Understanding Data and Ways to
Systematically Collect Them
Research Design
● Serves as the structure of your
study.
● It gives direction to the study and
makes your research more
systematized.
● Each design has different purposes,
the one you choose can potentially
affect your findings.
● Two main research designs are
Quantitative Research and
Qualitative Research.
Sampling
● The process of selecting and getting
the respondents of the study at the
minimum cost such that resulting
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observations will be representative
of the entire population.
Quantitative Analysis
● Is the technique utilized for
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analyzing the data gathered. Analysis
of data may be statistical in nature
or it may be deterministic.
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Quantitative Research Design
● This type of design uses statistical
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analysis and mathematical
computations in order to generate a
conclusion. They commonly follow a
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similar format with a few minor
alterations depending on the type of
study and approach to be used.
Advantages of Quantitative Research
Design
● It is a good way to verify results.
● It can filter out external factors and
produce unbiased results.
● It can be used to verify qualitative
research and narrow down possible
results.
● Variables can easily be manipulated.
Disadvantages of Quantitative Research
Design
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● It can take plenty of time to collect
data.
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● It can be difficult and expensive to
do.
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● It requires statistical analysis and
this can be difficult for some people
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to do.
● There is very little room for
C uncertainty.
Types of Quantitative Research Design
● Descriptive Research Design - It is to
describe the status of an identified
variable such as events, people, or
subjects as they exist.
● Correlational Research - aims to
study the connection between two
variables. The researchers would
want to know how a certain variable
can affect the other. This is different
from causation; There may be no
direct cause-and-effect relationship
between the variables.
● Experimental Research - this type of
research is based on a formed
hypothesis. It aims to prove or
disprove the hypothesis.
Designs that would allow
this kind of control
 ● Pre-test/Post Test Control
Group - the design requires
two groups of equivalent
standing in terms of a
criterion measure. E.G.
Achievement or Mental
Ability.
● Single Group
Pretest/Posttest Design -
used in experimental
conditions where a limited
number of subjects are
available.
● Solomon Four Group Design
- in this design, the subjects
are randomly assigned to
two study groups and two
control groups.
Factors Affecting the Experimental
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Plan
1. History
2. Maturation
3. Testing
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4. Mortality
5. Interaction Effects
6. Measuring Instruments
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7. Statistical Regression
8. Differential Selection
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9. John Henry Effect - an
experimental bias which
pertains to the tendency of
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the subjects in the control
group to perceive themselves
at a disadvantage, thus
working harder to
outperform the experimental
group.
● Survey Research - this type of
research uses interviews,
questionnaires, polls, and other
similar instruments in order to
gather data. These are usually
distributed to a random sample in a
population in order to obtain
accurate data. Data can be collected
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in a variety of ways: In person, on
social media, e-mail, on the phone,
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and many more.
● Causal-Comparative Research - This
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type of research is used in order to
verify a suspected cause-and-effect
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relationship between variables. It
compares the variable but it does
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Sample - it is a small part of the population.
It is meant to represent that population as a
whole for the study that is being conducted.
- In large populations, not all the
members can be
interviewed/surveyed/etc. It would
be impossible to cover an extremely
large group. A sample is used in
order to make data collection easier
and possible to do.
Advantages of Sampling
● Lessens the amount of respondents
thus reducing the costs of the
research and making data collection
much easier and faster.
● Researchers can manipulate and
control data better in using a sample
as opposed to studying the entire
population.
 ● Easier to avoid errors and analyze
data with smaller numbers.
Disadvantages of Sampling
● There could be some biases in
selecting the sample due to some
external factors out of the
researcher’s control or because of
the researchers themselves.
● Sampling would require the
researcher to know about statistics
in order to analyze and collect the
data correctly.
Different Sampling Methods
● Opportunity Sampling - this type of
sampling is also known as
Convenience Sampling. This method
involves selecting respondents who
are willing to participate in the
study. This is the fastest way to
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collect data but it is prone to biases.
In addition, the researchers cannot
claim that their sample represents
the entire population.
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● Voluntary Response Sampling - type
of sample made by self-chosen
participants. These participants
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volunteer to take part in different
research studies to share their
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opinions on topics that interest
them.
● Simple Random Sampling - every
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single member of the population has
an equal chance to get selected as a
respondent. It requires the
researcher to name or number the
entire population and select
randomly from them.
● Stratified Sampling - the population
is divided into different groups then
the researchers would take an
unequal number of people to
represent each of the groups.
● Systematic Sampling - All of the
members of the group are listed and
numbered. The researchers then
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take every nth member of a
population. This can represent the
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entire population but it is difficult to
do. (With Interval)
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Instrumentation
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● An important part of the research
study because the quality of
C research output depends to a large
extent on the quality of instruments
used.
● Instrumentation refers to the
process of using the instruments
planned by the researchers.
● Instrument is the generic term that
researchers use for a measurement
device like a survey test,
questionnaire and many more.
● Instruments are the data-gathering
devices that will be used in the
study. It is a testing device for
measuring a given phenomenon.
Researcher-Co Subject-Comple
mpleted ted Instruments
Instruments
Rating Scales Questionnaires
Interview Self-checklists
schedules/guide
 s objectives of the
study.
Tally sheets Attitude scales ● Format and Data Analysis -
involves writing the
Flowcharts Personality
inventories statements and questions.
You will develop a way to
Performance Achievement/a measure and quantify the
checklists ptitude tests data that you will gather.

