that one could then proceed to the determination of the true
north bearing of an unknown , below surface , survey line . In this example the true north
bearing of the known baseline was recorded as 317.06.53 (=R) and calculation stages carried
out below follow the order described in the previous section.
The baseline’s backsight theodolite reading was recorded as 18.01.02 ( = V).

From V and R true north’s theodolite reading was found to be 60.54.09 and this was chosen
as the direction for the fisrt tape zero determination. It is important to note that in general
the true north’s theodolite reading does not correspond to the zero mark on the gyro’s
scale. From 12 consecutive sensor passing times, the automatic system calculated8 d- values
with mean 1.355105 (=d1). The standard deviation of the d’s was 0.00812, indicating
considerable accuracy and reliability.
THE GYRO THEODOLITE –OBSERVATION METHODS

The are three observational methods:-The reversal point system, the transit system, the
amplitude system.

Page 11
THE REVERSAL POINT SYSTEM

Quick orientation ( accuracy +3’)
U1
N = ½ (U1 +U2 )
U2
With 2 reversals
Pre-orientation the telescope to within ±30.00.00 NORTH. Release the gyro slacken the
horizontal clamp of the theodolite and follow up the gyro mark by turning the alidade by
hand and keeping the moving mark within the V shaped index. As the reversal point is
approached the mark slows down. When the gyro mark is almost stationary, tighten the
horizontal clamp of the theodolite and by turning the horizontal drive screw (tangent) of the
theodolite keep the gyro mark exactly on the zero line of the scale until the reversal point is
reached. At the reversal point, the mark is at a standstill for a short time. Now take the
horizontal circle readind U, corresponding to the reversal point. Slacken the horizontal
clamp of the theodolite and again follow up the gyro mark, which is now moving in the
opposite direction until the second reading reversal point is reached.
Take the circle reading U2 for the second reversal point, clamp the gyro and compute North
direction from the mean of the two circle readings.
N = ½ (U1+U2)
REVERSAL POINT METHOD (PRECISE ORIENTATION)
By means of a quick orientation, orient the telescope to within ±2.00.00 NORTH. Release the
gyro and then follow up the oscillations by turning the horizontal drive screw smoothly and
steadily, always keep the gyro mark centred as accurately as possible on the zero line of the
scale. In this way the upper tape clamp follows up smoothly, thus eliminating torsion of the
tape. Jerky , irregular or in accurate following up produces additional angular momentum ,
thus disturbing the symmetric onscillation of the gyro and consequently influencing the
accuracy of the true north determination. The oscillations are sinusoidal. In the middle of an
oscillation the speed of the gyro mark is maximum. Towards the reversal point itself the

Page 12
gyro mark appear to be at a standstill for a few seconds and it must then be centred
precisely so that the zero line of the scale is exactly in the middle of the light gap of the gyro
mark.
¼ swing TU/4
U1
TU
U2
N1
U3
N2
½ swing
TU/2
U4
The horizontal circle reading U for the reversal point must be taken quickly before the
horizontal drive is turned to follow up the mark in the opposite direction. For accuracy, six
points should be observed.
The centreline of the oscillation corresponds to N, the direction of true north (without taking into
consideration the calibration value ‘E’) N is the mean of the horizontal circle values N1, N2 ………….
Nn each of which is calculated from the horizontal circle readings U at three successive reversal
points.
N1 = ½
N.B.The mean value of N is called the SCHULER’S MEAN.
TRANSIT METHOD
Do quick orientation first then set telescope ± 15’ E or W. This method depends upon the fact
that with ± 15’ of arc from the meridian, the oscillations curve is practically linear at the point
of transit.i.e. the displacement of the gyro mark is directly proportional to time. The
horizontal circle reading is noted as N’ and with the aid of a stop watch with a trailing hand
the time (th) is recorded as the gyro mark oscillates and transits the zero of the graduated
scale. The adjustment to the assumed meridian value N’ is given as follows:-
N = N’ + Δ N
Where Δ N = c.a. Δ t
` c = the proportionality factor dependent on the latitude ψ
Page 13
Δ t = the difference in swing time
THE AMPLITUDE METHOD

In order to use the amplitude method, the gyro must be pre- oriented to within ±001.00.00 ofv
true north. Throughout the whole gyro oscillation the instrument alidade remains in the pre-
orientated position N. Having the gyro uncaged, the Eastern and western elongations –
amplitude and west – are read on the auxiliary scale of the auto – collimation eyepiece.
These elongations are the Eastern and Western limits of the mark of the oscillating gyro in
auxiliary scale units, special care being taken to book + or – signs correctly. Since the
decrease in amplitude per oscillation period of the gyro stays within the reading accuracy of
the auxiliary scale, there is no need to observe more than three elongations. In most cases
only two are necessary. The algebraic sum of the two readings (ae + aw) is proportional to the
difference Δ N
Between the pre –orientation of the instrument N’ and the true north N.
Δ N = k (ae +aw)
Example If aw = -8.2; ae = +9.4; k = 1.53
Δ N = (+9.4+ (-8.2)) 1.53
= +1.2x1.53
= +1.836
The factor “K” is an instrument constant which may be determined empirically by applying
this method wit N = N1 +K (ae +aw) 1
h two directions N1 and N2 which differ from true north by about one degree each.
N = N1 +K (ae +aw) 1
N = N2 +K (ae +aw) 2
K = N1 - N2
(Ae +aw) 2 – (ae +aw) 1
In this factor “K” the influence of the suspension band tension on the oscillation is already
included. As this influence is dependent on the latitude ɸ
A simple derivation gives the following for “K”: -
K= m (1 + Xo/Cos ɸ)
Where: - m is the angular value of the auxiliary scale.
Xo is the relative directional; force of the band torsion for ɸ is = O
THE CALIBRATION VALUE “E “
This value is the difference between the azimuth as determined by the middle position of the
gyro oscillation and the known azimuth both along a reference line. The azimuth AK
determined by the gyro is then compares with the known azimuth A.
E = A – Ak
The calibration value “E“should remain constant; but nevertheless should be checked along a
reference line before and after an important measuring programme. The details of the value
are entered in the instrument log book. A change of suspension band always requires a check
on the calibration value.
THE PROPORTIONALITY FACTOR +C”
The factor “C” which is also dependent on latitude may be determined empirically for a given
region in the following way: - measurements are made using the transit method. The
instrument is oriented with a horizontal circle reading (value) N and Δ t and mean amplitude
a’ obtained. (N should be about 10’ East of the meridian) The instrument is then oriented
with a horizontal circle value of N2 (also about 10’ from the meridian but on the opposite
side) and another transit observed giving Δ t2 and a2 respectively.
Page 14
IMPORTANCE OF SETTING ON BOTH SIDES OF S LINE WHEN USING A GYRO

THEODOLITE
This is done because of the following: =
To do a check on the Y, X, Z or easting’s, northings and elevation.
It provides an overall check on the position of the new peg than the double button method in
the T1 and T16 theodolites.
It provides a check on the distance between the two pegs and their relative elevations due to
averaging of figures.
Setting on both ends acts as a checking method for the above mentioned thus directions,
distances and elevations . It enables the checking method and correct mean values to be
determined.
EXAMPLE
A horizontal reading of 34.20.50 was measured on a reversal mark from a station. Reversal
point readings by gyro observations obtained were as follows: -
Left reversal readings Right reversal readings
360.38.50 358.54.50
360.38.50 358.54.50
360.38.50 358.54.50
360.38.50 358.54.50
The calibration valuefor the instrument is -2.50’. Determine the reading for Zero south using
the Schuler’s mean.
Solution
Schuler’s mean = ¼ (r1 +2r2 + r3)
N1 = ¼ (360.38.50 +2 (358.54.50) + 360.38.50) = 359.46.50
N2 = ¼ (358.54.50 +2 (360.38.50) + 358.54.50)= 359.46.50
N3 = ¼ (360.38.50 +2 (358.54.50) + 360.38.50)= 359.46.50
N4 = ¼ (358.54.50 +2 (360.38.50) + 358.54.50)= 359.46.50
N =N1 + N2 + N3 + N4
4
= 359.46.50
360.38.50 =1
358.54.50 = 2
360.38.50 =3
358.54.50 = 4
360.38.50 =

Page 15
358.54.50 =6
CURVES
INTRODUCTION
CURVE RANGING
When it is necessary for a trunk road or railway to change direction, the two straights sections
are joined by a curve, the radius and design of which will depend on the given conditions.
A simple curve is an arc of constant radius while a curve formed by a succession of arcs of
different or the same radii is called a compound curve .A curve formed by two adjoining arcs
with centre’s on opposite sides is a reverse or serpentine curves. In all these curves a straight
should always intervene between the curves. The fundamental principle to be observed in the
setting out of all curves is that the straight lines which join must be tangents to the curve.
The curve is set out in the form of a series of very short chords which for practical purposes,
together form a curve. Curves are designated from their character e.g simple, compound or
reverse curves.
FACTORS DEFINING THE RADIUS OF A CURVE
1: Speed of the traffic.
2: Length of wheel – base of the rolling stock.
NOMENCLATURE
A curve may be defined by the length of it’s radius or by the size of the angle at the centre
subtended by a chord of 100 feet in which case they are termed 1 degree curve etc.
In the diagram below two straight lines MA and NC which when produced, intersect at the
point B. The straights are connected by the arc Abc of radius R. The centre is at O. the line
BO cuts the arc Abc and the chord AC at their mid –points b and d respectively. The chord
AC is called the long chord. The points A and C the tangent points. The point B is called the
apex of the curve, and the angle ABC the deflection angle and the angle BAC the total
tangential angle.
A d C

Page 16
M R N
Evidently ˂ AOC = 180.00.00 - ˂ ABC

Hence Deflection angle = 180.00.00 – Apex angle
Again ˂ BAC = 90.00.00 ˂ CAO + ˂ AOB = ½ ˂ AOC
Hence the Total tangential angle = half the deflection angle.
Similary if Ab be any other chord ˂ Bab is the tangential angle for that chord and equals half
the deflection angle for that chord that is equal to ½ ˂ ABC
The deflection angle is right or left as determined as follows as observed from O and looking
towards B, if the finishing point is on the right the deflection angle is to the right and vice
versa.
SIMPLE CURVE
Diagram2
θ
ES
BC SO X MD
EC
LC
R R
NOTE
X = horizontal distance between MO and SO Along LC.
BC = beginning of curve
EC = end of curve
T = tangent of curve = R. Tan θ/2
R = radius of the curve = R.Cot θ/2
MO = mid – ordinate R (1 - Cos θ/2) or LC2/8R
LC = long chord =2R Sin θ/2 = R. Chord of angle.
ES = Ex-secant = R (Sec θ/2 – 1)
SO = side ordinate = R (1 - Cos θ) – X2
Page 17
2R
SETTING OUT CURVES

SETTING OUT USING TWO THEODOLITES
Suitable when the ground between the tangent points T and U is of such a character that
chaining or taping proves difficult. Two theodolites are used one being set at each tangent
point. The main disadvantage of this method is that it requires two surveyors and two
instruments as well as assistants who locate the pegs.
I
θ
αA
αB B C
αC A θ/2
T U
R R
It will be seen that if the theodolite at T is set so that the line of sight deflects through angle
αC and the theodolite at U set so that it’s line of sight deflects through ( 360.00.00- (θ/2) +
αC ) clockwise from tangent UI.The two lines of sight will intersect at point C . To locate C
therefore the assistants is directed until the signal is seen at the intersections of the cross
hairs of both theodolites. The procedure is repeated at B and A.

