Lecture 17 April 1, 2010 Physics 504,

Spring 2010 For electromagnetism we have not a scalar but four fields
Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity Electricity
and Aν , so we have four 4-vector fields and
Canonical Momentum Density Magnetism Magnetism

∂L
We have seen that in field theory the Lagrangian is an
Shapiro
Pα µ :=  . Shapiro

∂Aα (~x, t)
integral of the Lagrangian density Canonical ∂ µ Canonical
Momentum, ∂x Momentum,
Tmunu Tmunu
L(φi , ∂φi /∂xν , xξ ) Canonical
Momentum for Last time we saw that the lagrangian density for the
Canonical
Momentum for
E&M E&M

and the equations of motion come from the functional

The Stress
(Energy- electromagnetic fields is The Stress
(Energy-
Momentum) Momentum)
Tensor Tensor
derivatives of L with respect to the local values of the Stress-Energy
1 µν 1 Stress-Energy

L=− F Fµν − Jµ Aµ ,
for E&M for E&M
fields, but because the Lagrangian density is local, these Ambiguities in
Lagrangian 16π c
Ambiguities in
Lagrangian
∂L ∂L density
µν with
density
µν with
are given by and , which are currents currents
∂φi (xν ) ∂(∂ρ φi (xν )) so the canonical momentum densities are
Equations of Equations of
functions of xµ . The Euler-Lagrange equations involved Motion for Motion for
Aµ ∂L 1 Aµ
not a total momentum but a momentum density. For a Green’s Pα µ := = − F µα , Green’s
function for ∂(∂Aα (~x, t)/∂xµ ) 4π function for
scalar field φj this would be wave equation wave equation

 because, as we saw last time, only the F 2 term depends

∂L 
Pjµ (xρ ) = .
∂∂µ φj xρ on ∂Aα /∂xµ .

The Stress (Energy-Momentum) Tensor Physics 504,

Spring 2010 T µν for electromagnetism Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity Electricity
and
For electromagnetism, φi is replaced by Aλ , and
P Magnetism Magnetism
Discrete mechanics: H = i Pi q̇i − L, q̇i → Pi Shapiro Shapiro
Field theory: Hamiltonian density ∂L ∂Aλ
T µν = − δνµ L.
Canonical ∂(∂A /∂x ) ∂xν
λ µ
Canonical
X X ∂L ∂φi Momentum, Momentum,
H(~x) := Pi (~x)φ̇i (~x) − L(~x) = − L. Tmunu
The first factor in the first term is
Tmunu
∂(∂φi /∂x0 ) ∂x0 Canonical
Momentum for
Canonical
Momentum for
i i E&M E&M
The Stress ∂L 1 The Stress

Time has been picked out. More generally, let

(Energy-
Momentum) = − F µλ , (Energy-
Momentum)
Tensor
Stress-Energy
∂(∂Aλ /∂xµ ) 4π Tensor
Stress-Energy
X ∂L ∂φi
for E&M
Ambiguities in
for E&M
Ambiguities in
T µν = − δνµ L. Lagrangian
density
so our first (tentative) expression for the energy Lagrangian
density
∂(∂φi /∂xµ ) ∂xν µν with
momentum tensor is
µν with
i currents currents

Equations of   Equations of
This object goes by the names energy-momentum Motion for 1 ∂Aλ 1 Motion for
Aµ Tµν = − Fµλ ν − ηµν F αβ Fαβ . Aµ
tensor or stress-energy tensor or canonical stress Green’s
function for
4π ∂x 4 Green’s
function for
tensor, and we see the hamiltonian density is the 00 wave equation wave equation

component of this tensor. This expression has good and bad properties!

We have seen T 00 is the Hamiltonian density.