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Time-and-motio Projective These are called the scales of
n logs devices measurement. You will also

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create a format for your
Observation Sociometric questionnaire; this includes

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forms Devices
your medium, the layout, the
font style, and the font size.
Steps in Instrumentation

Development
● Background – involves
looking into the purpose,
objectives, research
questions, and hypothesis of
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● Establishing Validity –
involves looking over your
C draft and making sure that it
will be able to measure the
data correctly and properly.

The following questions can

your research to have a good serve as a guide for you to
idea of what type of data to make sure that the
collect questionnaire is done
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● Questionnaire
Conceptualization – involves
formulating some questions
and statements for the
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correctly:
○ Is the questionnaire
valid? In other words,

is the questionnaire
questionnaire measuring what it
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○ The contents from intended to measure?

the framework and ○ Does it represent the
the review of related content?
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literature are ○ Is it appropriate for

converted into the
questions that can be sample/population?
used to gather data. ○ Is the questionnaire
Questions must also comprehensive
be aligned with the enough to collect all
the information
 needed to address
the purpose and goals
of the study?
○ Does the instrument
look like a
questionnaire?
● Establishing Reliability –
involves making sure that the
questionnaire is reliable. This
means making sure that the
questionnaire is accurate and
precise in collecting and
measuring data. In order to
do this, the researchers can
do a pilot test, wherein they
will give out the
questionnaire to a few
people to make sure that it
will perform correctly.
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○ Determine the
purpose.
○ Decide what you are
measuring.
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○ Know your
respondents.
○ Choose a collecting
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method (online,
face-to-face
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interviews,
telephone).
○ Important: Questions
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in the instrument
must be based on
your research
questions.
Types of Data
● Primary Data – first-hand data
● Secondary Data – collected by
someone else and has already
passed statistical processes
Methods of Collecting Primary Data
● Observation
○ Attempts to understand
cause-and-effect
relationships
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○ Executed by the observer
going directly to the field to
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observe the surroundings to
gather data
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● Different Types of Observation
○ Structured Observations –
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when observation is done by
characterizing the style of
C recording the observed
information, standardized
conditions of observation,
the definition of the units to
be observed, selection of
applicable data of
observation
○ Unstructured Observation –
observation is done without
planning before observation
○ Participant Observation –
the observer is part of the
group in which he is
observing
○ Non-participant Observation
– the observer is observing
people without giving any
notice or information to
them
○ Uncontrolled observation –
when the observation is
done in a natural setting and
 is done to get spontaneous
results
○ Controlled observation –
when an observation takes
place in accordance with
planning with the
experimental procedure
● Interview
○ An oral verbal method in
which the interviewer asks
questions directly to the
interviewee which aims to
get information relevant to
the study
○ Can be conducted
face-to-face or by telephone
○ Can be in-depth,
semi-structured, or
unstructured, depending on
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the information being sought
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● Survey
○ One of the common methods
of diagnosing and solving
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social problems
○ Captures information
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through the input of
responses to a research
instrument containing
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questions (i.e. such as a
questionnaire
○ Information can be put either
to the respondents
themselves (e.g. complete
online survey) or the
researcher can input the data
(e.g. phone survey, mall
intercept)
Data Analysis
● A process of inspecting, cleaning,
transforming, and modeling data
with the goal of underlining
essential information, suggesting
conclusions, and supporting decision
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making
● The process which follows data
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collection.
Steps in Analyzing Quantitative Data
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● Data Cleaning: Collected data passes