Page 18
USING CHAIN AND TAPE: OFFEST FROM THE LONG CHORD
To set out the curve points such as C must be located (see diagram below). The offsets y are
calculated for corresponding distances x from origin B which is the mid -point of TU and are
set off at right angles .TU is the long chord of length L, T and U being the tangent points . AB
is termed the versed sine of the curve.
AB = AO - OB = AO -√ (OU2 -UB2) = R - √R2 – (L/2)2
T I
C
Y
R A
CE is parallel to TU
X B
O R U
Y = EB = EO – BO
EO2 = CO2 – CE2
EO = √ R2 – X2
Whence y = √ R2 – X2 - √ R2 – (L/2)2
Since OB = R – AB =R – versed sine
y = √ R2 – X2– (R –versed sine)
Example
B
EC
BC

Page 19
Given Brg EC-B = 127.13.00 and Brg B – BC = 140.09.20 and Radius of curve as 609.600m.
Calculate
Tangent length = distance EC – B = R. Tan θ/2
Θ = 12.56.20 (difference between directions)
R = 609,600m
TL = Tangent length = 609,600.Tan 12.56.20/2
=609,600.Tan 06.28.10= 69,126m
Arc length = R. Θ. But Θ is in radians
It can be seen that the arc length is equal to the curve length.
CL = curve length = arc length = 609.600x0.2258262 = 137,664m.
Chord length = 2R. Sin θ/2
= 2 x 609,600Sin 06.28.10= 137,371m
Example
A surface track on a mine is to be changed in direction from TA –to DB by means of a curve
of radius 250m which is to be set out by three 100m chords, the ends of the chords are to
be located by means of right angles, offsets from the links TA produced.
a b
A 100m
100m 100m
D

Page 20
Calculate
The distance from A to the offset points
The length of the offsets to the ends of the chords.
By what amount has the direction of the track being changed
Sin θ = √(s-b) (s-c)

2 2
Where s = 100+250+250
2
Sin θ = √ (300-250) (300-250)

2 250X250
Θ= 23.04.26
Calculating distance from A to offsets points
A to 1 = R Sin Θ = 250 sin 23.04.26 = 97,979m
A to 2 = R Sin2 Θ = 250 sin 46.08.32 = 180,282m
2 c
b
1
a
A D
T 250
B
θ
A to 3 = R Sin3 Θ = 250 sin 23.04.26 = 233,740m

Page 21
Calculating offset a, b and c

A = R-R Cos θ = 250 (1 – Cos 23.04.26) = 20.000m
B = R - Cos2 Θ = 250 (1 – Cos 46.08.52) = 76.800m
C = R – Cos 3θ =250 (1 – Cos 69.13.18) = 161.312m
The direction of the track has been changed by 69.13.18
Example
A C
East haulage
North haulage
O O
250 C 170 C
O
B
Given A + 3000,000 + 7000,000

B + 2100,000 + 8000.000
A is a tangent point in the east haulage whose coordinates are given above, direction of east
haulage is 250.00.00 and B is a peg in north haulage. C is haulage is 170.00.00 direction.
Calculate
The coordinates of C
The length of the radius of the curve
The length of the curve
Solution
80
100
A 40O 40O
C
o
250 C

Page 22
R R 170OC
B
Step1
Calculate deflection angle
250.00.00 - 170.00.00 = 80.00.00

180.00.00 – 80.00.00 = 100.00.00 (Deflection angle)
Step 2
Calculate join AB and use a 45⁰ check
A +3000, 000 + 7000,000

B +2100, 000 + 8000,000
∆y = -900,000 ∆x = -1000,000
HD = 1345,362m and Brg = 318.00.40
Step 3
Calculate angles
B = Brg B-C - Brg B-A =170.00.00 -138.00.46 = 31.59.14

C = 90.00.00+ 40.00.00 = 130.00.00
A = ∑B+C from 180.00.00 = 180.00.00 – ( 130.00.00 + 31.59.14) = 18.00.46
Check ∑A+ B + C = 180.00.00 ( Checked)
Step 4
Calculate distance AC and BC using the Sine rule
AC = AB Sin C = 1345,362 Sin 31.59.14

Sin AB sin 130.00.00
=930,336m ( length of the chord)
BC is equal to 543,082m using the same rule.
Step 5
Calculate Radius of the curve = 930.336 Sin 40.00.00

Sin 100.00.00
= 607,234m
Step 6
Length of the curve = Rθ (θ is in radians) = 1059, 823m

Step 7
Triangulate C from A and B
Brg A-C = Brg A-B - ˂ A = 300.00.00

Brg B-C = 170.00.00

Page 23
HD AC = 930,336m HD BC = 543,082m
C + 2194,306 + 7465,168 C + 2194,305 +7465,169
Mean coordinates of C + 3194,306 + 7465,169
Example
O
40M
C is a pont on a cross cut with bearing CD = 280.12.00. B is a point on the same elevation as
C. It has been decided to connect B and C with a curve CA of radius 40m and a straight AB as
shown on the diagram. Calculate coordinates of A.
Given the coordinates of B and C
B + 6487, 270 + 1561,910
C + 6539,580 + 1476,520
Solution
40m
40m C
B

Page 24
D
Bearing C-O = 10.12.00
HD CO = 40,00m
Coordinate O from C by polar
Coordinates of O are + 6546,663 +1515,888
Join OB
HD OB = 75,135m
Brg O-B = 307.46.16
Calculate distances BA in ΔOBA using pythagorus theorem
BA = 63,604m
Calculate angles BOA and OBA
α
40m
75,137m
β
A B
β= 32.09.54 α = 57.50.06
Check 32.09.54 +57.50.06 + 90.00.00 = 180.00.00
Calculate bearings BA and OA
Brg B-O + β = 159.56.10 = Brg B-A Brg O-B - α = 249.56.10 = Brg O-A
HD BA = 63,605m HD OA = 75,137m
Coordinates of A + 6509,090 + 1502,165 A + 6509,091 +1502,166
Mean coordinate of A + 6509,091 + 1502,166
Example
AC and BE are pegs in the centre lines of two tracks . The tracks are to be connected by a
curve show in the sketch below, which pass through a given point P.
Coordinates of know points
A + 1821,23 - 1745,05
B + 1165,50 - 2051,16

Page 25
P + 1784,32 - 1999,40
Direction of tangent C to A = 313.13.00

Direction of tangent B to E = 007.21.00
Calculate the radius of the curve?
E B
Solution
C
A
X P
O
Ø
M E Y B
The centre of the curve XPY must lie on the line MO .Let O be the centre of the curve.
Then OP = OX
Let angle PMO = ɸ , angle MPO =β and angle AMO = ½ AMB = θ
In triangle POM, PO = Om Sin ɸ
Sin β
OX (or OP) = Sin θ
Page 26
OM
There for PO = OM Sin θ
OM Sin ɸ = OM Sinθ
Sin β
Sin β = Sin ɸ Cosec θ
Join A-B Brg A-B = 244.58.30 and HD AB 723,67m
Triangulate M from A and B
Brg M-B = 187.21.00

Brg M-A = 133.13.00
Angle M = 54.08.00
Brg A-M = 313.13.00

Brg A-B = 244.58.30
Angle A = 68.14.30
Brg B-A = 64.58.30

Brg B-M = 07.21.00
Angle B = 57.37.30
Check angle A + B + C = 180.00.00
Coordinates of M +1271, 60 - 1228, 60
Calculate distance and direction M to P (that is join MP)
Brg M-P = 146.22.10 HD MP = 925,73m

Calculate angles θ, ɸ and β
Angle θ = ½ angle AMB = ½ .54.08.00 = 27.04.00
Angle AMP = Brg MP – Brg MC = 146.22.10 – 133.13.00 = 13.09.10
ɸ = θ – AMP = 27.04.00 - 13.09.10 = 13.54.50
Sin β = Sin ɸ Cosec θ = Sin 13.54.50 . Cosec 27.04.00 = 31.54.10
OM = MP Sin β = 925,73Sin 31.54.10

Sin MOP Sin 134.11.00
= 682.22m
OP = OM Sin θ = 682.22Sin 27.04.00= 310,43m
OP = Radius of the curve = 310,43m
Example
Calculate the radius of the curve below that passes through a point A which is 150m from
the point of intersection of the tangent points.
Given : Angles ˂ BPA = 40.16.00

˂ OPE = 54.50.00
Deflection angle = 70.20.00

Page 27
P 70.20.00
40.16.00 54.50.00
150m
B
E
R R
Solution
P 70.20.00
40.16.00
14.34.00 54.50.00
E
B

Page 28
α
T/2 = 35.10.0
OP = R Sec ( θ/2 ) = R Sec 35.10.00 ------------ eqn 1

Using Sine rule
Sin β = Sin α = Sin 14.34.00
OP 150 R
Sin β = Sin 14.34.00
OP R
R Sin β = Sin 14.34.00 ( R Sec 35.10.00)
Sin β = Sin 14.34.00
Cos 35.10.00
Β = 17.55.06 or 162.04.54
Therefore β is equal to 162.04.54 ( Why)
α = 180.00.00 – ( 162.04.54 + 14.34.00) = 03.21.06
Therefore R = 150
Sin 14.34.00 Sin 03.21.06
R = 150 Sin 14.34.00

Sin 03.21.06
R = 645,282m = Radius of the curve.
COMPOUND CURVES
They consist of two or more consecutive curves of different radii having their centred on the same
side of the curve. They are seven components in a compound curve made up of two arcs , two radii
R1 and R2 two tangents lengths deflection angle at the intersection point .At least four variable
must be known to solve it.
M
90 90
A
R2 B
R1 O2
O1