R
T 0i = P i Physics 504,
Spring 2010 Conservation of Momentum Physics 504,
Spring 2010

If L has no explicit dependence on xµ , we can show

Electricity Electricity
and and
Magnetism
∂µ T µν = 0, where ∂µ is the stream derivative. For Magnetism

If T 00 is the energy density, is T 0j the density of

X 
Shapiro Shapiro
momentum? ∂L X ∂L
∂µ T µν = ∂µ ∂ν φi + ∂µ ∂ν φi −∂ν L.
1 ~    Momentum,
Canonical Canonical
1 1 ∂(∂µ φi ) ∂(∂µ φi ) Momentum,
T 0i = F0λ ∂i Aλ = Ej ∂i Aj = E×B ~+ E ~ ·∇
~ A~ . Tmunu i i Tmunu
4π 4π 4π i Canonical
Momentum for
Canonical
Momentum for
E&M The derivative in the last term is given by the chain rule E&M
The Stress The Stress
Poynting tells us the first term is the correct expression. (Energy- (Energy-
Momentum)
Tensor
X ∂L X ∂L Momentum)
Tensor
The second term is unwanted, and also not gauge Stress-Energy −∂ν L = − ∂ν φi − ∂ν ∂µ φi Stress-Energy

invariant.
for E&M
Ambiguities in
∂φi ∂ (∂µ φi ) for E&M
Ambiguities in
Lagrangian i i Lagrangian
But we haven’t included  charges
 in the momentum, and if
density
µν with
density
µν with

X 
so
no charges, ∇~ ·E ~ ·∇ ~i = ∇ ~ − Ai ∇
~ · (Ai E) ~ ·E currents currents
~ = 0, E ~ A ~ is ∂L ∂L
Equations of
Motion for ∂µ T µν = ∂µ − ∂ν φi Equations of
Motion for
a total derivative, and won’t affectZ the total momentum. Aµ ∂(∂µ φi ) ∂φi Aµ
i
d3 xT 0µ = P µ , the
Green’s Green’s
So we do have the good property function for
wave equation and the parenthesis vanishes by the equations of motion.
function for
wave equation

total momentum. But we don’t have the right density. Thus we have
∂µ T µν = 0. (1)
This is a good thing.
Non-symmetry is a bad thing Physics 504,
Spring 2010 Improving T µν Physics 504,
Spring 2010

6=
Electricity Electricity
Note: this T µν T νµ .
This is a problem. We expect the and and
So consider ψ ρµν = Aν F µρ /4π, and adding
angular momentum density to be given by ijk xj T 0k , but
Magnetism Magnetism

that requires T µν to be symmetric. Shapiro

1 1 Shapiro

So our T µν is good at giving the total momentum and ∂ρ (Aν F µρ ) = (∂ρ Aν ) F µρ

Canonical 4π 4π Canonical
being conserved, but bad in not being symmetric or Momentum, Momentum,

gauge-invariant. Need modification keeping good

Tmunu
Canonical
because ∂ρ F µρ = 0 in the absence of a source J µ . But this Tmunu
Canonical

properties but changing bad ones.

Momentum for
E&M is just what we need to add to T µν to make Momentum for
E&M
The Stress The Stress

If we have a tensor ψ ρµν = −ψ µρν (antisymmetric in first

(Energy-
Momentum)   (Energy-
Momentum)
Tensor 1 1 1 Tensor

two indices) and we add ∂ρ ψ ρµν to T µν , Stress-Energy

for E&M
Θµν = T µν + F µρ ∂ρ Aν = − F µρ F νρ − η µν F αβ Fαβ . Stress-Energy
for E&M
Ambiguities in
4π 4π 4 Ambiguities in
Lagrangian Lagrangian

∆ (∂µ T µν ) = ∂µ ∂ρ ψ ρµν = 0,
density density
µν with µν with
currents This expression has all the good properties and is also currents

Equations of gauge invariant and symmetric. Furthermore, Equations of

so the new T µνis also conserved. Furthermore, Motion for Motion for
Aµ Aµ
Z Z Z Z 1 0j i 1 1 ~
Θ0i = −
Green’s Green’s
function for F Fj = Ej ijk Bk = (E × B)
~ i, function for

d3 x∆T 0ν = d3 x∂ρ ψ ρ0ν = d3 x∂j ψ j0ν = nj ψ j0ν → 0 wave equation

4π 4π 4π wave equation

S
the correct momentum density or energy flux, as given by
for surface S → ∞. So adding ∂ρ ψ ρµν keeps all the good Poynting.
properties.