through the process of cleaning to
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remove ambiguous elements.
Content analysis is also applied to
C capture information from the
open-ended questions which are
subject to quantification in a
quantitative research.
● Data Coding: Refers to the process
of assigning numerals or other
symbols to answers so that
responses can be put into a limited
number of categories (Connelly,
2000, in Arcinas 2016).
○ A vital step that transforms
collected data into values
suitable for computer and
statistical analysis (Excel and
statistical packages like SAS
and SPSS).
○ SPSS (Statistical Package for
the Social Sciences) - used in
statistical analysis (Stanford).
○ SAS (Statistical Analysis
System) - programming
language and has a suite
 developed for advanced
analytics (North Carolina
State University).
● Data Presentation: Tables and
figures are used to summarize the
coded data. When using computer
programs such as MS Excel or
Advanced statistical packages like
SPSS or Minitab Software, functions
are provided within the program for
summarizing data into either tables
or figures.
○ Quantitative data is
summarized in order to help
the process of data
presentation which involves
the use of descriptive
statistics such as frequencies,
percentages, means, and
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standard deviation.
○ Data are also presented using
inferential statistics such as
t-tests, Analysis of Variance
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(ANOVA), Multiple Analysis
of Variance (MANOVA),
regression, factor analysis
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among others depending on
the study design.
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● Data Interpretation and Discussion:
It involves the provision of
comments on the results obtained
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from the investigation. It is done
based on the key findings of the
study. Interpretation requires deep
understanding of literature and
issues under investigation. The
interpretation of the data must be
within the framework of what the
data analyzed, suggested and not an
exaggeration. Statements that are
not justified by the data do
undermine the credibility of what is
being presented. As such,
interpretation should be done in
context and supported by literature.
Methodology Section
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● It is the core of every paper as it is
proof that the scientific method was
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used. Through this section, their
study’s validity is judged. The
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methodology must answer two
questions:
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● How did you collect or generate the
data?
C ● How did you analyze the data?
● Be direct and precise.
● It should include enough
information so the readers could
repeat the experiment and evaluate
whether the results are
reproducible.
Parts of the Methodology Section
Introduction of the Chapter.
● Write the coverage of the chapter.
What will be discussed?
Research Design.
● Write about the title of the
investigation and the kind of
research design that will be used.
● Write also a conceptual definition of
the research design and write also
what it intends to measure.
● Cite your source after the definition.
Research Setting
● Write the place where the study will
be conducted.
 ● Indicate the population/respondents
of the study.
● Write a brief description about the
respondents of the study.
Research Subjects
● Write where your sample population
will be taken.
● Write your sample population and
● To whom permission will be
secured?
● What will be done with the collected
data?
● How will the data be analyzed?
Statistical Treatment.
● What statistical treatment will be
used to answer each of the research

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any limitation/restriction, if any (e.g. questions (if applicable)?
at least 1 year of stay in school, at ● Write the formula for each and the

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least 1 year teaching experience, source for the formula.
etc.) ● It is important to give the reason for

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● Write about those who will not be choosing the Statistical analysis and
included in your study (e.g. those for what purpose.

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who are holding administrative
positions will not be included, those
who are irregular students will not C
be included, etc.)
● Include a table if needed to show
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the breakdown of your respondents.

Research Instruments.
● Write the name/title of the
instrument to be used in your study.
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● Write a description of the

instrument. What is it, what it
intends to measure, what are its
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components?
● Write something about its validity
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and reliability.
● Write about what will be the scoring
procedure.
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● Write how the scores will be

interpreted.
Data Gathering Procedure.
● Discuss how the researcher will be
gathering data (distribution and
collection).