Page 29
They join two tangents and are so arranged that they have a common tangent at the
meeting point M
Example
P
B
A
C
AB and ED are the centre lines of two straight portions of a railway track which are to be
connected by means of a double curve BRE. BR is one circular curve and RE the other.
Given
Coordinates B + 440,000 + 150,000
E + 50,000 + 500,000
Radius of C B = 500,000m
Directions AB =348.30.00
EB = 264.30.00
Calculate : 1) Coordinate of R
2) Coordinates of P
3) Radius PE
Solution
Step 1
Construction : extend curve BR to s
: draw tangent ST parallel to ED
: connect C to S . CS is parallel to PE
: connect S , E and R . SER will be a straight line
Step 2
Calculate coordinates of C
Brg A-B = 348.30.00
- 90.00.00
Brg B-C = 258.30.00 HD = 500,00m
Page 30
Coordinates of C -49,963 +50,316

Step 3
Calculate the coordinates of S
Brg D-E 84.30.00
+90.00.00
Brg S-C 174.30.00 Brg C-S =354.30.00
We know that distance C-S = radius = 500,000m and is = to CB
Coordinates of S -97,886 + 548.014
Step 4
Calculate join SE ( Don’t forget to check)
E + 50,000 + 500,000
S - 97,886 + 548,014
Δy = + 147,886 Δx = -48,014
HD =155,485m Brg Q-A = 72.00.47

Brg S-E 107.59.13 Brg E-S 287.59.13
Step 5
In ΔCRS calculate angles S , R and C
Brg S-C = 174.30.00
Brg S-E = 107.59.13
Diff = 66.30.47
i.e S = 66.30.47
R = 66.30.47
Therefore C = 46.58.26
∑ = 180.00.00
Step 6
Triangulate R from S and C
Brg C-S = 354.30.00
+ 46.58.26
Brg C-R = 41.28.26 Brg S-R 107.59.13 = Brg S-E
Distance C-R is 500,000m
SR = 500Sin 46.58.26
Sin 66.30.47
= 398,540m
Coordinates of R + 281,176 + 424,945
Step 7
Calculate Join R-E
E + 50,000 + 5000,000
R + 281,176 + 424,945
Δy = - 231,176 Δx = + 75,055
HD = 243,055m QA = 72.00.47
Brg R-E = 284.59.13 Brg E-R = 107.59.13
Step 8
Triangulate P from E and R
EP = 243,055Sin 66.30.47 =RP + ( equal radius)
Sin 46.58.26
EP = 304,932m = RP
Brg E-P = 174.30.00 Brg R-P = 221.28.26
Page 31
Coordinates of P + 79,226 + 424,472
EXAMPLE
Two curves with centres P and Q have to be joined by a straight line track T1 – T2 tangential to both
curves.
Given
P + 347,910 + 279,370
Q + 441,330 - 352,010
Radius of P-T1 = 600,000m

Q-T2 = 400,000m
T1 T2
R1 =600m R2=400m
P Q
Calculate
1) The coordinates of T1 and T2
2) Distance T1- T2
3) Direction T1- T2
Solution
Diagram construction
Draw QX parallel to T2- T1 and connect P and Q
T1 606,109m T2
R1 =600m R2=400m
400m
P 638,254 Q
Join PQ
HD = 638,254m Brg P-Q = 171.35.01 Brg Q-P = 351.35.01
Calculate T1 –T2 distance
We know from the diagram that T1 – T2 distance is equal to X-Q
Radius QT2 = 400,000m
As T1- T2 is parallel to XQ
XT1 = 400,000m and PX = 200,000m
QX2 = PQ2 – PX2

Page 32
QX = 606.109m = T1-T2
Calculate angles in ΔXPQ
Sin P = 606,109 Tan Q = 200,000
638,254 606.109
P = 71.44.18 Q = 18.15.42
Angles X+Q+P = 180.00.00
Therefore angle X 90.00.00
Traverse T1 from P and T2 from Q
Brg P-Q = 171.35.01 Brg Q –P = 351.35.01
- 71.44.18 + 108.15.42
Brg P – T1= 99.50.43 Brg Q – T2 = 99.50.43
Check if directions are parallel.
PT1 = 600,000m QT2 = 400,000m
+ 591,164 - 102,593
P + 347,910 + 279,370
T1 + 939,074 + 176,777
QT2 = 400,000m
+ 394,109 - 68,395
Q + 441,330 - 352,010
T2 + 835,439 - 420,405
To check calculate join T1 - T2
HD = 606,108m QA = 09.50.42
Brg T1-T2 = 189.50.42 Brg T2-T1 = 09.50.42

Page 33
REVERSE CURVES
These are formed by two adjoining arcs with centres opposite sides. They are called reverse
or serpentine curves , in these a straight should always intervene between the curves.
Their radius may be equal or different.
EXAMPLE
A and B are two fixed points through which it is required to pass a reverse curve AGB of
equal radii EG and FG.
Given the following calculate the common radius of the curve .
Distances AB = 1400,000m
Direction AB = 190.00.00
Direction of tangent AC = 160.00.00 and direction of tangent BD = 170.00.00
Solution C
D
E
700 900
30O
G 200
A 190.00.00 Q
600 M P
F 900
B
Step 1
CAB = Brg A-B – Brg A-C = 30.00.00
Step 2
DBQ = Brg B-Q – Brg B-D = 20.00.00
Step 3
CAF = 90.00.00 = DBE
Then BAF = 60.00.00 and EBA = 70.00.00
Step 4
EMB = AMF ( opp angles)
In ΔEMB : EB Sin 70.00.00 = EM Sin EMB
Page 34
In ΔAFM : AF Sin 60.00.00 = FM Sin AMF

Step 5
Adding equations in (4) and (5)
EB Sin 70.00.00+ AF Sin 60.00.00 = EM Sin EMB + FM Sin AMF
Step 6
Now EMB = AMF
EB Sin 70.00.00 + AF Sin 60.00.00 = Sin EMB ( EM + FM )
But EM + FM = 2R
And EB = AF = radius R
Substituting
R( Sin 70.00.00 + Sin 60.00.00) = 2R Sin EMB
Re –arranging and cancelling R we get
Sin EMB = ½ ( Sin 70.00.00 + Sin 60.00.00)
Solve for EMB : EMB = AMF
Step 7
In Δ EMB : MEB = 180.00.00 –( 70.00.00 + EMB)
Step 8
In Δ AMF : AFM = 180.00.00 – (60.00.00 + AMF)
Step 9
In right angled Δ APB
Bp is parallel to EF
AB = 1400,000m APB = 90.00.00
ABP = AMF (corresponding angles)
Then AP = AB Sin ABP . Calculate AP
Also AP = AN + PN
Step 10
In Δ EMB
Bs is parallel to and equal to PN.
BS = PN = EB Sin MEB and AN = AF Sin AFM = R Sin AFM
Substituting : AP = AN + PN
= R Sin AFM + R Sin MEB
= R ( Sin AFM + Sin MEB )
R = AP/Sin AFM + Sin MEB
= Radius of curve
EXAMPLE
A and B are two fixed points through which it is required to pass a reverse curve AGB of
equal radii.
Given
Coordinates A + 650,720 + 1248,845
B + 254,772 + 1477,446
Direction of tangent AC = 270.00.00
Direction of tangent BD = 280.00.00
Calculate the radius of the curve and the coordinates of the common tangent?
Solution
Draw the diagram : Draw BP parallel to EF and AP perpendicular to EF to intersect at P .
Produce AB to Q
Step 1
Page 35
Calculate distance and direction AB

Join AN Brg A- B = 300.00.00 HD = 457,201m
Step 2
Calculate angles CAB , FAB , DBQ and EBA .
˂ CAB = Brg A-B – Brg AC = 300.00.00 – 270.00.00 = 30.00.00
˂ BAF = 90.00.00 –CAB = 180.00.00 – 120.00.00 = 60.00.00 ( AC is a tangent)
˂DBQ = Brg A-B – Brg BD = 300.00.00 – 280.00.00 = 20.00.00
˂ABE = 90.00.00 – DBQ = 90.00.00 – 20.00.00 = 70.00.00( since BD is a tangent)
Brg B- D – Brg A- C = 280.00.00 – 270.00.00 = 10.00.00
Step 3
Calculate angles EMB , AFM and BEM
In Δ AMF In Δ EMB
AF = Sin FAM EB = Sin EMB
FM Sin 60.00.00 EM Sin 70.00.00
AF Sin 60.00.00 = FM Sin FMA EB Sin 70.00.00 = EM Sin EMB
˂ FMA = ˂ EMB (opp)
Adding the equations
AF Sin 60.00.00 + EB Sin 70.00.00 = ( FM + EM ) Sin EMB
But AF = EB = radius and EM + FM = 2x radius
R ( Sin 60.00.00 + Sin 70.00.00) = 2R Sin EMB
and Sin EMB = ½ ( Sin 60.00.00 + Sin 70.00.00)
˂ EMB = 64.32.11
˂ AFM = 180.00.00 – ( 60.00.00 + 64.32.11) = 55.27.49
˂ BEM = 180.00.00 – ( 70.00.00 + 64.32.11) = 45.27.49
˂ AFM - ˂ BEM = 10.00.00
Step 4
Calculate the radius
Since BP is parallel to EF , angle ABP = angle AMF = angle EMB
In Δ ABP : AP = AB Sin PBA
and AP = AN + NP
= R Sin 55.27.49 + R Sin 45.27.49
AB Sin EMB = R ( Sin 55.27.49 + Sin 45.27.49)
and R = 457,201Sin 64.32.11
Sin 55.27.49 + Sin 45.27.49
Radius = 268,642m
Step 5
Calculate coordinate of G
Coordinates of F from A
Brg A-F = 00.00.00 AF = 268,642m
Coordinates F +650,720 +1517,487
Coordinates of E from B
Brg B-E = 19.00.00 BE = 268,642m
Coordinates E + 208,123 + 1 212,885
Step 6
Calculate the coordinates of G from E and F
Coordinates of G + 429,422 + 1365,186
Step 7
Check : Calculate direction GF and angle FMA and AFM
Brg GF = 55.27.49 GF = 268,642m
Page 36
˂ FMA = Brg B-A – Brg G – F =120.00.00 -55.27.49 = 64.32.11