Ambiguities in L Physics 504,

Spring 2010 Θµν with currents Physics 504,
Spring 2010
1 µν Electricity
The energy-momentum tensor of the electromagnetic field
Electricity
− F Fµν is gauge invariant, but the interaction term and and
16π Z Magnetism
is  
Magnetism

1 1 1
in the action, − d4 xJµ (xρ )Aµ (xρ ) is not, so L is not a Shapiro
Θµν
EM = − F µρ F νρ − η µν F αβ Fαβ ,
Shapiro
c 4π 4
unique function of the physical state (E ~ and B ~ and J µ ). Canonical Canonical
Momentum,
Tmunu
and is conserved (∂µ Θµν
EM = 0 if there are no sources.
Momentum,
Tmunu
Is there an ambiguity in the action under a gauge Canonical What if there are? Canonical
transformation Aµ → A0µ = RAµ + ∂µ Λ? This adds a piece Momentum for
E&M   Momentum for
E&M
1
to the action ∆A = −(1/c) d4 xJ µ ∂µ Λ. But
The Stress The Stress
(Energy-
Momentum) 4π∂µ Θµν = ∂µ F µρ Fρ ν + η µν F αβ Fαβ (Energy-
Momentum)
4
Z Z Z
Tensor Tensor
Stress-Energy Stress-Energy
for E&M
1 for E&M
d4 xJ µ ∂µ Λ = nµ J µ Λ − d4 xΛ ∂µ J µ , Ambiguities in
= (∂µ F ) Fρ + F µρ ∂µ Fρ ν + F αβ ∂ ν Fαβ
µρ ν Ambiguities in

| {z }
Lagrangian Lagrangian
density 2 density
| S {z } 0
µν with
currents 4π ρ ν 1 αβ   µν with
currents
ν
−→ 0
S→ Equations of
= J Fρ + F ∂α Fβ − ∂β Fα ν + ∂ ν Fαβ Equations of
Motion for
c 2 Motion for
Aµ 4π ρ ν 1 αβ νρ Aµ
so this will not affect the action. Green’s = J Fρ + F η (∂α Fβρ + ∂β Fρα + ∂ρ Fαβ ) Green’s

More generally, adding a total divergence to the

function for
wave equation c 2 | {z } function for
wave equation
=0 as dF =ddA=0
lagrangian density in a field theory, like adding a total 4π ρ ν
time derivative in a particle theory, does not affect the = J Fρ 6= 0.
c
equations of motion, and is irrelevant to the physics.
Not conserved!

PEM
ν
is not conserved Physics 504,
Spring 2010 Total Momentum is conserved Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity Electricity
and and
Magnetism Consider a charged particle of mass mi , charge qi at point Magnetism

Thus the total 4-momentum of the electromagnetic field Shapiro

~xi (t). Its mechanical 4-momentum changes by Shapiro

Z ν
dP(i) ν
1 1 dP(i) 1 qi ν
d3 xΘ0ν (~x), F (~xi )Uiρ .
ν Canonical Canonical
PEM = Momentum, = = Momentum,
c Tmunu dt γi dτ γi c ρ Tmunu
Canonical Canonical
Momentum for Momentum for
is not conserved, but rather E&M
The Stress
This particle corresponds to a 4-current E&M
The Stress

Z Z
(Energy- (Energy-
Momentum) Momentum)
dPEMν 1 d Tensor
~ = (cqi δ 3 (~x − ~xi ), qi ui δ 3 (~x − ~xi )
J ρ = (cρ, J)
Tensor