˂AFM = Brg G-F – Brg A - F = 55.27.49 -00.00.00 = 55.27.49
˂ MAF = 60.00.00
∑ 180.00.00
REVERSE CURVES WITH UEEQUAL RADII
EXAMPLE
On the diagram below the two curves CT1 and T2D are to be joined by connecting T1 and
T2. Given the following information . Calculate the coordinates of T1 and T2 and distance
T1- T2
T1 D
450m
B
A
C 300m
T2
Solution
Join
A - 1103,690 - 138,650 45⁰ Check
B - 742,120 - 986,370 Aux brg = 21.56.58
Δy = + 361,570 Δx = - 849,720 THD = 923,448
√2
HD = 923,448m = 652,976
Brg A-B = 156.56.58 Sin Brg XHD Cos Brg XHD
S = 244,075 C = 605,644
+ C = - 605,644 S = 244,075
Δy = + 361,570 Δx = - 849,720
A + 1103,690 - 138,650
B – 742,120 - 986,370 Check
Calculating distance AP and PB and angles T1AP and α
In Δ T1PA : AP = T1A Cosec α
AP = 450Cosec α
In Δ T2BP :BP = BT2Cosecα
BP = 300Cosecα
923,443 = 450Cosec α + 300 Cosec α
= 750 (Cosec α)/750
α = 54.18.32
Angle T1AP = 90.00.00 – 54.18.32 = 35.41.28
Distance T1P = 450 Cot α
= 323,252mm
Distance T2P = 300 Cot α
= 215,501m
Total distance = T1- T2 = 323,252 + 215,501 = 538,753m
Coordinate T1 from A Coordinate T2 from B
Brg T1 – A = 156.56.58 Brg T2- B = 336.56.58

Page 37
-B = 35.41.28 -B 35.41.28
Brg AT-1 = 121.15.30 Brg BT-2 = 301.15.30
HD = 450m HD = 300m
Sin Brg H-D Cos Brg H-D Sin Brg H-D Cos Brg H-D
Δy = 384,676 Δx = -233,504 Δy = - 256,451 Δx = + 155,669
A -1104,690 +138,650 B - 742,120 -988,370
T1 -719,014 -372,154 T2 -998,571 -832,701
Join T1 – T2
Brg 211.15.30 HD = 538,753m
Check angles from calculating bearings.
Question
The figure shows two tracks , WX and ZY which are to be connected by a reverse or S curve
consisting of two circular curves of unequal radii and with centres O and S, The tracks if
produced would meet at A. The reverse curve starts at C , passes through the common tangent
point D and finishes at B on the extension of ZX. O , the centre of the curve CD . lies on the
AB line.
Given AD = 62,332m
Angle BAD = 09.00.00
Angle DAC = 31.00.00
Calculate the radius of each curve and the distance from A to the start of the curve at C

Page 38
DIPS AND INTERSECTIONS OF PLANES
INTRODUCTION
Dips – there are two types of dips namely major and minor dips.
Major dip is a dip which is at right angle with the strike of the ore body.
Minor dip is a dip which strikes anywhere.
Major dip is represented by D⁰ while minor dip by d⁰.
Strike of an ore body or reef is the direction of the line joining points off equal elevation on a
hang wall or footwall contact of an ore body. The true dip is the maximum deep of an ore
body.
MAJOR DIP OF A PLANE

Angles A, B and C are horizontal angles
d⁰ = minor dip ( vertical angle)
D⁰ = major dip ( vertical angle) = true dip
S⁰ = inclined angle between strike and minor dip
H⁰ and X⁰ = these are horizontal angles (added together = 90⁰)
TO FIND MINOR DIP FROM MAJOR DIP AND VIRSE VERSA
From the sketch below
strike
P
o
s
h
h
b
do
Ao Do
do
Bo a
A
B
Tan d⁰ = h/b Then h = b Tan d⁰

Tan D⁰ = h/a Then h = a Tan D⁰
Equating b Tan d⁰ = a Tan D⁰
a = b Tan d⁰
b = a Tan D⁰
a/b =Cos X⁰ or Sin H⁰
Tan d⁰ = Tan D⁰.Cos X⁰ or Tan D⁰ . Sin H⁰

Page 39
Now h = AP.Sin d⁰ =BP.Sin D⁰

BP/AP = Sin d⁰/Sin D⁰ But EP/AP = Sin S⁰
Sin S = Sin d⁰/ Sin D⁰ and Sin d⁰ = Sin D⁰ . Sin S
Similarly
H = b/Cot d⁰ =a/Cot D⁰ and b/a = Cot d⁰/Cot D⁰
But
b/a Sec x⁰ or Cosec H⁰
Therefore Sec X⁰ = Cosec H⁰ = Cot d⁰/Cot D⁰
Or : Cot d⁰ = Cot D⁰ . Sec X⁰ = Cot D⁰. Cosec H⁰
Example
strike
west east
30⁰
do
DO = 45O
A borehole was drilled from surface and intersect a reef body which dips in a true south
direction at 45⁰. The borehole was in a S 30⁰W direction and the core length was measured
as 200cm long. Calculate the true width of the reef body . The borehole dips at 70⁰
Solution
Calculate the minor dip

Tan d⁰ = tan 45.Cos 30
d⁰ = 40.53.36
calculate the true width
TW = L. Cos (d⁰ +V⁰). Cos D⁰

Cos d⁰
=200Cos (40.53.36 + 20.00.00) Cos 45
Cos 40.53.36
= 91,004cm

Page 40
Example
800
O
50 15O
A AO BO B
E
Given minor dip from D – A = 50⁰

Minor dip from D – B = 15⁰
Horizontal angle at C = 80⁰
Calculate the major dip D – E
Solution
Tan A – B = Sin ( 50 – 15) . Cot 80

2 Sin ( 50 + 15) 2
= (Sin 35/Sin 65) . Cot 40

(A – B)/2 =37.01.28
(A + B)/2 = 50.00.00
A = 87.01.28
B = 12.58.32
C = 80.00.00
∑ = 180.00.00
Calculate angles A CE and BCE

ACE = 90.00.00 -87.01.28 BCE = 90.00.00 – 12.58.32
= 02.58.32 – C1 = 77.01.28—C2
Calculate the major dip

Tan D⁰ = Tan 50.00.00
Cos 02.58.32
= 50.01.17
Tan D⁰ = Tan 15.00.00

Page 41
Cos 77.01.28
= 50.01.16
Mean Dip = 50.01.16
NB An alternative method is to assume vertical differences Dc = 100m .Calculate distances

AC and BC . Use normal Tan Rule to solve the angles A and B.
TO FIND MAJOR DIP AND DIRECTION OF STRIKE FROM TWO APPARENT DIPS
Angles A, B , and c are horizontal angles a , b and c are horizontal side
Diagram
b Do d2
d1 B
A C
To prove that : Tan A –B/2 = Sin (d1 –d2)/Sin (d1 +d2) . Cot C/2
Solution
Now Tan (A – B)/2 = (a – b)/(a + b) .Cot 2 ---------(1)
Tan d1 = h/b Tan d2 = h/a
b = h/Tan d1 a = h/Tan d2
Substituting a and b in (1 ) above
h - h
Tan d2 Tan d1 . Cot C/2
Tan A – B = h + h
2 Tan d2 Tan d1
h (Tand1 – Tan d2)

= Tan d1. Tan d2 . Cot C/2
h (Tan d1 +Tan d2)
Tan d1. Tan d2

Page 42
= Tand1 – Tan d2 . Cot C/2

Tan d1 +Tan d2
Now Sin (d1 – d2) = sin d1 . Cos d2 - Cos d1 . Sin d2
Dividing throughout by Cosd1. Cos d2
Sin (d1 – d2) = Sind1 – Sin d2
Cos d1.Cosd2 Cosd1 Cos d2
But Sin d1 /Cos d1 = Tan d1 and Sin d2/Cos d2 = Tan d2
Tan d1 – Tan d2 = Sin (d1 –d2) ---------------------------------(a)
Cos d1 . Cosd2
Also Sin (d1 +d2) = Sin d1 . Cos d2 + Cos d1. Sin d2
Dividing throughout by Cos d1 . Cos d2
Sin (d1 + d2) = Sin d1 + Sin d2
Cosd1 – Cosd2 Cos d1 Cos d2
But Tan d1 = Sin d1/Cos d1 and Tan d2 = Sin d2/Cosd2

Tan d1 + Tan d2 = Sin (d1 +d2)-----------------------------------(b)
Cos d1.Cosd2
Substituting (a) and (b) in the equation we get
Tan (A – B)/2 ={Sin (d1 – d2)/Cos d1.Cos d2} /{ Si(d1 + d2)/Sin (d1c +d2)} .Cot C/2
Final check Tan D⁰ = Tan d1 /Sin A = Tand2/Sin B
NB This must be calculated from both Minor dips. Remember that the angles must be
added or subtracted not the sines of the angles
TO CALCULATE THE DIP AND DIRECTION OF THE LINE OF INTERSECTION OF TWO PLANES
To solve these problems , use can be made of the same equation used for Major , minor
dips. Care has to be taken in viewing these problems in a three dimensional way.
y 49 level reef
θ
AB
49 level fault AC 51 level reef

x
α
51 level fault

Page 43
49 LEVEL
Dip of fault
100m
Dip of reef
α θ 51 LEVEL
C B A
Given
The dip (α) and direction of a fault and the dip (θ) and direction of a reef plane on 49 level of
a mine
Required
To calculate the angle and direction of dip of the line of intersection (L.O.I) between the
two given planes from the given level (49) to the lower level ( 51).
Procedure
1. determine either graphically or mathematically the point of intersection of the two
planes on 51 level (X)
2. Horizontal displacement of the reef and fault plane 49 -51
= Diff 49 – 51 level . Cot Dip
AB = 100.Cot θ ( for reef)
and AC = 100.Cot α ( for fault)
Diagram
Y S 49 level N
a
b b
θ
L.O.I
M a S strike
Construction
From the point N on 49 level reef contour drop a perpendicular to the reef – fault
intersection point on 51 level ( X) . Similary from M construct MX perpendicular to the fault.

Page 44
Now : since YNX = YMX = 90.00.00 therefore YNXM is cyclic

Then MNX = MYX = b and NMX = NYX = a
Also MXN = S = angle between strikes
Y s
b a
ho
M N
α b 49 level
S θ
49 Level
X1
51 level
Now N and M are both on the 49 level . X can be on the 49 level as well as 51 level ; i.e there
are two triangles MXN ( horizontal) and MX1N ( inclined) with Mx1 dipping at α while NX1
dips at θ . these are the true dips of the fault and reef.
Θ = true dip of reef
α = true dip of fault
Direction NX = NX1 + Direction of true dip of reef.
Direction MX = MX1 + direction of true dip of fault.
h = Dip of L.O.I
YX = YX1 = Direction of L.O.I
Now h is a minor dip of both the reef and the fault planes
a = horizontal angle between the direction of reef strike and the direction of L.O.I.
s = 180.00.00 – ( a + b) = horizontal angle between the reef and fault strike direction,
Thus if we find values for a and b , we can find the direction of L.O.I and eventually the
amount of dip of the same L.O.I
NB α ˃ h ˂ θ ----------- always
To find a and b we use
Tan{[ b-a]/2} ={Sin (α -θ)/Sin(α+θ)}. Cot S/2
NB: Again the greater horizontal angles is always associated with the greater dip angle.
i.e b with θ and a with α
If α ˃ θ then a ˃ b
Therefore Tan h = Tan α . Sin b ------------------- (1)
= Tan θ. Sin a --------------------- (2)
If (1) = (2) = h = checked.

Page 45
Example
Given the direction of strike of reef ; 180.00.00 ( Zero south) Dip of reef 45⁰E , direction of
strike of fault 114⁰. Dip of fault 70⁰ Northerly . Calculate the direction of the reef – fault line
intersection.
114o
10 level reef 1800
45o
10 level fault
70o
114o
180 – 114 = 66 10 level reef
a
b b
45o
10 level fault
70o
66o
X
L.O.I
Tan {(a – b) /2 } = { Sin ( 70 -45)/ Sin ( 70 +45)} . Cot 66/2

={Sin 25/Sin 115}. Cot 33
= 0,7180508
b)/2 = 35.40.49
(a + b)/2 = 57.00.00
a = 92.40.49

Page 46
b = 21.19.11
x = 60.00.00
∑ = 180.00.00
Let h = dip of L.O.I

Tan h = Tan 70.Sin 21.19.11 = Tan 45. Sin 92.40.49
h = 44.58.07 h = 44.58.07 checked
Direction of L.O.I
Direction of reef = 180.00.00

+a = 92.40.49
Direction of L.O.I = 272.40.49
Direction of fault = 114.00.00
+ 180.00.00
= 294.00.00
-b = 21.19.11
Direction of L.O.I = 272.40.49 Checked
THREE BOREHOLE PROBLEMS
Three boreholes drilled vertically from surface intersect a reef body at A ,B and C . Given the
following information calculate : -
1) the direction of strike of the reef body
2) the true dip of the reef body
Borehole Y coordinates X coordinates Elevation of Depth below

Collar (m) collar (m)
A + 183,500 + 126,430 297,100 1093,800
B + 1247.620 + 972,170 273,800 1312,200
C - 875,210 + 1845,670 261,467 1573,267
Solution
Diagram A

Page 47
STRIKE M
DO
C
Let the point M on the line joining A and C with the same elevation as B on the reef .
Connect B to M . BM is the direction of strike. Draw the direction of true dip from A at right
angle to BM
Method
Step 1
Calculate the elevation of reef intersection at each borehole
Step 2
Calculate the join AC to obtain the HD and Brg A – C , HD = 2019,072 and Brg A- C =
323.22.31
Step 3
Calculate the minor dip in direction A - C
Tan d⁰ = Vertical diff A to C / Horizontal diff A to C = 443,834/2019,072 = 12.23.51
Step 4
Draw the sketch along A- C
A
M
o
d
do
B C
Calculate horizontal distance A – M

The vertical distance A – M = vertical A – B = 195,100m
HD = ( vert diff) . ( A – M Cot d⁰)
AM = 887,550
Step 5
From Brg A-M and HD .A- M , Calculate the coordinates of for M
M - 281,890 + 881,180

Page 48
Step 6
Calculate join BM to obtain direction of strike
Brg Bm = 266.37.58 Check
Step 7
Direction of true dip = 266.37.58 + 90.00.00
= 356.37.58
Step 8
Angle θ = diff between direction of true dip and minor dip along AC (θ = 28.15.27)
Step 9
Tan d⁰ = Tan D⁰ Cos θ
Find D⁰ = Tan 12.23.51/Cos 28.15.27 = 0.2495587
True Dip = 14.00.45
Example
The following example will be solved using two different methods as illustrated below
Question
Three boreholes A , B and c drilled vertically from surface , have intersected an ore body at certain
depths.
Borehole Elevation of collar below datum Depth below collar of ore body intersected
(m) (m)
A 600,000 268,000
B 587,000 796,000
C 703,000 1285,000
Horizontal distance A –C = 2800m

Horizontal distance A – B = 1600m
Bearing of line B – A = 120.00.00
Bearing of line C –A = 25.00.00
Calculate the amount of true dip and the direction of strike of the ore body. Giving your
answer to the nearest minute of arc.
Solution
Isometric view
Let d1 and d2 be the minor dips along AB and AC respectively. Let θ1 be the horizontal angle
between the directions of minor dip ( d1) along A1B and true dip⁰. Let θ2 be the horizontal
angle between the directions of dip (D⁰) and minor dip (d2 along AM. Let M be a point on
AC such that the elevation of M is equal to that of B . Thus Brg B- M = direction of strike . Let
A1 be the position of A projected on the horizontal plane of B and M
Diagram

Page 49
90o A1
1600 d θ2
B Strike M
90o
Dir of dip
Step 1
To calculate elevation of ore body intersection
Elevation A = 600,000 -268,000 = 868,000m
Elevation B = 587,000 – 796,000 = 1383,000
Elevation C = 703,000 – 1285,000 = 1988,000
Step 2
To calculate Minor Dip d1
Vertical difference A to B = 1383,000 – 868,000 = 515,000m
Horizontal distance A to b = 1600,000
Tan d1 = 515,000/1600,000 = 0.3218750
d1 = 17.51.00
Step 3
To calculate minor dip d2
Vertical distance A to C = 1988,000 – 868,000 = 1120,000m
Horizontal distance A to C = 1800,000m
d2 = 21.48.00
Step 4
BA1M = θ1 + θ2 = 120.00.00 – 25.00.00

= 95.00.00 --------------©
Step 5
Tan θ1 = Cosec 95.00.00 { ( Cot 17.51.00. Tan 21.48.00) – Cos 95.00.00) }
= 1,003820 { 3,10532.0,399971) – ( -0,087156)}
= 1,3342714
θ1 = 53.09.00
Step 6
Tan θ2= Cosec 95.00.00 { ( cot 21.48.00. Tan 17.51.00) – ( Cos 95.00.00) }
= 1,003820 {( 2,50018.0,322028) – ( -0,087156)}
θ2 = 41.51.00
Step 7
Check θ1 + θ2 = 53.09.00 + 41.51.00
Page 50
= 95.00.00
Step 8
Tan D⁰ = Tan d1/ Cos θ1 = Tan 17.51.00/Cos 53.09.00
D⁰ = 28.14.00 ------------------------------------------ True dip.
Step 9
Tan D⁰ = Tan d2/Cos θ2 = Tan 21.48.00/ Cos 41.51.00
D⁰ = 28.14.00 ------------------------------------------ True dip checked
Step 10
To calculate direction of true dip
Brg A – b = 300.00.00 Brg A – C = 205.00.00
-θ1 = 53.09.00 + θ2 = 41.51.00
Brg D⁰ = 246.51.00 Brg D⁰ = 246.51.00
Therefore direction of true dip = 246.51.00
Step 11
Calculate the direction of strike
Direction of strike = 246.51.00 + 90.00.00 = 336.51.00 ( Brg M-B)
Direction of strike = 246.51.00 – 90.00.00
= 156.51.00 ( Brg B- M)
METHOD TWO
A
M
B
DO
C
Step 1
Find elevation of reef intersection at A , B and c
Reef elevation @ A = - 868,000
Reef elevation @ B = -1383,000
Reef elevation @ C = -1988,000
Step 2
Calculate minor dip AC = 21.48.00
Step 3
Calculate HD A to M = 1287,500m
Step 4
In horizontal triangle ABM
AB = 1600,000m
Page 51
AM = 1287,500m
Angle MAB = 95.00.00
By Tan rule calculate ABM and AMB
ABM = 36.50.00
AMB = 48.10.00
MAB = 95.00.00
∑ = 180.00.00
Step 5
Check by Sine rule using ABM , AMB and AM
Calculate AB = 1600m
Step 6
Direction of strike = Brg B- A + AMB
= 156.50.00
Step 7
Check direction of strike = Brg M – A – AMB
= 336.50.00
Step 8
Direction of true dip = Brg M – B – 90.00.00
= 246.50.00
Step 9
Check direction of true dip = Brg M – B -90.00.00
= 246.50.00
Step 10
Let θ be the angle between directions of minor dip (AC) and true dip (AM)
Therefore θ = 246.50.00 – 205.00.00 = 41.50.00

Then Tan D⁰ = Tan 21.48.00/Cos 41.50.00
D⁰ = 28.13.00
Therefore the true dip = 28.13.00 and the direction of strike = 336.50.00 or 156.50.00
Example
Three boreholes A, B and C were drilled from surface to intersect a reef, from the
information given below calculate the strike and true dip of the reef. The borehole survey
indicates that borehole A had a deviation of 6⁰ from vertical in a true direction f 95.00.00
Borehole B and C were truly vertical
Borehole Surface coordinates Elevation of collar Reef below collar

A + 1673,540 -1231,160 320,630 610,00m
B + 765,820 -2067,330 365,840 1327.00m
C + 1148,190 -683,720 402,510 411,00m
The following assumptions can be made

The reef lies in a true plane
A uniform deviation in borehole A from surface to reef with no allowance for curvature of
the borehole
For angular measurements , zero is west
Answer ( method only)
Sketch

Page 52
A1
Strike A
C M
S
B
DO True Dip
Section
610m
VD
HD
A1
Sketch 1 Shows the position of the reef intersection at A , B and c plotted in the Goldfields
system ( zero west)
Sketch 2 Shows a section along borehole A which was deflected 6⁰ in a direction of 95⁰ to
intersect the reef plane at A1
Step 1
Calculate vertical difference A – A1
Step 2
Calculate the horizontal distance A – A1 and check
Step 3
Calculate reef elevations at A , B and C
Step 4
Calculate join CB and use the 45⁰ check to check the result
Step 5
Calculate d⁰ from Brg C- D
Step 6
Calculate horizontal distances CM
Step 7
Calculate coordinates of M and those of A1