= d3 x Θ0ν (~x) = d3 x ∂0 Θ0ν (~x) Stress-Energy

for E&M
Stress-Energy
for E&M
dt c dt
Z Z
Ambiguities in
Lagrangian
density
= qi γi−1 Uiρ δ 3 (~x − ~xi ). Ambiguities in
Lagrangian
density
1 1
d3 xJ ρ (~x)Fρ ν (~x) − d3 x∂i Θiν
µν with µν with
= currents currents
c c Plugging this into our expression for the change in the
Z Equations of Equations of
1 Motion for
momentum of the electromagnetic field, we have Motion for
= d3 xJ ρ (~x)Fρ ν (~x), Aµ Aµ
c Green’s
function for ν Z Green’s
function for
dPEM qi qi
d3 xFρ ν (~x)γi−1 Uiρ δ 3 (~x−~xi ) = − F νρ (~xi )Uiρ ,
wave equation wave equation
=
as the second term is the integral of a divergence. dt c cγi
ν + P ν is conserved.
and the total momentum, PEM (i)
Equations of Motion for Aµ Physics 504, But we assumed the Lorenz condition, which constrains Physics 504,

the coefficients ωA~0 ∓ ~k · A

Spring 2010 Spring 2010
Electricity
~~ = 0. These are the Electricity
Euler-Lagrange tell us and k± k± and
Magnetism solutions for an electromagnetic wave in empty space. Magnetism
4π µ
∂σ F σµ = ∂σ ∂ σ Aµ − ∂ µ ∂σ Aσ = J . Shapiro Shapiro
c Without imposing the Lorenz condition,
Canonical Canonical
If we knew ∂σ Aσ = 0 (the Lorenz condition), we could Momentum, Momentum,

discard second term, and have Tmunu ∂σ ∂ σ Aµ − ∂ µ ∂σ Aσ = 0, Tmunu

Canonical Canonical
Momentum for Momentum for
E&M E&M
4π µ The Stress which is inadequate to determine the evolution of Aµ (~x, t) The Stress
∂σ ∂ σ Aµ = J , (Energy- (Energy-
c Momentum)
Tensor in time. Fourier transform: Momentum)
Tensor

which has solutions given by

Stress-Energy
for E&M kσ k σ õ (k ν ) − k µ kσ Ãσ (k ν ) = 0, which is not four Stress-Energy
for E&M
Ambiguities in Ambiguities in

1) a particular solution, given in terms of the Green’s

Lagrangian
density
independent equations, because dotting with kρ gives Lagrangian
density
µν with µν with

function on J, and currents currents

Equations of kσ k σ kµ õ (k ν ) − kµ k µ kσ Ãσ (k ν ) = (k 2 − k 2 )kρ Ãρ (k ν ) = 0, Equations of

2) an arbitrary solution of the homogeneous wave Motion for Motion for
Aµ Aµ
equation ∂σ ∂ σ Aµ = 0. The homogeneous solution is Green’s telling us nothing about Ãρ (k ν ).
Euler-Lagrange only Green’s

X µ ~  function for function for

wave equation wave equation
determine the components transverse to k.
A~ eik·~x−iω~k t + A~µ eik·~x+iω~k t ,
~
k+ k− This is gauge invariance again. No physics constrains the
~k
gauge transformation Λ(~x, t) in the future, so Aµ is
where ω = c|~k|, where ω = c|~k|. underdetermined.

Solving the inhomogeneous equation Physics 504,

Spring 2010 Fourier transformed
R
equation Physics 504,
Spring 2010
1 µ
As δ 4 (z µ ) = (2π) d4 ke−ikµ z , we have k 2 D̃(k µ ) = −1, so
Electricity Electricity
But we are free to impose the Lorenz condition. Let’s do and 4 and
Magnetism Magnetism
so. the solution for the Green’s function is
Shapiro
Z µ
Shapiro
Now we turn to the inhomogeneous equation 1 1 e−ikµ z
Canonical D̃(k µ ) = − 2 , and D(z µ ) = − 4
d4 k 2
. Canonical
4π µ k (2π) k
Aµ = ∂β ∂ β Aµ =
Momentum, Momentum,
J ,
R
Tmunu Tmunu
c 1 µ
As δ 4 (z µ ) = (2π) d4 ke−ikµ z , the solution for the
Canonical Canonical
Momentum for Momentum for
with the solution E&M 4 E&M
Z The Stress
Green’s function is The Stress
4π (Energy- (Energy-

Aµ (x) = d4 x0 D(x, x0 )J µ (x0 ),

Momentum) Momentum)
Tensor
Z µ
Tensor
c Stress-Energy
1 1 e−ikµ z Stress-Energy

D̃(k µ ) = − 2 , and D(z µ ) = − d4 k

for E&M for E&M
.
where D(x, x0 ) is a Green’s function for D’Alembert’s
Ambiguities in Ambiguities in
Lagrangian k (2π) 4 k 2 Lagrangian
density density
µν with µν with
equation currents currents
0 4
x D(x, x ) = δ (x − x ).
0 Equations of Looks like what we did for Poisson, but here k 2 = 0 is Equations of
Motion for
Aµ more difficult, as it requires only k02 = ~k 2 , not ~k = 0. Motion for
Aµ
We are interested in solving this in all of spacetime. No
boundaries, translation invariance, so
Green’s
function for For Poisson, trouble from ~k = 0 gives ambiguity of Green’s
function for
wave equation wave equation

D(x, x0 ) = D(x − x0 ) = D(z). Solve by Fourier transform: ψ = V0 + ~r · C,

~ a uniform E ~ and ambiguous constant in Φ.
Z For wave equation: arbitrary waves satisfying free wave
1 µ
write D(z) = 4
d4 k µ D̃(k µ )e−ikµ z . equation.
(2π) Deform the integration path to resolve the singularities.

Disambiguate with Contour choice Physics 504,

Spring 2010 Retarded Green’s function Physics 504,
Spring 2010

Consider D for contour r. If source at x0 = 0, and we look

Electricity Electricity
and and
Clarify ambiguity by specifying how to avoid the Magnetism
for A later,
 z 0 > 0. Close contour in lower half plane, Magnetism

 −ik0 z 0  0
singularities and writing where e  = e−|Im k0 |z −→ 0, so this semicircle
Shapiro Shapiro

|k|→∞
Z Z z0
1 e−ik0 Canonical
adds nothing. So D = −2πi times the sum of the Canonical

d3 keik·~z
~
D(z) = −
Momentum, Momentum,
dk0 .
(2π)4 residues. minus because clockwise. The residues are
Tmunu Tmunu
Γ k02 − |~k|2 Canonical
0 0
Canonical

e−ik0 z e−ik0 z
Momentum for Momentum for
E&M E&M

Specifying contour
The Stress
(Energy- Res + Res The Stress
(Energy-
Momentum)
Tensor k0 =|~k| (k0 + |~k|)(k0 − |~k|) k0 =−|~k| (k0 + |~k|)(k0 − |~k|) Momentum)
Tensor
Γ’s avoidance of the k0 Stress-Energy Stress-Energy
r ~ 0 ~ 0
poles at k0 = ±|~k|.
for E&M
e−i|k|z ei|k|z sin(|~k|z 0 ) for E&M

= −i
Ambiguities in Ambiguities in
Lagrangian = + . Lagrangian
Three such con- F density
µν with ~
2|k| −2|k|~ |~k| density
µν with
a currents currents
tours are shown.
Equations of But if z 0 < 0 close in upper half plane, no residues, Equations of
Integrand analytic The retarded (r), advanced Motion for Motion for
Aµ D = 0, so all together Aµ
except at poles so (a), and Feynman (F ) con- Green’s
Z Green’s

Θ(z 0 ) ~ sin(|~k|z 0 )
function for function for
the contours may tours for defining the Green’s
d3 keik·~z
wave equation wave equation
Dr (z) = .
be deformed while function. (2π)3 |~k|
avoiding the poles. D is rotationally invariant, so we may choose the North
pole along ~z using spherical coordinates.
We get
Physics 504,
Spring 2010 Simplifying D Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity Electricity
Z and We may simplify Dr by noting and
Θ(z 0 ) ∞ 2 sin(kz 0 ) Magnetism
1 
Magnetism
Dr (z) = k dk dθ sin θ eikR cos θ sin(kR) sin(kz 0 ) = cos(k(R − z 0 )) − cos(k(R + z0 ))
(2π)2 0 k Shapiro
2
Shapiro
Z
Θ(z 0 ) ∞ 1 h i(z0 −R)k
= dk sin(kR) sin(kz 0 ), Canonical
= e − ei(z0 +R)k + ei(z0 −R)(−k) Canonical