Page 53
Step 8
Calculate join A1M
Step 9
Calculate D⁰
The direction of strike = 300.22.49 and the true dip = 32.22.19
Question
From the end of a drive being developed in a direction due south , A borehole is drilled from
the face in the same direction as the drive. A water fissure is encountered at a distance
16,75m from the surface . In order to determine the strike and dip of the fissure two other
boreholes were drilled and the dip and direction were observed s below
Borehole Direction Dip Distance to fissure

A Due south Flat 16,75m
B S 35.00.00 W +40⁰ 14,87m
C S 47.00.00 E +55⁰ 13,94m
The three boreholes started from the same point M in the face of the drive.
Calculate
The direction of strike
The true dip of the fissure
Solutions : Direction of strike 86.06.21 or 266.06.21 and the true dip = 46.24.03
HD = 7,996m
350 47O
HD = 11,391m C
Strike
B X
16,750m
DO
ORE PASS PROBLEMS

From a point on the sidewall of a drive it is required to develop an ore pass at an angle of
+50⁰ to intersect a winze BC at an unknown point B . The winze dips at 32⁰ in the direction
of B - and the point C is 18,000m higher than the point A . The horizontal distance AC is
10,400m and the horizontal angle BA is 128.35.00
Page 54
Find the inclined distance AB and the horizontal angle BAC
50O Dip
O
32 Winze
A
Drive
C
Solution
32⁰ 50O
C
drive
strike
D
Step 1
Produce BC on reef to a point D which is on the same elevation as A . AD will be a strike line
Step 2
B , C and D are in a straight line . Therefore A , B ,C and D lie in a plane in which are three
minor dips BA , CA and BD
Step 3
Angle DCA is known ( supplement of angles ACB). The dip of CA can be found.
Tan Dip = 18,000/10,400
Dip CD is known (32⁰)
Therefore having two apparent dips and the angle between them , the angle of the strike
line AD can be found , i.e angles CDA and CAD
Step 4

Page 55
The angle CDA = the angle between the minor dip CD and the strike of the plane DA
Calculate the major ( true ) dip of the plane ( Tan 32⁰ = Tan D . Sin CDA)
Example
900 32O
P Q
PQ is the centre line of an inclined shaft dipping at 32⁰ . R is on the footwall of a crosscut
from which it is intended to sink the steepest possible orepass to hole on the centre line PQ
of the inclined shaft.
Given
Horizontal distance RS at 90⁰ to PQ = 50m
Elevation difference R to S = 80m
S is lower than R
Calculate
The slope distance from S to the holing point on the line PQ.
The horizontal angle the ore pass makes with Rs
The dip of the orepass
Solution - Method only
Step1
Sketch – Isometric view
P
X STRIKE R 80O
320 do 80m
S D R1
H Shaft C.L

Page 56
32o
Sketch Plan view
Strike DO
do
Dip 32o Shaft C.L
P X Q
S H
Step 2
Find X on shaft centre line which has the same elevation as R. X – R is the strike of the plane
.Find angles RXS and ARS
Step 3
Calculate the dip d⁰ from R to s . this is a minor dip
Step 4
Find direction of true dip (at right angle to strike XR)
Step 5
Let H be holing [point on centre line of shaft . Dip R to H (D⁰) is required
Step 6
Tan θ = ( 90.00.00-XRS)
Step 7
Tan d⁰ = Tan D⁰.Cos θ and solve for D⁰
Step 8
Solve horizontal ΔRSH to find horizontal distance SH. Slope distance = horizontal distance ST
Sec 32⁰
Example
He figure below is the plan of an ore pass and x- cu from which it is intended to sink auxiliary
Ore pass dipping at 50⁰ from A in the x – cut to hole into the main system at C
Given the coordinates
A + 206,900 + 104,260 - 618,120

B + 315,150 + 166,760 - 618,120
C + 193,530 + 288,380 - 863,770
Calculate the direction and length of the new ore pass AC.

Page 57
B
Ore pass
C
X-cut
Method
Elevation of A and B are equal therefore AB will be the direction of strike and all the other
points can be assumed to be on the same inclined plane. Draw a line connecting A and B
( Strike ). Show direction of true dip at right angle to the strike at A and at B
Step 1
Calculate join BD to obtain Brg B-D and HD BD
Step 2
Calculate dip of ore pass B to D ( elevation difference and horizontal distance BD are known)
Step 3
Calculate join AB to obtain Brg A-B ( strike) and direction AB
Step 4
Bearing of true dip = Brg A-B – 90.00.00 ( or Brg B-A +90.00.00)
Step 5
@B Tan minor dip (B – D) = Tan true dip . Cos θ. Θ is found by subtraction of bearings and
Dip B-D is known. Then calculate true dip (D⁰)
Step 6
@A Let minor dip along AC = d⁰ = 50.00.00
Then Tan d⁰ = Tan D . Cos α
Calculate α and find bearing A to C
Step 7
Solve AC ( horizontal) in ΔABC ( angles and side AB are known).
Step 8
Inclined length of AC = horizontal distance AC . Secant 50⁰
strike
B
C
A
o
d strike

Page 58
D α
T Dip
Cl
T Dip
INTERSECTIONS OF PLANES
A borehole was drilled upwards from an underground haulage to intersect a reef body
which is known to dip at 35⁰ due south. The length of body recovered in the core was 82cm
if the borehole had a dip of 60⁰ in a direction 220⁰. Calculate the width of the reef body .
Assume zero direction due south
Solution
N 220
40O = α
W E
α = 220 – 180 = 40
LAUNDERS THEOREM
Tan d⁰ = Tan D⁰ Cos α
= Tan 35.Cos 40
d⁰ = 28.12.31
30
V 82

Page 59
do α
β
do
Deflection angle = 90 -60
α = d⁰ + 90⁰ = 90.00.00 -28.12.31
= 118.12.13
Β = 180.00.00 – ( 30.00.00 - α) = 31.47.29
Check summation of angles is = 180.00.00
N /Sin 31.47.21 = 82/Sin 118.12.31
V = 49,002cm
Section along major dips
35O
T.W

Page 60
35O
85O
TW = {core length . Cos ( d⁰+ V) Cos D⁰} / Cos d⁰
={ 82 Cos ( 28.12.31 + 30.00.00) Cos 35}/Cos 28.12.31
= 40,157cm
Check TW = V Cos α
= 49,002Cos35
= 40,156cm
SUBDIVISION OF AREAS
Boundaries of Mines, claims, private and state land can be subdivided according to set down
requirements and regulations
One property can be subdivided into two or more properties. State land can be subdivided
into individual properties
Boundaries of properties can be redefined or changed ,maintaining, reducing or increasing
the area of the property

Page 61
When one is carrying out a subdivision one should pay attention to the instructions laid
down to perform the task
The following problems will illustrate how to carry out the computations required
COMPUTATION OF AREAS USING COODINATES
THE OLD FIELD SYSTEM
It should be remembered that when using this method one starts ----closed at the same
point
XB B
XC C
XA A
XD D
XE
A E B C D
YA Y E YB YC YD
2. Area = [(XA+XB) (YB-YA) +(XB+XC)(YC +YB) +(XC + XD)(YD -YC)] – [(XB +XE)(YD –YE) +(XE +XA)
(YE-YA)]
By expanding
2.area =[(XA.YB-XA.YA+XB.YB-XB.YA+XB.YC-XB.YB+XC.YC-XC.YB+XC.YD-XC.YC+XD.YD-XD.YD+X.Y) - (XD.YD-

XD.YE+XE.YD-XE.YE+XE.YE-XE.YA-XA.YE)]
Remove bracket and change signs and cancel out like terms
2 area = XA.YB-XB.YA+XB.YC-XC.YB+XC.YD-XD.YC+XD.YE-XE.YD+XE.YA-XA.YE
This 2 area = sum of X’s multiplied by difference of Y’s

Or 2 area = sum of Y’s multiplied by difference of X’s
Typical example
Given the coordinates of Mapanzure claim as follows ,calculate its area

constant +10 000,000 +8 000,000
A +260,000 + 450,000
B +390,000 + 190,000
C +280,000 + 90,000
Page 62
D +130,000 +140,000
E +80,000 +290,000
Solution
One can solve the above problem using the method in the box but I will solve it using
method 2 and 3
2. Area=sum of Ys multiplied by the difference of Xs
STN Sum of Ys Difference of Xs Product
A +260 +450
B +390 +190
+650 +260 +169 000
B +390 +190
C +280 +90
+670 +100 +67 000
C +280 +90
D +130 +140
+410 -50 -205 000
D +130 +140
E +80 +290
+210 -150 -31 500
E +80 +290
A +260 +450
+340 -160 -54 400
∑=220/2 ∑=+129 600/2
=1140 0
Area=129 600 /2 Area = 129 600/2
Area of ABCDE=64 800m2
Or we can use the formula:-

2. Area = sum of Xs multiplied by difference of Ys
Alternative method
Using the same example as above of Mapanzure claim
a= +175 500 +53 200 +11 700 +11 200 + 75 400

Ys +260 +390 +280 +130 +80 +260

Page 63
Xs +450 +190 +90 +140 +290 +450

b= +49 400 +35 100 +39 200 +37 700 +36 000
∑a=327 000∑b=197 400∑a-∑b =129 600= 2.Area 2

Area of ABCDE =64 800m2
NB we subtract the smaller from the bigger one, this case its ∑a-∑b
To check the above method, one needs to start with coordinate of another point e.g. that of
D to recalculate the area.
It should be noted that in this method (b) represents the total products of (Y A.XB) ;(YB.XC) ;
(YC.XD) ;(YD.XE) and (YE.XA) as shown by downward arrows
The total of the products of (XA.YB) ;(XB.YC);(XC.YD) and (XE.YA) as shown by the upward arrows
In this method cognizance of the signs (+ and -) must be taken into account when obtaining
the product coordinate
COMPUTATION OF COODIANATES
Coordinates of the boundaries of mines, claim private or state land area are very important
in determining the extend of the properties
Example
A, B, C and D are beacons along a portion of the boundary line between two properties.
Given the coordinates of:-
A+2146, 820 +6424, 620
B+2308, 760 +6306, 480
C+2077, 360 +6030, 700
Direction Brg C-D =120.00.00
Calculate
Coordinate of beacon M on the line C.D so that the new boundary line will be defined by A,
M and D will not alter the area of either mining companies
New boundary D
B mine A
An old boundary
Mine B C