2π 2 R 0
Momentum, Momentum,
Tmunu
4 i Tmunu

+ei(z0 −R)(−k)
Canonical Canonical
Momentum for Momentum for
where R = |~z|. E&M
The Stress
E&M
The Stress

This is the retarded Green’s function aka causal, as the (Energy-

Z h i
(Energy-

Θ(z 0 ) ∞
Momentum) Momentum)

dk ei(z0 −R)k − ei(z0 +R)k

Tensor Tensor
effects on Aµ of the source are felt only after the source Stress-Energy
for E&M
so Dr (z) = 2
Stress-Energy
for E&M
8π R −∞
acts. Ambiguities in
Lagrangian
Ambiguities in
Lagrangian
density
µν with Θ(z 0 ) density
µν with
currents = [δ(z0 − R) − δ(z0 + R)] currents
The contour a gives the advanced Green’s function useful Equations of
4πR Equations of
only if you want to configure an incoming field which Motion for Θ(z 0 ) Motion for
Aµ = δ(z0 − R), Aµ
would magically be totally dissolved by a given source. Green’s
function for
4πR Green’s
function for

where the second δ was dropped because both z 0 and R

wave equation wave equation

Finally the contour F gives the Feynman propagator, are positive. So the Green’s function only contributes
which is used in quantum field theory. when the source and effect are separated by a lightlike
path, with ∆z 0 = |∆~z|.

Full solution for Aµ Physics 504,

Spring 2010 Radiation Field. Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity Electricity
and and
So how do we describe the field when we know what the Magnetism Magnetism

sources are throughout space-time? We can use any of the Shapiro Shapiro

Green’s functions to get the inhomogeneous contribution,

Canonical Canonical
and then allow for an arbitrary solution of the Momentum, Of course the source may be persistent, for example if Momentum,
Tmunu Tmunu
homogeneous equation. Thus we can write Canonical there is a net charge, but we may often consider that the Canonical

Z effect of the source is confined to the change from Aµin (x)

Momentum for Momentum for
E&M E&M
4π The Stress The Stress
Aµ = Aµin (x) + d4 x0 Dr (x − x0 )J µ (x0 ) (Energy-
Momentum) to Aµout (x). Then we define the radiation field to be (Energy-
Momentum)
c Tensor Tensor
Z Stress-Energy
Z Stress-Energy
4π for E&M
4π for E&M

= Aµout (x) + d4 x0 Da (x − x0 )J µ (x0 ). Ambiguities in

Lagrangian Aµrad (x) = Aµout (x) − Aµin (x) = d4 x0 D(x − x0 )J µ (x0 ),
Ambiguities in
Lagrangian
c density
µν with c density
µν with
currents currents

If the sources are confined to some finite region of Equations of

Motion for
where D(z) := Dr (z) − Da (z). Equations of
Motion for
space-time, there will be no contribution from Dr at times Aµ Aµ

earlier than the first source, and Aµin (x) describes the Green’s
function for
wave equation
Green’s
function for
wave equation
fields before that time. Also after the last time that the
source influences things, the field will be given by Aµout (x)
alone.

Better expression for J µ from charges Physics 504,

Spring 2010
Electricity
and
Magnetism

The expression we wrote earlier for the current density of Shapiro

a point charge, Canonical

Momentum,

J ρ = qi γi−1 Uiρ δ 3 (~x − ~xi )

Tmunu
Canonical
Momentum for
E&M
The Stress
can be written in this four-dimensional language as (Energy-
Momentum)

Z Tensor
Stress-Energy

J ρ (xµ ) = qi dtδ(t − x0 /c)γi−1 Uiρ δ 3 (~x − ~xi (t))

for E&M
Ambiguities in
Lagrangian

Z density
µν with

= qi c dτ δ 4 (xµ − xµi (τ ))Uiρ ,

currents

Equations of
Motion for
Aµ
Green’s
where τ measures proper time along the path of the function for
wave equation
particle.