Page 64
Solution mine A D
B
M
A
Mine B C
Since we know that the areas of the two claims will not be altered by straightening the
boundary line between them we connect A to C and B to M parallel o AC
Following the procedure laid down below one can calculate the coordinates of M, the
beacon that will change the boundary from ABCD to AMD maintaining the areas of the two
properties
Procedure
Step 1
Area of ABC = area ACM
This is because they are on the same base and between parallel lines
Step 2
Calculate join AC and check using the 45o check
Step 3
Calculate join BC and check using 45o check
Step 4
Find angle ACB [difference between bearings Brg C-B and Brg C-A
Step 5
Calculate the area of the triangle ABC =½ AC.BC Sin ACB =area of triangle ACM
Step 6
In triangle ACM, distance AC is known and bearing Brg CB is given. Therefore angle ACM can
be obtained so calculate angle ACM
Step 7
Now calculate area of triangle ACM =
½ AC.CM Sin ACM
Since we know the area of the triangle ACM as it is equal to that of ABC calculated in step 4,
then distance CM can be calculated
Step 8
Knowing Brg C-M = Brg C-Calculate the coordinate of M from C
STRAIGHTENING BOUNDARY
One can be asked to replace, straighten or relocate boundaries with or without changing the
area of the claim or property
Example
Given the following data, it is required to replace the boundary A, B, C, D, and E by means of
a fence parallel to G without altering the area ABCDDEHG
A M G

Page 65
K E H
Coordinates
A 0.000
B -123,390 +31,410
C -171,140 +38,860
D -250,600 +25,320
E -352,610 -116,700
Directions :A-G = 180.00.00 ,E-H = 161.35.20 and G-H = 273.52.40
Solution
The requirements to carry out this boundary reconstruction are as follows:-
The fence will be parallel to boundary GH and the area of the claim should not be altered.
Area ABCDEHG is equal to area MKHG
Produce AG and EH to meet at P and produce HE to meet fence at K
Step 1
Calculate join AE to obtain distance AE and Brg A-E
Step 2
Calculate coordinates of P on Brg A-C and Brg E-H are given this is done by triangulation
from Ato E
Step 3
Calculate area of ABCDEP from coordinates
Step 4
Area ABCDE is to be replaced by a fence parallel to GH the area of triangle PMK is equal to
area ABCDEP
Now PMK = PĜH
PKM = PĤG ….. Both angles found by difference of bearing
Angle MPK can be found by subtracting the bearing H-E from bearing G-M
Area of triangle PMK = .PM.PK sin MPK
A M

Page 66
Step 5
Step 6
Subtracting (5) in (4)
PMK = PM2. .Sin MPK
Area PMK is known from step 4

Angle PMK, PKM and MPK are known
Therefore PM can be calculated
Step 7
By substituting from PM in (b) above PK can be calculated
Step 8
The points M and K can be calculated from P by triangulation
Example 2
It is required to cut off an area of 5, 0 hectares by means of a line DE parallel to AC
Calculate the coordinates of D and E given the following-
A +612,727 + 56,448
B + 39,937 +345,526
C +118,714 -175,880

Page 67
B E C
Solution
The requirements are that DE the sub divisional boundary should be parallel to boundary AC
and the area to be cut off is 5, 0 hectares
Step 1
Calculate join AB
Step 2
Calculate join BC
Step 3
Find angle ABC by subtraction of direction (bearings)
Step 4
Calculate are of triangle ABC = .AB.BC Sin B
Step 5
Subtract 5 hectares from area of triangle ABC and area of triangle BDE is obtained
Step 6
Because the triangles are similar, the areas are in proportion to one another as squares of
corresponding sides
= (BD2 /AB2) = (BE2 /BC2)
Thus BD can be found and similarly BE can be found

Step 7
Knowing Brg B-A and Brg B-C calculate coordinates of D and E from B
The above problem can be solved with another alternative method below
Step1
Calculate join AB
Step 2

Page 68
Calculate join BC
Step 3
Calculate the area ABC from coordinates or using the formula ½ .AB.BC Sin D
Step 4
Area BDE = area ABC -5 ha
Step 5
As the triangles are similar
= (BD2 /AB2) = (BE2 /BC2 )
The coordinates of D can be found by applying the ratio of (BD2 /AB2) to the different of the
Y and X coordinates between B and A to obtain the different in Y and X coordinates from B
to D
Step 6
Similar the coordinate of E can be found
Example 3
Figure ABC represents a triangular piece of ground. E is a point within triangle ABC .it is
required to cut off are area GHB by means of a line so that the area of triangle GHB = to half
the area of triangle ABC .
Calculate the coordinates of G and H
A -36,990 +700,690
B -59,017 +324’103
C-274,153 +80,893
E -80,667 +165,074
A C
G E H
Solution
Step1
Calculate join BE
Let BE = a; BH= m and BG = n
Step 2

Page 69
Calculate join BA and BC

Step 3
Area of triangle ABC = ½ .AB.BC Sin ABC
Step 4
Area of triangle GHB = ½ .m.n Sin ABC = ½ area of ABC
A C
G E H
n a m
Step 5
Now triangle GHB = triangle GBE + triangle EBH
i.e. ½ m.n Sin ABC = ½ n.a Sin GBE + ½ a.m Sin EBH
It can be noted that from 5 above
½ m.n Sin ABC = ½ area of triangle ABC
n=
Step 6
Substituting from 6 above
= + ½ .a.m Sin EBH
Therefor a.Sin ABC. Sin EBA.m2 – Sin ABC.triangle ABC .m + a Sin GBE .triangle ABC = 0
Step 7
By solving the quadratic equation m can be obtained
Step 8
By substituting for m in 6 above n can be obtained
Step 9
Coordinate G and H from B
Step 10
To check the entire calculation G, E and H must be in a straight line
EXAMPLE
It is required to enlarge a mining property by adjusting the NE boundary AB to include a
point E
Page 70
Given
A +2384, 860 -1178, 010
B +742,500 -2532, 360
C +770,450 -1464, 810
D +1638, 490 - 638,340
A E
C B
Bearing A-E = 166.36.40 and B-E = 115.42.40

Calculate the total now area of AEBCD in hectares’
Solution
Join AB
B +742,500 -2532, 360
A +2384, 860 -1178, 010
∆y =-1642, 360 ∆ x =-1354, 350
HD = 2128, 758m QA = 50.29.23
Brg A-B = 230.29.23 Brg B-A = 50.29.23
o
Don’t forget the 45 degree check
Calculate the angles A, B and E in triangle ABE

Brg A-B =230.29.23
Brg A-E =116.36.40
Angle A = 63.52.43
Brg= =115.42.40
Brg= = 50.29.23
Angle B = 65.13.17
Brg A-E = 116.36.40
Brg B-E = 115.42.40 and angle E = 50.54.00
Check Angle A + B + C =180.00.00

Page 71
A 166.36.40 E
2128, 758m 115.42.40
B
Triangle E from A and B
AE = 2128,758 Sin 65.13.17
Sin 50.54.00
=2490, 536m
BE = 2128,758 Sin 63.52.42
Sin 50.54.00
= 2462, 912m
Brg A-E =B166.36.40 and Brg B-E = 115.42.40

Using A coordinates of E are +2961, 569 -3600, 858 using B coordinates of E are + 2961,566
-3600.855
Mean coordinates E = +2961,567 -3600,856
Calculate the area of A E B C D = 3780 386,8m2= 378,0387ha
Question
Calculate the area of the figure ABRCDE and the distance C-R
A +2384,860 -1178,012
B +2961,571 -3600,874
C +742,499 -2532,358
D +770,453 -1464,070
E +1638,490 - 630,340
A B

Page 72
E R
D C
Angle at R = 40.12.00
Horizontal distance BR = 137,233m
Solution
Step 1
Calculate join BC to find distance BC and Z BC and check
Brg B-C = 295.42.41 , Brg C-B = 115.42.41 and Distance BC = 2462,927
step 2
calculate angle C using the sine rule and B using angle of a triangle
C = 02.03.40 (in triangle BCR) ,B = 137.44.20 and R = 40.12.00
∑ of angles C ,B and R= 180.00.00
Step 3
Calculate Brg B-R and Brg C-R using Brg B-C and angles B and C
Brg B-R = 57.58.21 and Brg C-R = 117.46.2
Step 4
Calculate coordinates of R from B and C
Coordinates of R using B +3013,040 -3728,090
coordinates of R using C +3013,044 -3728,088
Mean coordinate of R = +3013,042 -3728,089
Step 5
Calculate area of figure ABRCDE = 3900552,845m2=390,0553 ha
Example
ABCD is a claim owned by Mr Makopa over which a right of way defend by BCDEFG is to be
established.Mr Makopa has no objections to the expropriation provided that the
expropriated area shall be ¼ of the original area and further that the figure of the remaining
extent GFEA conforms to that of A,B,C,D.From the data given below ,calculate the
coordinates of E,F,G
Coordinates A +34,800 +1606,910
B +771,440 +1142,470
C +632,520 +354,620
D +34,800 +406,910
Solution
Step 1
Calculate area ABCD = 681 072,915m2
Area of BCDEFG is ¼ of ABCD = 170 268,25
Area AGFE = ¾ area ABCD
[ ]2 = ¾

Page 73
And (AG)/(AB) = =0,866
E D
Step 2
Using ratio of 0,866 calculate coordinates of G,F and E
A +34,800 +1606,190
B +771,440 +1142,470
-736,640 +464,440 ……apply 0,866
+637,930 -402,205
A +34,800 +1606,910
G +637,730 +1204,705 answer
A +34,800 +1606,910
C +632,520 +354,620
-597,720 +1252,290 …….apply 0,866
+517,626 -1084,483
A +34,800 +1606,910
F +552,426 +522,427 answer
A +34,800 +1606,910
D +34,800 +406,910
0,00 +1200,000 …….apply 0,866
0,00 -1039,200
A 34,800 +1606,910
E 34,800 +567,710 answer
2
Area ABCD = 681 073m
area AGFE = ¾ of area ABCD
=510 805m2
To check calculate area AGFE = 510 775
This was caused by using 3 d.c.p in factor 0,866

Page 74
Coordinates
G +672,730 +1204,705
F +552,426 +522,427
E +34,800 +567,710
D 60⁰
Beacon A,B,C,D were placed round a dam in connection with the survey of a proposed water right.
As neither A and C nor B and D are intervisible ,the distance AB,BC,CD and DA and the angles A,B,C
and D were measured .It was subsequently discovered that the recorded value of angle C only is
correctly. From the data given in the sketch calculate:-
1) The true values of angles @ A,B and D
2) The area of the figure
A 440
832m 661m
60⁰
C 1000m D
In triangle BCD calculate angle D and B

Page 75
Tan (B – D)/2 =(b-d)/(b+d) cot c/2

=(1000-661)/(1000+661) cot (60/2)
= 0,353501
Therefore (B-D)/2 = 79.28.07
(B+D)/2 = 60.00.00
Angle B = 79.28.07
D = 40.31.53
C = 60.00.00
∑ =180.00.00
Length BD can be calculated twice using triangle BD and BCD
DB = =
=80,864m =880,865
Mean DB = 880,864
In triangle ABD calculate angles A,B,D

a = 880,864m = DB
b = 832,000
c = 440,000
k=
=168,1166m
2s = 2152,864
s = 832,000 , s-a = 195,568 , s-b = 244,432 and s-d = 636,432
S = 1076,432 (checked)
Tan = Tan = Tan =
Tan =
=0,8596325
A/2 = 40.68343 then A = 81.22.01
Tan =
Tan =
=0,6877847
B/2 = 34,51960 then B= 69.02.21

Page 76
Tan =
Tan =
=0,2641549
D/2 = 14,79697 then D= 29.35.35

Angle A+B+D = 180.00.00 [checked]
True values of angles A,B and D in figure ABCD
A = 81.22.01
B =(69.02.21 + 79.28.07) = 148.30.28
D = 70.07.31 = (29.35.38 + 40.31.53)
∑ 300.00.00
C = 60.00.00
∑ = 360.00.00(checked)
Area of ABCD =[ (1000,000.661,000 Sin 600 )+(832,000.440,000 Sin 81.22.01)]/2
= 286 221,396 + 180 966,147
= 467 187,543m2
Check
Area of ABCD = [(1000.832.Sin 70.07.31) + (440.661 Sin 148.30.28)]/2
= 391 222,292 + 75964,909
= 467 187 ,262m2
EXAMPLE
A,B,C and D are corner points of a quadrilateral area .It is required to cut off an area B,E,C
equal to 1/5 of the total area. Calculate the coordinates of E
Coordinates
A + 3472,850 -5184,620
B + 3541,620 -5467,650
C +3300,580 -5503,150
D + 3318,690 -5009,450
A B
D E C

Page 77
Solution
Area of A,B,C,D is calculated using coordinates which is equal to 74 972,0m 2
Now area of triangle BCE = 1/5 × 74 972,0 = 14 994,4m 2
Join AB
HD = 243,640m
Brg B-C = 261.37.18 and Brg C-B = 81.37.18
Join DC
HD = 494,032
Brg D-C = 182.06.03 and Brg C-D = 02.06.03
Calculate angle DCB
DCB = 79.31.15 (Brg C-B - Brg C-D)
Calculate distance EC
Area of triangle BCE =
i.e 14 994,4 =
EC = 125,174m
DE = 494,032 – 125,174 = 368,858m
Coordinate E from D and C
From D
HD DE = 368,858m and Brg D-E = 182.06.03
E +3305,168 -5378,060
From C
CE = 125,174m and Brg C-E = 02.06.03
E +3305,168 -5378,060
Mean coordinates of E +3305,168 -5378,060
Check
By calculating the area of DCE from coordinate of DCE from coordinates
Question 2
It’ s required to divide the triangular area A,B,C into 2 equal areas by straightening pointE in
the side AB to a point F in the side AC
Given
Coordinates
A +10,400 +180,300
B +288,540 +227,770
C +255,270 -141,269
E +208,580 +217,030
Without determining the area of a triangle ABC ,calculate the coordinates of F
B C

Page 78
Solution
Calculate Join AC
HD = 404,181m
Brg A-C =142.42.38 Brg C-A = 322.42.38
Calculate Join AE
HD = 201,555m
Brg A-E = 79.30.00 Brg E-A =259.30.00
Calculate Join AB
HD =260,502m
Brg A-B = 79.30.02 Brg B-A = 259.30.02
We then calculate distance AF without using areas but using formula for areas
Using formula for areas
Area of triangle ABC = ½ AB.AC.Sin A
Area of triangle AEF = ½ AE.AF.Sin A
Area of triangle ABC = 2 (area AEF)
Therefor ½ AB.AC.Sin A = 2( ½ AE.AF.Sin A)
= AE.AF.Sin A
=AF
AF = (AB.AC)/ 2.AE
=(260,502 404,181) / (2 201,555) = 261,194m
Calculate the coordinates of F from A

AP = 261,194m
Brg = 142.42.38
Coordinates of F +168,462 -27,502
To check calculate join FC

HD = 142,987
Brg F-C = 142.42.37 Brg C-P = 322.42.37

Page 79
AC =FC + AF
=142,987 + 261,194 =404,181m checked
Question 3
The area of the figure BCDE is 46850,00m2.From the information given in the table below
you are requested to fill in the missing data
ANGLES SIDES Y COORDINATES

B = 16.29.10 BC missing B +330,000 +370,000
C =210.35.50 CD missing C missing
D =43.15.20 DE missing D missing
E = 89.39.40 E +490,000 -70,000
D
C E
43.15.20 106.08.50
73.51.10
30.35.50
C 180.00.00 89.39.40 E

Page 80
Extend BC to meet DE in F
Join BE
HD = 468,188m
Brg B-E = 160.01.01 Brg E-B = 340.01.01
Calculate area BEF
Area =
=32 379,423m2
Now the area BFC = area BCDE – area BEF
= 14 470,577m2
Calculate DF
14 470,577 = = 149,600m
Calculate EF
EF= = 138,320m
ED = EF +FD = 287,920m
Calculate CD
CD = = 282,315m
Calculate Brg D-E and Brg D-C

Brg E-D = 340.01.01
+89.39.40
Brg E-D =69.40.41
-316.44.40
Brg C-D =112.56.01
+210.35.50
Brg C-B =323.31.51
-343.30.50
Brg E-D =340.01.01
Brg B-E = 160.01.01

-270.20.20

Page 81
Brg D-E = 249.40.41

+43.15.20
Brg D-C = 292.56.01
-149.24.10
Brg B-C = 143.31.51
+16.29.10
Brg B-E = 160.01.01 checked
Transverse D from E
ED =287,920mZ ED = 69.40.41
Coordinate D +759,999 +29,993
Transverse C from D
DC = 282,315m
Brg = 292.56.01
Coordinate of C +499,999 +140,001
Join BC
HD =286,006
Brg = 143.31.51
Check
Calculate area BCDE
Area = 46849,975m2
Question
Mr Gandaganda wishes to subdivide his claim into two equal areas ,each having the same
frontage on the line 1-2 by a straight line from F (F is a centre on line 1-2 ) to a point G
Obtain coordinate for point G by calculating where G falls on line 4-5
Given
Coordinates
1 +78,000 -114,000
2 +244,000 0,000
3 -33,000 +131,000
4 -17,000 +65,000
5 -272,000 -145,000
3 2
4 F

Page 82
5 1
Solution
3 2
4 F
5 1
Construction
connect F to 4 to create triangle 4FG .calculate area 1.2.3.4.5 = 61 162,5m 2
Calculate coordinates of F
F +161,000 -57,000
Calculate area 1 F 4 5 = 42 933,5 m2
Calculate area of triangle F 4 G = 12352,25 m2
Calculate join F-4
HD = 215,796m
Brg F-4 = 304.25.35 Brg 4-F = 124.25.35
Calculate join 4 – 5
HD = 330,341m
Brg 4-5 = 230.31.39
Calculate angle F 4 5
F45= 106.06.04
Calculate angle 4FG
Area 4FG =
F = angle 4FG
4FG = 24.42.18
Use the above formula to check area of triangle F4G
=12352,23m2
Triangulate G from 4 and F
G -108,979 -10 ,748

Page 83

Advanced Survey Methods

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Advanced Survey Methods

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2011

Advanced Survey Methods

1 . SHAFT PLUMBING ----------------------------------------------------------

3 . DIPS AND INTERSECTION OF PLANES -------------------------------------

4 . SUBDIVISION OF AREAS -----------------------------------------------------

Zimbabwe School of Mine

Zimbabwe School of Mine

Zimbabwe School of Mine

Find angles α and β using sine rule

Zimbabwe School of Mine

Find Brg C-D

Solution {Method only}

Zimbabwe School of Mine

Using Sine rule calculate distance Ws- Wu = 9.499m

Zimbabwe School of Mine

Zimbabwe School of Mine

Zimbabwe School of Mine

Zimbabwe School of Mine

The baseline’s backsight theodolite reading was recorded as 18.01.02 ( = V).

THE GYRO THEODOLITE –OBSERVATION METHODS

Zimbabwe School of Mine

THE REVERSAL POINT SYSTEM

Zimbabwe School of Mine

Δ t = the difference in swing time

THE AMPLITUDE METHOD

IMPORTANCE OF SETTING ON BOTH SIDES OF S LINE WHEN USING A GYRO

Zimbabwe School of Mine

Zimbabwe School of Mine

Evidently ˂ AOC = 180.00.00 - ˂ ABC

SETTING OUT CURVES

Zimbabwe School of Mine

USING CHAIN AND TAPE: OFFEST FROM THE LONG CHORD

AB = AO - OB = AO -√ (OU2 -UB2) = R - √R2 – (L/2)2

Zimbabwe School of Mine

Zimbabwe School of Mine

Sin θ = √(s-b) (s-c)

Sin θ = √ (300-250) (300-250)

A to 3 = R Sin3 Θ = 250 sin 23.04.26 = 233,740m

Zimbabwe School of Mine

Calculating offset a, b and c

Given A + 3000,000 + 7000,000

Zimbabwe School of Mine

250.00.00 - 170.00.00 = 80.00.00

A +3000, 000 + 7000,000

B = Brg B-C - Brg B-A =170.00.00 -138.00.46 = 31.59.14

AC = AB Sin C = 1345,362 Sin 31.59.14

Calculate Radius of the curve = 930.336 Sin 40.00.00

Length of the curve = Rθ (θ is in radians) = 1059, 823m

Triangulate C from A and B

Brg A-C = Brg A-B - ˂ A = 300.00.00

Zimbabwe School of Mine

Mean coordinates of C + 3194,306 + 7465,169

Zimbabwe School of Mine

Coordinates of A + 6509,090 + 1502,165 A + 6509,091 +1502,166

Mean coordinate of A + 6509,091 + 1502,166

Zimbabwe School of Mine

Direction of tangent C to A = 313.13.00

Triangulate M from A and B

Brg M-B = 187.21.00

Brg A-M = 313.13.00

Brg B-A = 64.58.30

Check angle A + B + C = 180.00.00

Coordinates of M +1271, 60 - 1228, 60